Raniel Orlando T.

Sison Bs Bio 3-1

Activity 10
The Human Circulatory System

Part 1 The Cardio-Vascular System

A. Label the following:

a.1 The structure of the human heart. Anterior view, Frontal Section.
Trace the pathway of blood into the heart, lungs and back to the heart.
a.2 The Layers of the Blood Vessels
What are the distinguishing features of the blood vessels?
Type Function Structure Examples/Types
Arteries Carry blood away Thick walls with Aorta, pulmonary
from the heart three layers: tunica arteries, coronary
intima, tunica media arteries
(thickest with
smooth muscle and
elastic fibers),
tunica adventitia.
Highly elastic to
maintain blood
pressure and flow.
Arterioles Lead blood from Thin walls with -
arteries to smooth muscle.
capillaries Smaller diameter to
control blood flow
into capillaries
through constriction
and dilation.
Capillaries Sites of nutrient and Very thin walls, one Continuous (most
gas exchange cell thick common),
(endothelial layer). fenestrated (with
Small diameter pores), sinusoidal
allows one red blood (larger openings)
cell to pass at a
time.
Venules Collect blood from Thin walls, slightly -
capillaries and lead thicker than
to veins capillaries. Larger
diameter than
capillaries.
Veins Carry blood toward Thinner walls than Superficial veins
the heart arteries, with less (close to skin
smooth muscle and surface), deep veins
elastic tissue. (located deeper
Contain valves to alongside arteries),
prevent backflow. vena cavae,
Three layers: tunica pulmonary veins
intima (with valves),
tunica media (thin),
tunica adventitia
(thickest).
Lymphatic Vessels Transport lymph Thin walls similar to -
from tissues to the veins, with valves to
bloodstream prevent backflow.
 a.3 Show the diagram of the different human blood cell types. Label each cell and
its parts. Erythrocytes, granulocytes, agranulocytes, platelets.

What are the functions of the different types of blood cells?

Blood Cell Type Function
Red Blood Cells Carry oxygen from the lungs to the body's
tissues and organs; transport carbon
dioxide from tissues back to the lungs for
exhalation.
White Blood Cells Defend against pathogens (bacteria,
viruses, fungi, parasites); involved in
immune functions such as phagocytosis,
antibody production, and coordinating
immune responses.
Neutrophils Combat bacterial infections by engulfing
and destroying bacteria through
phagocytosis.
Lymphocytes Play crucial roles in adaptive immunity,
recognizing and remembering specific
pathogens to mount targeted immune
responses. Includes T cells, B cells, and
natural killer cells.
Monocytes Differentiate into macrophages and
 dendritic cells; involved in phagocytosis
and antigen presentation to activate other
immune cells.
Eosinophils Participate in immune responses to
parasitic infections and allergic reactions;
release toxins to kill parasites and regulate
allergic responses.
Basophils Involved in allergic reactions and
inflammation; release histamine and other
inflammatory mediators in response to
allergens and pathogens.
Platelets (Thrombocytes) Contribute to blood clotting (hemostasis)
by adhering to damaged blood vessel walls,
aggregating to form a plug, and releasing
clotting factors to facilitate the formation of
stable blood clots.
Source: (Tortora & Derrickson, 2020)
 B. (1) Illustrate through a diagram the following types of circulation in human. (2)
Discuss the pathway of blood in each type.

b.1 Systemic Circulation

Source: (Tortora & Derrickson, 2020)

Discussion (Systemic Circulation):

In systemic circulation, the left side of the heart acts as the pump, receiving
oxygen-rich blood from the lungs. Upon ejection from the left ventricle, blood enters the
aorta and branches into smaller arteries, distributing oxygenated blood to all organs and
tissues throughout the body, excluding the pulmonary alveoli. Arteries branch into
arterioles, leading to extensive networks of systemic capillaries where exchange of
nutrients and gases occurs. Oxygen is unloaded from the blood while carbon dioxide is
picked up, facilitating cellular metabolism (Tortora & Derrickson, 2020). Following
capillary exchange, blood flows into systemic venules, carrying deoxygenated blood away
from tissues. Venules merge to form larger systemic veins, eventually returning
deoxygenated blood to the right atrium for reoxygenation (Tortora & Derrickson, 2020).

