Chapter 1

DIGITAL LOGIC and DIGITAL SYSTEMS

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History and Evolution of Computers
• The first mechanical adding machine was
invented by Blaise Pascal in 1942.
• Later in 1971, Barson Gottfried Wilhelm Von
Leibuiz of Germany invented the first
calculator for multiplication.

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• Charles Babbage, a professor at Cambridge
University is considered to be the father of
modern digital computers.
• Babbage designed a “Difference Engine” in
the year 1822.
• In 1842, Babbage came out with new idea of
analytical engine that was intended to be
completely automatic. It was to be capable of
performing the basic arithmetic problem at
an average speed of 60 additions per minute.

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 EARLY COMPUTERS
I. The Mark I computer (1937-1944)
• This was the first fully automatic calculating
machine designed by Howard. A. Aiken of Harvard
University in collaboration with IBM (International
Business Machines) co-operation.
• All this machine proved to be
– Extremely Reliable
– Very Complex In Design
– Huge In Size
• It was basically an electromechanical device, since
both mechanical and electronic components were
used in its design with 3000 electrical switches to
control its operation.
• It was approximately 50 feet long and 8 feet high.
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II. ABC (Atanasoff -Berry Computer)
[1939-1942]
• This electronic machine was developed by Dr.
John Atanasoff to solve certain mathematical
equations.
• Clifford Berry , assistant of John Atanasoff
also contributed a lot towards ABC’s
development.
• It used 45 vacuum tubes, for internal logic
and capacitors for storage.

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 III. The ENIAC [1943-1946]
• The electronic numerical integrator and calculator
(ENIAC) was the first all electronic computer. It was
developed at Moore School of Engineering of the
Pennsylvania, USA by a team led by professors
J.Presper Eckert, and John Mauchly
• ENIAC was developed as a result of military need. It
took up the wall space in a 20x40 square feet room
and used 18000 vacuum tubes.
• The addition of 2 numbers where achieved in 200
microseconds and multiplication in 2000
microseconds.

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 IV. The EDVAC
• The problem with ENIAC was its board. This was
later solved by the concept of “stored programs”.
Developed by Dr.john Von Neumann.
• The basic idea behind the stored program is that a
sequence of instructions as well as data can be
stored in the memory of the computer for the
purpose of automatically directing the flow of
operations. This concept considerably influenced
the development of modern digital computers.
• The electronic discrete variable automatic computer
(EDVAC) was designed on stored program concept.

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 V. The UNIVAC I (1951)
• The UNIversal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC)
was the first digital computer. Many UNIVAC
machines were produced , the first of which
was installed in census bureau in 1951 and
was continuously used for 10 years.
• In 1952, the IBM corporation introduced 701
commercial computer.

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 THE COMPUTER GENERATIONS
The first generation (1942-1955)
• The early computers like ENIAC,EDVAC, etc ….
and other computers of their time were
made possible by the invention of “Vacuum
tube” which was a fragile glass device that
could control and amplify electronic signals.
• These vacuum tube computers are referred
to as first generation computers. Vacuum
tubes were used to perform logic operations
and to store data.
• This technology began the modern era of
electronic digital computers.
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 Second generation (1955-1964)
• The transistor, a smaller and more reliable
successor to the vacuum tube, was invented
in 1947.
• The Second generation emerged with the
transistors being the brain of the computer.
• The manual assembly of individual
components and the cost of labour involved
at this assembly stage made the commercial
production of these computers difficult and
costly.

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 Third generation (1964-1975)
• Advances in electronics technology continued
and the advent of “micro electronics”
technology made it possible to integrate
large number of circuit elements into very
small surface of a silicon known as “chips”.
• This new technology was called Integrated
Circuits (IC).

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 Fourth generation computers (1975-1985)
• Initially the IC contained only about 10-20
components. This technology was named SSI
(Small Scale Integration).
• Later with the advancement in technology for
manufacturing IC’s it became possible to
integrate up to a 100 components on a single
chip. This technology came to be known as
Medium Scale Integration. (MSI).
• Then came the era of Large Scale Integration
(LSI) when it was possible to integrate over
30,000 components on a single chip.

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 FIFTH GENERATION (1985 onwards)

• These are also termed as knowledge

information processing systems.
• These generations are with new parallel
architecture, new memory organization and
new languages.
• These are functionally and conceptually
different from the first four generations.
• Most of these are used in artificial
intelligence, Satellite connectivity etc.

