SUCM202T

SUCM 202T
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Âw‹ Kjèad.
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Ïa¡Fe®
(i)
Ãfh« - bghJ tâféaš jhŸ - 6
Ïu©lh« M©L - tâf ¢ r£ l«
_‹wh« gUt«
M¡»nah®
Kidt® uh. Rä¤uh

cjé¥ nguhÁça®
fz¡F gÂéaš k‰W« ãÂæaš Jiw
bršy«khŸ kfë® fšÿç
»©o, br‹id - 600 032.
br¥gÅ£lt®
Kidt® g. nAkhtÂ Kidt® R. ghŠrhy‹

cjé¥ nguhÁça® (j), nguhÁça®, tâféaš Jiw
tâféaš Jiw bjhiyöu¡ fšÉ ÃWtd«
bjhiyöu¡ fšÉ ÃWtd« br‹id¥ gšfiy¡ fHf«
br‹id¥ gšfiy¡ fHf« br‹id - 600 005.
br‹id - 600 005.
© UNIVERSITY OF MADRAS, CHENNAI 600 005.
(ii)
Ãfh« - bghJ tâféaš
Ïu©lh« M©L
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jhŸ - 6
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ghl¤â£l«
UNIT I:
Formation of Contract : Indian Contract Act - Formation - Nature and Elements of
Contract - Classification of Contracts - Contract Vs Agreement.
UNIT II:
Offer, Acceptance and Consideration : Offer - Definition - Forms of Offer - Re-
quirements of a Valid Offer. Acceptance - Meaning - Legal rules as to a Valid Acceptance.
Consideration - Definition - Types - Essentials.
UNIT III:
Other Elements of Valid Contract : Capacity of Parties - Definition - Persons Com-
petent to contract. Free consent - Coercion - Undue Influence - Fraud - Misrepresentation
- Mistake. Legality of object - Void agreements - Unlawful Agreements.
UNIT IV:
Performance of Contract : Performance of Contracts - Actual Performance -
Attempted Performance - Tender. Quasi Contract - Definition and Essentials. Discharge

of Contract - Modes of Discharge - Breach of Contract - Remedies available for Breach of
Contract.
(iii)
UNIT V:
Sale of Goods Act : Sale - Contract of Sale - Sale Vs Agreement to Sell - Meaning of
Goods - Conditions and Warranty - Caveat Emptor - Exceptions of Caveat Emptor - Buyer
and Seller of Goods - Unpaid Seller - Definition - Rights of an Unpaid Seller.
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Kapoor, N.D. Business Laws, Sultan Chand and Sons.
2. Sreenivasan, M.R. Business Laws, Margam Publications.
3. Dhandapani, M.V. Business Laws, Sultan Chand and Sons.
4. Badre Alam, S. & Saravanavel, P. Mercantile Law
5. Pillai, R.S.N. & Chand, S, Business Law, S Chand & Co, Delhi
6. Ramaswamy, K.N., Business Law, S Chand & Co, Delhi
7. Shukla, M.C, Business Law, S. Chand & Co.
8. Balachandran. V & Thothadri.S, Business Law, Vijay Nicole Imprints Pvt. Ltd. Chennai
(iv)
Ãfh« - bghJ tâféaš
Ïu©lh« M©L
_‹wh« gUt«
jhŸ - 6
tâf¢ r£l«
ghl¥ gF¥ò
ghl v© jiy¥ò g¡f«
1. ,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk;> 1872-Njhw;Wtha; 001
2. xg;ge;jj;jpd; gphpTfs; 010
3. KidT kw;Wk; Vw;G 019
4. kWgad; 033
5. xg;ge;jj; jFjp 041
6. jd;dpr;irahd; ,irT 050
7. rl;lhPjpahd Nehf;fk; kw;Wk; nry;yhj cld;gbf;if 065
8. xg;ge;jg; Nghy;T kw;Wk; tpNr\ xg;ge;jk; 079
9. xg;ge;jq;fspd; epiwNtw;wk; 091
10. xg;ge;j tpLg;G 104
11. xg;ge;j Kwptpw;fhd jPHTfs; 117
12. ruf;F tpw;gid rl;lk;> 1930 126
13. epge;jidfSk; cj;jputhjq;fSk; 136
14. chpik khw;wk; 148
15. nghUl;fspd; tpw;gid xg;ge;jj;jpd; nray;jpwd; 159
16. tpiy ngwhj tpw;gthpd; chpikfs; 168
(v)
1
ghlk; - 1
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk;> 1872-Njhw;Wtha;