b.2 Pulmonary circulation

Source: (Tortora & Derrickson, 2020)

Discussion (Pulmonary Circulation):

Ppulmonary circulation involves the right side of the heart as the pump. It receives
deoxygenated blood from systemic circulation, which is then ejected into the
pulmonary trunk. The pulmonary trunk branches into pulmonary arteries, directing
blood to the right and left lungs. Within the pulmonary capillaries surrounding the
alveoli, gas exchange occurs, with carbon dioxide being removed from the blood and
oxygen being absorbed from inhaled air. This freshly oxygenated blood flows into
pulmonary veins, returning to the left atrium to be pumped back into systemic
circulation. The pulmonary circulation facilitates the exchange of gases between the
blood and the atmosphere, ensuring efficient oxygenation of blood while removing
carbon dioxide generated by cellular metabolism.

b.3 Hepatic portal circulation

Source: (Tortora & Derrickson, 2020)

Discussion (hepatic portal circulation):

Hepatic portal circulation is a specialized system that involves the transport of

blood from the digestive organs to the liver before it enters the systemic circulation.
This circulation ensures that nutrients absorbed from the digestive tract are
processed by the liver before being distributed to the rest of the body. The process
begins in the capillary beds of the digestive organs, where nutrients from the
breakdown of food are absorbed into the bloodstream. These capillaries merge to
form larger veins, known as the mesenteric veins, which collect blood from the small
intestine, large intestine, stomach, and other digestive organs. Instead of directly
entering the systemic circulation, the blood from the mesenteric veins is diverted into
the hepatic portal vein, which carries it to the liver. The hepatic portal vein delivers
nutrient-rich blood to the liver sinusoids, specialized capillary-like structures within
the liver (Tortora & Derrickson, 2020). Within the liver sinusoids, hepatocytes (liver
cells) perform numerous functions, including metabolizing nutrients, detoxifying
harmful substances, and storing excess glucose as glycogen. This processing ensures
that nutrients are properly metabolized and toxins are neutralized before they enter
the general circulation. After passing through the liver sinusoids, blood is collected by
the hepatic veins and eventually drains into the inferior vena cava, where it mixes with
blood returning from the lower body. From there, it enters the right atrium of the heart
and continues its journey through the pulmonary and systemic circulations (Tortora &
Derrickson, 2020).
 b.4 Hypothalamo-hypophyseal- portal system

Source: (Tortora & Derrickson, 2020)

Discussion (Hypothalamo-hypophyseal- portal system):

The hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system, also known as the hypothalamic-

pituitary axis, is a complex network of blood vessels that connects the hypothalamus, a
region of the brain, with the pituitary gland (hypophysis). This system is crucial for the
regulation and control of various physiological processes throughout the body via the
release of hormones. The hypothalamus, located at the base of the brain, serves as a
master control center for many autonomic functions and plays a central role in regulating
hormone secretion by the pituitary gland. It produces several releasing and inhibiting
hormones that travel through a specialized network of blood vessels directly to the
anterior pituitary gland, also known as the adenohypophysis (Tortora & Derrickson, 2020).
The hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system consists of two sets of blood vessels: the
primary plexus and the secondary plexus. The primary plexus is composed of a network of
capillaries in the hypothalamus, where releasing and inhibiting hormones are secreted
into the bloodstream by specialized neurons known as neurosecretory cells. These
hormones travel through the portal veins to the secondary plexus, located in the anterior
pituitary gland.