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 First Second Third Fourth Fifth

1985
Time Frame 1942-1955 1955-1964 1964-1975 1975 - 1985
onwards

Integrated
LSI (Large VLSI (very
Circuit Vacuum Circuit
Transistor scale Large scale
Component Tube (Silicon
Integration ) Integration)
Chip)

Magnetic
Internal drum, Tape Magnetic Magnetic Integrated Integrated
Storage & Punched Cores Disks Circuits Circuits
cards

Memory
Capacity 4,000 32,000 128,000 100 million >100 million
(Characters)

IBM 360,
Popular IBM 650, IBM-1401, IBM 303X,
Honeywell ?
computers Univac – I CDC 36000 Univac 6000
200 14
Fundamental Building Blocks

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 I. LOGIC GATES
• Logic gates are the basic building blocks of a
digital computer.
• Logic gates are digital circuits that have two or
more logic inputs (except for NOT gate) and
produce a single output with a logic level
based on the input.
• The input and output logic levels applied to
these gates are represented as Boolean
variables.
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 Truth table
• A truth table is a table that describes the
behavior of a logic gate.
• It lists the value of the output for every possible
combination of the inputs and can be used to
simplify the number of logic gates and level of
nesting in an electronic circuit.
• Number of combinations or rows for truth table:
2n = Number of inputs combinations / row
n = number of inputs
2 = means binary number (0 or 1), constant
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Two input truth table: 2n = 22 = 4 rows / combinations
Let us consider variables A and B for input, and Out
for output.

A B Out

0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

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 Basic Logic Gates

• AND

• OR

• NOT

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 AND Gate
• An AND gate is an electronic circuit that
generates an output signal of 1 only if all
input signals are 1.
• An AND gate is the physical realization of
logical multiplication.
• AND gate can have more than two inputs.
• The output of the AND gate with inputs A, B,
and C is 1 only if A, B and C are 1.

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Truth table and the block diagram for
an AND gate

INPUT OUTPUT

A B Q= A.B
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1

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 OR Gate
• An OR gate is an electronic circuit that
generates an output signal of 1 if any of the
input signals is 1.
• An OR gate is the physical realization of logical
addition.
• OR gate can have more than two inputs.
• The output of the OR gate with inputs A, B,
and C is a 1 if A or B or C is a 1.

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Truth table and the block diagram for
an OR gate

INPUT OUTPUT

A B Q= A+B

0 0 0

1 0 1

0 1 1

1 1 1

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 NOT Gate
• NOT gate is an electronic circuit that
generates an output signal which is the
reverse of the input signal.
• A NOT gate is the physical realization of the
complementation or logical inversion.
• A NOT gate is also known as an inverter
because it inverts the input.
• A NOT gate always has a single input.
• Connecting two NOT gates in series gives an
output equal to the input.
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Truth table and the block diagram for
a NOT gate

INPUT OUTPUT

A Q= A

0 1

1 0

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NOR GATE (Combines OR and NOT)
• A NOR gate is an electronic circuit that
generates an output signal of 1 when all
input signals are 0 and it will be a 0 if any
input represents a 1.
• NOR gate is a complemented OR gate.
• The symbol ↓ is used to represent NOR
operation in Boolean expression. Thus
A↓ B = (A+B)′= A′.B′
• The NOR gate can then be seen to be an OR
gate followed by a NOT gate.
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Truth table and the block diagram for
a NOR gate
INPUT OUTPUT

A B Q= A′.B′

0 0 1

1 0 0

0 1 0

1 1 0

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NAND GATE (Combines AND & NOT)
• A NAND gate is an electronic circuit that
generates an output signal of 1 if any one of
the input is a 0 and will be a 0 when all input
signals are 1.
• NAND gate is a complemented AND gate.
• The symbol ↑ is used to represent NAND
operation in Boolean expression. Thus
A↑ B = (A.B)′= A′+B′
• The NAND gate can then be seen to be an
AND gate followed by a NOT gate.
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Truth table and the block diagram for a
NAND gate
INPUT OUTPUT