(Indian Contract Act 1872- An Introduction)
fw;wypd; Nehf;f q;fs;
,g;ghlj;ij fw;wgpd;> cq;fshy; fPo;tUtdtw;iwr; nra;a ,aYk;:-
 xg;ge;jj;jpd; tiutpyf;fzk;
 xg;ge;jf; fhuh;fspd; flikfs; gw;wpatpguk;
 xg;ge;jq;fspd; tiffistpsf;fKbAk;
 rl;lg;gb nry;yj;jf;f xg;ge;jj;jpd; tpguk;
 nry;yhj xg;ge;jj;jpw;Fk; jtph;f;ff; $ba xg;ge;jj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNaAs;s xw;Wik

kw;Wk; Ntw;Wikfs;.
ghlmikg; G
1.1. Kd; D iu
1.2. ,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk;> 1872 –mjd; jd;ik
1.3. xg;g e;j j;j pd; ,yf;f zKk;> nghUSk;
1.4. xg;g e;j j;j pw;F Njitahd ,d;w paikahj $Wfs;
1.5. xg;ge;jj;j pd; $Wfs;
1.6. njhFg; G iu
1.7. Kf;f par; nrhw;f s;
1.8. gapw;r p tpdhf;f s;

2
1.1. Kd;Diu (Introduction )
tzpf eltbf;iffspdhy; vOk; chpikfisAk; rl;lf; flikfisAk; ifahSk;

rl;lg; gphpitf; Fwpg;gNjtzpfr; rl;lq;fshFk;. ,it “tzpftpay; rl;lq;fs;” vdTk;
miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. ,t;tpjr; rl;lq;fspd; kpf Kf;fpakhdXh; gphpNt “xg;ge;jr; rl;lk;”
MFk;. ,J xg;ge;jjhuh;fs; mspj;j cWjp nkhopfis rl;lg;gb epiwNtw;wf; NfhUk;
#o;epiyfis eph;zapf;fpwJ. xg;ge;jj;jpd; VNjDk; Xh; egh; jd;Dila gq;if epiwNtw;wj;
jtWk; gl;rj;jpy;> gpwpnjhU egUf;F rl;lg;gb fpilf;ff; $ba ghpfhuq;fis ,J
Fwpf;fpwJ. ,J ghpfhuq;fs; fpilf;ff; $ba #o;epiyfisAk; tiuaWf;fpwJ.
xg;ge;jr; rl;lk; tzpfk; my;yJ tpahghuj;ij Nkw;nfhs;s ,d;wpaikahjjhFk;.

Vnddpy;> ,J tzpf eltbf;iffspd; epiwNtw;wj;ij cWjp nra;fpwJ. ,J tzpfh;fis
kl;Lky;yhky;> xl;L nkhj;j rKjhaj;ijAk; ghjpf;fpwJ. ,J ek; midtiuAk; VNjh
Xh; tpjj;jpy; ghjpf;fpwJ. md;whlk;> ehk; xt;nthUtUk; gy;NtW xg;ge;jq;fspy; <LgLfpNwhk;.
cjhuzk; Gj;jfk; thq;Fjy;> rpdpkh ghh;j;jy; nkf;fhdpf;fplk; fhiu rhpnra;Ak;

gb nfhLj;jy; Nghd;w midj;Jk; xg;ge;j eltbf;iffNs MFk;. xg;ge;jq;fs; rl;lk;
rhh;e;j chpikfisAk; flikfisAk; cUthf;Ffpd;wd.
cjhuzk; A vd;gth; B vd;gthplk; 10>000 kjpg;Gs;skUe;Jg; nghUis tpiyf;F

nfhLg;gjw;F rk;kjk; thq;fp tpLfpwhh;. B vd;gth; mjw;F rk;kjk; njhptpj;J &gha;
10>000-Kk; nfhLj;J tpLfpwhh;. Mdhy; A vd;gth; nghUis nfhLf;f tpy;iynadpy; B
vd;gth; rl;l Kiwg;gb Nfhhp> vd;gthplkpUe;J nghUis ngw;Wf; nfhs;s KbAk;.
1.2. ,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk;> 1872 –mjd; jd;ik

(The Indian Contract Act, 1872 - Its Nature )
,e;jpahtpy; Vw;gLj;jg;gLk; xg;ge;jq;fs; njhlh;ghd rl;l tpjpfs; ,e;jpa xg;ge;jr;

rl;lk; 1872 ,y; mlq;fpAs;sd. ,r;rl;lk; xg;ge;jq;fs; njhlh;ghd tpjpfisAk;
jj;Jtq;fisAk; mspf;fpwJ. xg;ge;jj;jpy; <LgLk; egh;fspd; flikfs;> cld;gbf;iffs;
Nghd;wit njhlh;ghd midj;J eltbf;iffisAk; ,r;rl;lk; cs;slf;fpAs;sJ. MapDk;>
jdpg;gl;l rl;lq;fspd; fPo; tuf;$ba NtW rpy xg;gw;jq;fSk; cs;sd. mit $l;lhz;ikr;
rl;lk;> nghUl;fspd; tpw;gidr; rl;lk; khw;W Kiw Mtzr; rl;lk;> fhg;gPl;Lr; rl;lk;>
Nghd;wdthUk;.
3
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk; kpfg; goikahd rl;lkhFk;. ,J ,e;jpahtpy; tzpf