Within the anterior pituitary gland, the releasing and inhibiting hormones act on
specific cells called endocrine cells or adenohypophyseal cells. These cells, in turn,
release or inhibit the secretion of various hormones into the systemic circulation. The
hormones released by the anterior pituitary gland, such as growth hormone, thyroid-
stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone,
luteinizing hormone, and prolactin, regulate the function of target glands and organs
throughout the body (Tortora & Derrickson, 2020).
C. Label the following.
c.1 Major Systemic Arteries of the Human Body
C.2 DRAW the Aorta and its branches.
 Fill in the table below: Components of the AORTA
Vessel Description/Location Major Branches
Aorta The main artery that carries blood from Coronary arteries,
the heart to the rest of the body. brachiocephalic trunk, left
common carotid artery, left
subclavian artery, intercostal
arteries, celiac trunk, superior
mesenteric artery, renal
arteries, inferior mesenteric
artery, common iliac arteries.
Ascending Aorta The section of the aorta that rises from Right and left coronary
the left ventricle of the heart. arteries.
Aortic Arch The curved portion of the aorta between Brachiocephalic trunk, left
the ascending and descending aorta. common carotid artery, left
subclavian artery.
Descending Aorta The part of the aorta that extends Thoracic aorta and abdominal
downwards from the aortic arch. aorta.
Thoracic Aorta The part of the descending aorta Intercostal arteries, bronchial
located in the thoracic (chest) cavity. arteries, esophageal arteries,
superior phrenic arteries.
Abdominal Aorta The part of the descending aorta Celiac trunk, superior
located in the abdominal cavity. mesenteric artery, renal
arteries, inferior mesenteric
artery, gonadal arteries,
lumbar arteries, common iliac
arteries.
C.2 The Major Systemic Veins of the Human Body
C.3 The Caval Veins
Illustrate the superior and inferior vena cava, and their tributaries. Label.

Figure . The Superior Vena Cava and its Tributaries

Figure . The Inferior Vena Cava and its Tributaries
D. List down ten (10) common cardiovascular diseases, and briefly discuss their
symptoms and risk factors.
Disease Symptoms
Myocardial Infarction (Heart Chest pain or discomfort,
Attack) shortness of breath,
nausea, lightheadedness.
Hypertensive Heart Disease Often asymptomatic until
severe, then shortness of
breath, chest pain, swelling high salt intake, lack of
in legs.
Congestive Heart Failure Shortness of breath,
(CHF) persistent coughing or
wheezing, swelling in legs,
fatigue.
Atrial Fibrillation (AFib) Irregular heartbeat,
palpitations, fatigue,
shortness of breath,
dizziness.
Peripheral Arterial Disease Leg pain when walking
(PAD) (claudication), numbness,
weakness, sores on feet,
cold limbs.
Ischemic Stroke Sudden numbness or
weakness, especially on
one side of the body,
confusion, trouble
speaking.
Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Often asymptomatic until
(AAA) rupture, then severe
abdominal or back pain, low genetic factors, age, male
blood pressure, fainting.
Dilated Cardiomyopathy Fatigue, shortness of
breath, swelling in legs,
arrhythmias, dizziness.
Mitral Valve Prolapse (MVP) Often asymptomatic, but
can include palpitations,
chest pain, fatigue,
dizziness.
Tetralogy of Fallot Cyanosis (bluish skin),
shortness of breath,
fainting, poor growth,
clubbing of fingers.
Risk Factors
High cholesterol,
hypertension, smoking,
diabetes, obesity, sedentary
lifestyle, family history.
Long-term high blood
pressure, obesity, smoking,
physical activity.
Coronary artery disease,
hypertension, diabetes,
obesity, smoking, old age.
Heart disease, high blood
pressure, obesity, excessive
alcohol or caffeine, stress,
age.
Smoking, diabetes, obesity,
high cholesterol, high blood
pressure, age.
High blood pressure,
smoking, diabetes, high
cholesterol, atrial
fibrillation, family history.
High blood pressure,
smoking, atherosclerosis,
gender.
Family history, heart
disease, high blood
pressure, diabetes, obesity,
alcohol abuse.
Family history, connective
tissue disorders, rheumatic
fever, age.
Genetic conditions, Down
syndrome, maternal rubella
or other viral illnesses
during pregnancy.
E. Contrast the structure and functions of the three types of capillaries.