A B Q= A′+B′

0 0 1

1 0 1

0 1 1

1 1 0

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 Exclusive-OR gate
• Ex-OR gate is a combinational Logic circuit
• Ex-OR gate is an electronic circuit that
generates an output signal of 0 if both the
inputs are same.
• The symbol + is used to represent Ex-OR
operation in Boolean expression. Thus
A + B = A′.B + A.B′

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Truth table and the block diagram for
an Ex-OR gate
INPUT OUTPUT

A B Q= A′.B+A.B′

0 0 0

1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

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Logic expressions

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 I. Introduction
• Boolean algebra – a symbolic logic invented
by George Boole in 1854.
• Each variable in Boolean algebra has either of
the two values: true or false.
• The original purpose of this two-state algebra
was to solve logic problems. It is ideally suited
to digital circuit analysis.

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 Basic Theorems
A+B=B+A AB = BA
A + (B +C) = (A +B) + C A (BC) = (AB) C
A (B + C) = AB +AC A + BC = (A + B) (A + C)
A+0=A A*1=A
A+1=1 A*0=0
A+A=A A*A=A
A + A’= 1 A * A’ = 0
(A’)’ = A A’’ = A
(A + B)’ = A’B’ (AB)’ = A’ + B’
A + AB = A A (A + B) = A
A + A’B = A +B A (A’ + B) = AB
 II. Simplification Using Boolean Algebra
• A simplified Boolean expression uses the
fewest gates possible to implement a given
expression.

AB+A(B+C)+B(B+C)
B
C
EXAMPLES:
1. Y = AB’ +AB
= A ( B’ +B )
=A
2. Y = AB + AC + BD + CD
=A(B+C)+D(B+C)
= ( A + D ) ( B + C)
3. Z = ( A’ + B ) ( A + B )
= A’A + A’B + BA + BB
= 0 + A’B + BA + BB
= A’B + BA + B
= B ( A’ + A + 1)
=B 36
 III. Standard Forms of Boolean
Expressions
• All Boolean expressions, regardless of their
form, can be converted into either of two
standard forms:
– The sum-of-products (SOP) form
– The product-of-sums (POS) form
• Standardization makes the evaluation,
simplification, and implementation of Boolean
expressions much more systematic and
easier.
 The Sum-of-Product (SOP) Form
• An SOP expression   In an SOP form, a
when two or more single overbar cannot
product terms are extend over more than
summed by Boolean one variable; however,
addition. more than one variable
– Examples: in a term can have an
AB + ABC overbar:
ABC + CDE + B CD  example: A B C is OK!
A B + A BC + AC
– Also:  But not: ABC
A + A B C + BCD
 General Expression  SOP
• Any logic expression can be changed into SOP
form by applying Boolean algebra techniques.
ex:

A( B + CD ) = AB + ACD
AB + B(CD + EF ) = AB + BCD + BEF
( A + B)( B + C + D) = AB + AC + AD + BB + BC + BD
( A + B) + C = ( A + B)C = ( A + B)C = AC + BC
 The Standard SOP Form
• A standard SOP expression is one in which all
the variables in the domain appear in each
product term in the expression.
– Example:
AB CD + A B CD + ABC D
• Standard SOP expressions are important in:
– Constructing truth tables
Converting Product Terms to Standard
SOP
• Step 1: Multiply each nonstandard product term by
a term made up of the sum of a missing variable
and its complement. This results in two product
terms.
– As you know, you can multiply anything by 1 without
changing its value.
• Step 2: Repeat step 1 until all resulting product
term contains all variables in the domain in either
complemented or uncomplemented form. In
converting a product term to standard form, the
number of product terms is doubled for each missing
variable.
Converting Product Terms to Standard
SOP (example)
• Convert the following Boolean expression into
standard SOP form:
AB C + A B + ABC D
AB C = AB C ( D + D ) = AB CD + AB CD

A B = A B (C + C ) = A B C + A B C
A B C ( D + D ) + A B C ( D + D ) = A B CD + A B CD + A B C D + A B C D

AB C + A B + ABC D = AB CD + AB CD + A B CD + A B CD + A B C D + A B C D + ABC D
 Implementation of an SOP
X=AB+BCD+AC
• AND/OR implementation

A
B

B
C X
D

A
C
 II. PLA
• Programmable logic array (PLA)
– has an array of inverters, AND gates and OR gates
– can implement any logic function (given limits on
numbers of inputs and outputs)
Example: consider a system with four inputs
A, B, C and D and three output X, Y and Z, where

X = A B C D+A B CD
Y = A B CD + ABCD
Z = A B C D + A B CD + ABCD
The structure of a simple PLA
 III. Flip-Flop
• A flip-flop is a binary cell capable of storing
one bit of information.
• It has two outputs, one for the normal value
and one for the complement value of the bit
stored in it.
• A flip-flop maintains a binary state until
directed by a clock pulse to switch states.