eltbf;iffis xOq;FgLj;Jk; midj;J tpjpfisAk; njspthf tiuaWj;Js;sJ.
mjd;gbjhd; rk;ke;jg;gl;l egh;fs; jq;fspd; chpikfisAk; flikfisAk; cUthf;fpf;
nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.
1.3. xg;ge;jj;jpd; ,yf;fzk; (Definition of Contract)
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk;> xg;ge;jk; vd;gJ rl;lj;jhy; eilKiwg; gLj;jg;gLk;

cld;ghlhFk;. ,t;tpyf;fzj;jpd;gb xg;ge;jk; %d;W gFjpfis cilaJ.
mit>
 Xh; cld;ghL ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;.
 me;jcld;ghlhdJrl;lj;jhy; eilKiwg; gLj;jf; $bajhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
 cld;ghl;il rl;lj;jhy; eilKiwg; gLj;Jtjw;F rl;lG+h;tkhd flik ,Uf;f

Ntz;Lk;.
rhy;k z;b d; ,yf;f zk; (Definition of almond) “egh;fSf;fpilNa flikfis

cUthf;Fk; kw;Wk; tiuaWf;Fk; Xh; cld;gbf;ifNa” xg;ge;jkhFk; vd rhy;kz;l;
,jw;F ,yf;fzk; tiufpwhh;.
rh; tpy;y pak; md;r d; (Sir William Anson) vd;gth; $WtjhtJ “rl;lhPjpahd
,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;lth;fs; xd;W $b jq;fSf;Fhpa chpik kw;Wk; flikapid
cld;gbf;if thapyhf nray;gLj;JtNj xg;ge;jk; vd;fpwhh;.
Nghyf;fpd; ,yf;fzk; (Definition of Pollock) Nghyf;fpd; $w;Wg;gb> “rl;lg;gb

nray;gLj;jj;jf;f xt;nthU cWjpnkhopAk; cld;gbf;ifAk; Xh; xg;ge;jkhFk;.
1.4. nry;yj;jF xg;ge;jj;jpw;F Njitahd

,d;wpaikahj $Wfs; (Essentials of a Valid Contract)
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk;> xg;ge;jk; vd;gJ rl;lj;jhy; eilKiwg; gLj;jg;gLk;

cld;ghlhFk;. nry;yj;jF xg;ge;jj;jpw;F Njitahd ,d;wpaikahj $Wfs;
4
1. KidTk; Vw;Gk; (Offer and Acceptance)
xg;ge;jk; nra;J nfhs;Sk; egh;fspilNa kd xw;Wik my;yJ fUj;J xw;Wik

,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. mj;jifa fUj;J xw;Wik ,Uf;fpwjh ,y;iyah vd;gij mwptjw;F
KidTk; Vw;Gk; cjTfpd;wd. xUtUila KidT mNj fUj;jpy; kw;nwhUtuhy;
Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gl Ntz;Lk;. ,jw;F fUj;njhw;Wik vd;W ngah;.
KidT vd; gJ kw;NwhUtUld; cld; ghL nra; J nfhs;tjw;f hf xUtuhy;

njhptpf;fg;gLk; gphpTiu MFk;. gphpTiu vd;gJ> xUth; xU nraiy nra;tjw;F jdJ
tpUg; g j; i jNah tpUg; g kpd; i kaNah njhptpg; g J MFk; . xt; n thU KidTk;
njspthdjhfTk;>cWjpahdjhfTk; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. KidT ahUf;Fk; $wg;gl;lNjh
me;j egh; kl;LNk mij Vw;Wf; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. Kidit Vw;Wf; nfhs;Sjy;
KOikahfTk;> epge;jid ,y;yhjjhfTk; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. mjhtJ> xU KidT mjd;
epge;jidfspd;gbNa khw;wk; VJkpd;wp Vw;Wf; nfhs;sg; gl Ntz;Lk;. mt;thW ,y;iynadpy;>
mJ khw;W Kidthf fUjg;gLk;. Vw;ghf fUjg;gl khl;lhJ.
cjhuzk; gpuG jd;Dila fhiu &.12>000 tpw;gjhf KidT jUfpwhh;. Mdhy;

tpNdhj; mij &.10>000 j;jpw;F thq;f rk;kjpf;fpwhh;. ,J khw;W KidT jtpu Vw;G
my;y. ,J Vw;G Mf Ntz;Lnkdpy; tpNdhj; me;jf; fhiu &.12>000 j;jpw;Nf thq;f
rk;kjpj;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
2. rl;lG+h;tkhd njhlh;G (Legal Relationship)
rl;lG+h;tkhd njhlh;ia Vw;gLj;Jtjw;F cld;ghl;L egh;fspilNa Nehf;fk; ,Uf;f