Continuous capillaries have the most straightforward structure, characterized by

endothelial cells that form a continuous, unbroken lining connected by tight junctions.
These capillaries possess a basal lamina and intercellular clefts that allow for the
selective exchange of substances. Found in the muscles, skin, lungs, and central nervous
system, continuous capillaries are involved in the regulated exchange of water, gases,
and small molecules, while preventing the passage of large molecules and cells. Their
tight junctions and limited permeability make them crucial in maintaining the blood-brain
barrier, protecting neural tissue from harmful substances (Marieb & Keller, 2021).

Fenestrated capillaries have pores or fenestrations in their endothelial lining,

which significantly increase their permeability compared to continuous capillaries. These
capillaries also feature a continuous basal lamina. The fenestrations allow for the rapid
exchange of water, ions, and small molecules, making them ideal for tissues with
extensive fluid exchange needs (Marieb & Keller, 2021). Fenestrated capillaries are
typically found in the kidneys, where they facilitate filtration, in the intestines to aid
nutrient absorption, and in endocrine glands, where they assist in hormone release into
the bloodstream.

Sinusoidal capillaries (or discontinuous capillaries) have the most permeable

structure, with large gaps between endothelial cells and an incomplete basal lamina. This
design allows for the free passage of not only small molecules but also larger proteins
and even cells. Sinusoids are found in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow, where their
structure supports the extensive and free exchange of substances. In the liver, they allow
large plasma proteins and other macromolecules to enter the bloodstream, while in the
spleen and bone marrow, they enable the passage of blood cells and facilitate the
removal of old or damaged cells from circulation (Marieb & Keller, 2021).
F. What are the factors that increase blood pressure? Give the hormones that regulate
blood pressure and their actions.

Factors that increase blood pressure:

Factors Increasing Blood Pressure Description
Diet High intake of salt (sodium) causes water
retention, increasing BP.
Physical Inactivity Lack of exercise can lead to weight gain and
increased BP.
Obesity Excess body weight increases blood
volume, raising BP.
Alcohol Consumption Excessive drinking can raise BP.
Smoking Nicotine causes vasoconstriction and
increased heart rate, raising BP.
Stress Chronic stress contributes to increased BP.
Age Arteries stiffen with age, increasing BP.
Genetics Family history of hypertension increases
risk.
Sex Men are more likely to develop
hypertension before age 55, women after
menopause.
Kidney Disease Impaired kidney function affects fluid
balance, increasing BP.
Diabetes Can damage blood vessels, contributing to
hypertension.
Sleep Apnea Breathing interruptions during sleep can
increase BP.
Source: (VanPutte et al., 2022)

Hormones that regulate blood pressure and their actions:

Hormones Regulating Blood Pressure Actions
Renin Released by kidneys; converts
angiotensinogen to angiotensin I.
Angiotensin II Causes vasoconstriction; stimulates
aldosterone release; increases BP.
Aldosterone Promotes sodium and water retention by
kidneys, increasing blood volume and BP.
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH or Vasopressin) Increases water reabsorption in kidneys,
raising blood volume and BP.
Norepinephrine and Epinephrine Increase heart rate and force of
contractions; cause vasoconstriction,
raising BP.
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) and Brain Promote sodium and water excretion by
Natriuretic Peptide (BNP) kidneys; cause vasodilation, reducing BP.
Cortisol Enhances vasoconstrictive response to
norepinephrine and epinephrine, increasing
BP.
Source: (VanPutte et al., 2022)

G. Discuss the mechanism of:

a. Blood coagulation:

- Blood coagulation, or clotting, prevents excessive bleeding when

blood vessels are injured. It involves three main stages: vascular spasm,
platelet plug formation, and the coagulation cascade. When a vessel is
damaged, it contracts to reduce blood flow. Platelets then adhere to the
exposed site, becoming activated and releasing chemicals that attract
more platelets, forming a temporary plug. This plug is reinforced by the
coagulation cascade, which has intrinsic and extrinsic pathways. Both
pathways lead to the activation of Factor X, converting prothrombin to
thrombin. Thrombin then converts fibrinogen into fibrin strands, creating a
stable mesh that traps blood cells and solidifies the clot (Tortora &
Derrickson, 2020 ).