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• Flip-flop exist in one of the two states and in
the absence of input, remains in that state.
• The flip-flop has 2 outputs, which are always
complement to each other. These are
generally labeled as Q and Q`.

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flip-flop (logical circuit)

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 IV. Registers
• Register
– a collection of binary storage elements
– included a set of flip-flop
– n-bit register store n-bit binary information
• Frequently used to perform simple data
storage and data movement and processing
operations

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– fundamental building blocks within
computers
– can be constructed using D flip-flops
– some are used for storage, others for
input/output
 V. Counters
• A register that goes through a predetermined
sequence of states upon the application of
input pulses is called a counter.
• The input pulses may be clock pulses or may
originate from an external source. They may
occur at uniform intervals of time or at
random.

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• Each input pulse increments the state by 1; the
machine can therefore be viewed as counting
the input pulses.
• Counters are found in almost all equipment
containing digital logic. They are used for
counting the number of occurrences of an
event and are useful for generating timing
signals to control the sequence of operations in
digital computers.
Register Transfer Notation

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 Introduction
• Symbolic and precise way to describe the
effect of an instruction.
• Example:
MOVE D3,D2
⇒The contents of register D3 are copied to
register D2.
⇒A common notation to designate this is:
D2 ← [D3]
• Brackets around D3 indicate “contents of”
• Left arrow indicates “receives”
 Register Transfer Notation:
Instructions
• DEST  Result

• SUB D5, D7
– can be described by:
D7 ← [D7] - [D5]
• ADD D2, $001004
– Here, $001004 is a memory address. The same
notation still suffices:
$001004 ← [$001004] + [D2]
 Register transfer
• The registers are assumed to be basic
components of the digital system
• Register transfer operation: movement on
the data stored in register and the processing
performed on the data
• Three basic components
– The set of registers in digital systems
– The operations performed on the data
– Control on the sequence of operations
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 Register Transfer Operations
• Notation for register: uppercase letters
(sometime followed by numbers)
– AR: address register
– PC: program counter
– IP: instruction register
– R2: the register 2
 Register Transfer Operations
• Data transfer from a register to another one
– R2 ←R1
• Data transfer with conditions
– If (K1=1) then (R2 ←R1)
– K1: R2 ←R1
• Hardware implementation
 Register Transfer Operations

More register transfer operation executed at

the same time:

K3: R2 ←R1, R1 ←R2

Physical Considerations

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 Technology Parameters
• Specific gate implementation technologies are
characterized by the following parameters:
– Fan-in – the number of inputs available on a gate
– Fan-out – the number of standard loads driven by a gate output
– Logic Levels – the signal value ranges for 1 and 0 on the inputs and
1 and 0 on the outputs
– Noise Margin – the maximum external noise voltage
superimposed on a normal input value that will not cause an
undesirable change in the circuit output
– Cost for a gate - a measure of the contribution by the gate to the
cost of the integrated circuit
– Propagation Delay – The time required for a change in the value
of a signal to propagate from an input to an output
– Power Dissipation – the amount of power drawn from the power
supply and consumed by the gate
 Fan-in
For a given logic family, the maximum number
of inputs available on any one gate is called
the fan-in.
1

Fan-in

N
 Fan-out
The fan-out of a logic gate is the number of
inputs that the gate can drive without
exceeding its worst-case loading specs.
1

Fan-out

N
 Propagation Delay
• Propagation delay is the time for a change on an input
of a gate to propagate to the output.
• Delay is usually measured at the 50% point with
respect to the H and L output voltage levels.
• High-to-low (tPHL) and low-to-high (tPLH) output signal
changes may have different propagation delays.
• High-to-low (HL) and low-to-high (LH) transitions are
defined with respect to the output, not the input.
• An HL input transition causes:
– an LH output transition if the gate inverts and
– an HL output transition if the gate does not invert.
 `

END

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