The clot contracts to bring wound edges together, facilitating tissue repair.
Once healing occurs, the clot is dissolved by plasmin, activated from
plasminogen by tissue plasminogen activator (tPA). This breakdown
process, called fibrinolysis, removes the clot, restoring normal blood flow.

b. Blood agglutination:

- Blood agglutination occurs when antibodies bind to antigens on the

surface of red blood cells (RBCs), causing them to clump together. This
process is fundamental in the immune response against foreign
substances, such as incompatible blood transfusions or certain diseases
like hemolytic anemia. In transfusion reactions, if donated blood contains
antigens that the recipient lacks, or vice versa, antibodies in the recipient's
plasma will recognize the foreign antigens and initiate agglutination. This
can lead to blockage of blood vessels, organ damage, and potentially life-
threatening complications.

In hemolytic diseases like autoimmune hemolytic anemia, the body

produces antibodies that mistakenly target its own RBCs, causing them to
clump together. This can result in anemia and other symptoms due to the
destruction of RBCs (Tortora & Derrickson, 2020 )..
Part 2 The Lymphatics
A. Illustrate and label the lymphatic system of the human body.
 B. Illustrate the relationship of lymphatic capillaries to tissue cells and blood
capillaries. Label.

Source: (Tortora & Derrickson, 2020 ).

 C. (1) Illustrate and label the anterior view of the lymphatic system and
(2) discuss the routes for drainage of lymph from lymph trunks into
the thoracic and right lymphatic ducts.

Discussion:

Lymph, derived from interstitial fluid, forms as a result of excess filtration from
blood capillaries that drains into lymphatic vessels, becoming lymph plasma. Lymphatic
vessels contain valves to ensure one-way movement of lymph plasma, which then drains
into venous blood through the thoracic duct and the right lymphatic duct at the junction of
the internal jugular and subclavian veins (Tortora & Derrickson, 2020 ).. This process
ensures the return of lost blood plasma proteins and lymph plasma to the bloodstream,
maintaining fluid balance. The flow of lymph plasma is aided by two main mechanisms:
the respiratory pump and the skeletal muscle pump. During inhalation, lymph flows from
regions of higher pressure, such as the abdominal region, to regions of lower pressure,
like the thoracic region. Valves in lymphatic vessels prevent backflow during exhalation.
Additionally, the contraction of smooth muscles in lymphatic vessel walls helps move
lymph plasma along (Tortora & Derrickson, 2020 ).. The skeletal muscle pump, driven by
the contraction of skeletal muscles, also plays a significant role in compressing
lymphatic vessels and forcing lymph plasma towards the venous junction, facilitating its
return to the bloodstream. These mechanisms collectively ensure the efficient drainage
and circulation of lymph plasma throughout the body, contributing to overall fluid
homeostasis and immune function.
 D. (1) Illustrate and label the structure of a lymph node and (2) trace the route of
lymph flow through it.

Source: (Tortora & Derrickson, 2020 ).

 Flow of Lymph node:

Efferent
Subscapular Trabecular Medullary
Lymphatic
Sinus sinus sinus
System

E. Fill in the table below:

Lymphatic Diagram with label Class/Typ Description Action
organs & e
Tissues
Red bone Primary Soft, spongy Produces blood
marrow Lymphoid tissue found in cells (red cells,
Organ the cavities of white cells,
bones; site of platelets) and B
hematopoiesis. lymphocytes.

Thymus Primary Bi-lobed organ Site of T lymphocyte

gland Lymphoid located in the maturation.
Organ mediastinum,
above the heart.

Spleen Secondary Organ located Filters blood,

Lymphoid in the upper left removes old red
Organ quadrant of the blood cells, and
abdomen, near helps fight
the stomach. infections.
Lymph Secondary Small, bean- Filter lymph and
nodes Lymphoid shaped house lymphocytes
Organ structures that attack
located pathogens.
throughout the
body.

Lymphatic Secondary Small, localized Protect body

nodules Lymphoid clusters of surfaces from
Tissue dense tissue pathogens in areas
found in such as the
mucous respiratory and
membranes. digestive tracts.
 F. What are the components of the body’s innate defense? Fill in the table below.
Components Functions
1st Line of Defense
(9) Physical Factors
Epidermis of skin Forms a physical barrier to the entrance of microbes.
Mucous membranes Inhibit the entrance of many microbes, though not as
effective as intact skin.
Mucus Traps microbes in the respiratory tract and digestive
canal.
Hairs Filter out microbes and dust in the nose.
Cilia Together with mucus, trap and remove microbes and
dust from the upper respiratory tract.
Lacrimal apparatus Tears dilute and wash away irritating substances and
microbes.
Saliva Washes microbes from the surfaces of teeth and
mucous membranes of the mouth.
Urine Washes microbes from the urethra.
Defecation and vomiting Expel microbes from the body.
(4) Chemical Factors
Sebum Forms a protective acidic film over the skin surface that
inhibits the growth of many microbes.
Lysozyme Antimicrobial substance found in perspiration, tears,
saliva, nasal secretions, and tissue fluids.
Gastric juice Destroys bacteria and most toxins in the stomach.
Vaginal secretions Slight acidity discourages bacterial growth and flushes
microbes out of the vagina.
2nd Line of Defense (6)
Antimicrobial Substances
Interferons (IFNs) Protect uninfected host cells from viral infection.
Complement system Causes cytolysis of microbes, promotes phagocytosis,
and contributes to inflammation.
Iron-binding proteins Inhibit the growth of certain bacteria by reducing the
amount of available iron.
Antimicrobial proteins (AMPs) Have broad-spectrum antimicrobial activities and
attract dendritic cells and mast cells.
Cellular Factors
Natural killer (NK) cells Kill infected target cells by releasing granules containing
perforin and granzymes; phagocytes then kill released
microbes.
Phagocytes Ingest foreign particulate matter.
Tissue Response
Inflammation Confines and destroys microbes, initiates tissue repair.
Fever Intensifies the effects of interferons, inhibits the growth
of some microbes, and speeds up body reactions that
aid repair.

G. Discuss the following:

1. What are the functions of the lymphatic system?
- The lymphatic system is a crucial component of the body's defense
mechanisms and plays multifaceted roles in maintaining overall health.
Primarily, it functions as a key player in the immune response, orchestrating
defense against infections and diseases. Lymphatic vessels carry lymph, a
fluid containing infection-fighting white blood cells known as lymphocytes,
which are vital for combating harmful invaders like bacteria, viruses, and
cancer cells. Positioned strategically along the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes
act as filtering stations, trapping foreign particles and activating lymphocytes
to mount targeted immune responses, thereby thwarting the spread of
pathogens throughout the body. Moreover, the lymphatic system contributes
significantly to fluid balance by managing the movement of interstitial fluid—
the fluid surrounding cells—back into the bloodstream. This mechanism
prevents the accumulation of excess fluid in tissues, preventing swelling and
edema. Specialized lymphatic vessels called lacteals facilitate the absorption
of dietary fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the small intestine, allowing for
efficient nutrient uptake and distribution (Tortora & Derrickson, 2020).
Additionally, the lymphatic system serves as a vital transportation network for
immune cells, facilitating their movement throughout the body to patrol
tissues, detect pathogens, and mount immune responses as needed.

2. Compare and contrast :

a. innate immunity with adaptive immunity;
Characteristic Innate Immunity Adaptive Immunity
Recognition Recognizes general Recognizes specific
features shared by antigens through
pathogens. receptors.
Specificity Limited specificity; same Highly specific; tailored
response to various response to specific
pathogens. pathogens.
Response Time Immediate response Slower response (days to
(hours). weeks).
Memory No immunological Develops immunological
memory. memory for future
encounters.
Primary Cells Involved Macrophages, neutrophils, B cells, T cells.
dendritic cells, natural
killer cells.
b. Cell-mediated immunity and anti-body mediated immunity:
Characteristic Cell-Mediated Immunity Antibody-Mediated
Immunity
Effector Cells T lymphocytes (CD4+ and B lymphocytes (plasma
CD8+). cells).
Targets Infected host cells, Extracellular pathogens
cancerous cells. (viruses, bacteria, fungi).
Major Mechanism Direct killing of infected Production of antibodies
cells by cytotoxic T cells. that neutralize pathogens.
Response Time Generally quicker Takes longer to develop
response (hours to days). (days to weeks).
Memory Response Generates memory T cells Produces memory B cells
for faster response upon and plasma cells for rapid
re-exposure. response upon re-
exposure.
Aspect Cell-Mediated Immunity Antibody-Mediated
Immunity

3. What are the cells participating in immune response? Discuss their functions.
The immune response involves a complex interplay of various cells, each
with distinct functions aimed at identifying and eliminating pathogens. Among
the key players are macrophages, which act as phagocytes, engulfing and
digesting pathogens and debris. Dendritic cells are specialized antigen-
presenting cells that capture antigens, process them, and present them to T
cells to initiate adaptive immune responses (Tortora & Derrickson, 2020)..
Natural killer (NK) cells are cytotoxic lymphocytes that recognize and destroy
infected or abnormal host cells, contributing to the innate immune response
against viruses and tumors.

T lymphocytes, or T cells, play crucial roles in cell-mediated immunity.

CD4+ T cells, also known as helper T cells, coordinate the immune response by
activating other immune cells and secreting cytokines. CD8+ T cells, or
cytotoxic T cells, directly kill infected or abnormal cells. B lymphocytes, or B
cells, are responsible for antibody-mediated immunity. Upon encountering
antigens, B cells differentiate into plasma cells, which produce antibodies that
can bind to and neutralize pathogens or mark them for destruction by other
immune cells. Additionally, there are regulatory T cells (Tregs), which suppress
immune responses to prevent autoimmune reactions and maintain immune
homeostasis. Lastly, memory T and B cells are long-lived cells that provide
immunological memory (Tortora & Derrickson, 2020).. Upon re-exposure to a
pathogen, memory cells mount a faster and more robust immune response,
conferring long-term protection against recurrent infections.
 4. What are the five types of immunoglobulins? Characterize each and give their
functions.
Immunoglobulin Characterization Functions
IgG - Most abundant in serum - Provides long-term
- Can cross the placenta to immunity against bacterial
provide passive immunity to and viral infections
the fetus - Enhances phagocytosis by
- Involved in opsonization, binding to pathogens and
complement activation, and facilitating their recognition
neutralization of toxins and by phagocytes
viruses - Activates the classical
pathway of the complement
system
IgM - Pentameric structure with - Serves as the first antibody
high avidity for antigens produced during the primary
- Efficiently activates the immune response to an
complement system infection
- Functions as a potent
agglutinin, binding to
multiple antigens and
facilitating their removal by
phagocytes
- Initiates the classical
pathway of complement
activation
IgA - Exists in monomeric and - Plays a crucial role in
dimeric forms mucosal immunity,
- Predominantly found in preventing pathogen
mucosal secretions such as adherence to mucosal
saliva, tears, and breast surfaces
milk - Provides passive immunity
to newborns through breast
milk, protecting against
gastrointestinal and
respiratory infections
IgD - Found in low - Functions as a B cell
concentrations in serum receptor (BCR) to initiate the
- Mainly expressed on the activation of naïve B cells
surface of B cells as a upon antigen recognition
receptor for antigen - Plays a role in the
recognition regulation of B cell
activation and
differentiation
IgE - Binds strongly to mast - Triggers the release of
cells and basophils via Fc inflammatory mediators
 receptors
- Associated with allergic
reactions and defense
against parasitic infections
Source: (Tortora & Derrickson, 2020).
from mast cells and
basophils in response to
allergens, leading to allergic
reactions such as asthma,
hay fever, and eczema
- Mediates defense against
parasitic infections by
activating eosinophils to
destroy parasites

References:

Marieb, E. N., & Keller, S. M. (2021). Essentials of human anatomy & physiology (13th ed.).
Pearson Higher Ed.

Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2020). Principles of anatomy and physiology (16th ed.).

VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. F. (2022). ISE Seeley's anatomy and physiology (13th
ed.).