Ntz;Lk;. mt;thW ,y;iynadpy;> mth;fSila cld;ghL rl;lj;jpw;F fl;Lg;gl;lJ
my;y> rKjha kw;Wk; tho;f;if flikfSf;fhd cld;ghLfs; rl;lG+h;tkhd njhlh;ig
Vw;gLj;jhJ.
3. rl;lr; rlq;Fs; (Legal Formalities)
xg;ge;jk; Ngr;R %ykhfTk; Vw;gLj;jg;glyhk; vd;W rl;lk; mDkjpj;jhYk;> xg;ge;j

egh;fspd; ed;ikia fUj;jpy; nfhz;L xt;nthU xg;ge;jKk; vOj;J %ykhfj;jhd;
Vw;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;Lk;. rl;lg;gb Ntz;Lkhdhy; gj;jpuq;fs; gjpT nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk;
my;yJ Kj;jpiuaplg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
5
4. rl;lG+h;tkhd Nehf;fk; (Lawful Object)
cld;gbf;ifapd; Nehf;fk; rl;lG+h;tkhdjhf ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. ,jd; Nehf;fk;

rl; lj;J f;Fg; Gwg;ghdjhfNth my;y J xOf;ff; NflhdjhfNth my;yJ nghJf;
nfhs;iff;F vjpuhdjhfNth ,Uj;jy; $lhJ. xg;ge;jj;jpd; Nehf;fk; rl;l G+h;tkhdjhf
,y;iynadpy;> mt;nthg;ge;jk; nry;yhj xg;ge;jk; vdg;gLk;.
cjhuzk; C vd;gtiu flj;jp tu> A vd;gth; B vd;gtUf;F &.1>80>000 jUtjhf

cWjpaspf;fpwhh;. ,q;F xg;ge;jj;jpd; Nehf;fk; flj;Jjy; MFk;. ,J rl;lG+h;tkhd jy;y
vdNt ,t;nthg;ge;jk; nry;yhJ.
5. rl;l G+h;t khdkWgad; (Lawful Consideration)
kWgad; vd;gJ vijNaDk; jpUg;gg; ngWjyhFk; xt;nthU xg;ge;jj;jpYk;>

cld;gbf;if kWgaid Mjuthff; nfhz;bUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. Xh; xg;ge;jj;jpy; xU egh;
kw;w tUf;F VNjDk; jUtjhf xj;Jf; nfhz;lhh; vdpy;> mthplkpUe;J ,tUk; VNjDk;
gadila Ntz;Lk;. ,t;tpjg; gaNd kWgad; vdg;gLfpwJ. kWgad; nuhf;fk; my;yJ
NtW VNjh xU tifapdjhf kl;LNk ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gjpy;iy. ,J xU nrayhfNth
my;yJ rpy tp\;aq;fisr; nra;tjhfNth my;yJ mit nra;ag;glkhl;lhJ vd;gJ
njhlh; g hd Xh; cWjp nkhopahfNth ,Uf; f yhk; . ,J rl; l G+h; t khdjhfTk; >
cz;ikahdjhfTk; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
6. RNal;irtpUg;gk; (Free Consent)
gphpT 13-d; gb ,uz;L my;yJ mjw;FNkw;gl;l egh;fs; xNu nghUis xUkpj;jfUj;jpy;

cld;gLthh;fNsahdhy; mth;fs; tpUg;gk; mspj;jjhff; fUjg;gLk;. ,irtpy;yhj xg;ge;jk;
nry;yj;jf;fjy;y. tpUg;gk; ,Ue;jhYk; mJRNal;irahdjhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. mg;gb
,y;iy nadpy;> ahUila tpUg;gk; RNal;irahdJ ,y;iyNah mtUila tpUg;gj;jpw;Nfw;g
xg;ge;jk; jtph;f;ff; $ba (Voidable) xg;ge;jkhff; fUjg;gLk;.
fl;lhag;gLj;Jjy;> jtwhd topapy; nry;thf;F nrYj;Jjy;> Nkhrk; nra;jy; jtwhf

jphpj;Jf; $Wjy; my;yJ jtW %ykhf tpUg;gk; ngwg;gl;bw;f;Fkhdhy; mij RNal;irahd
tpUg;gk; vd;W $w KbaJ.
6
7. xg;ge;jj; jFjp (Capacity to Contract)
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jpd; gphpT 10 ,d;gb> xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lglj; Njitahd

jFjpia cila egh;fshy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;l cld;gbf;iffs; kl;LNk> xg;ge;jkhfpd;wd.
gpd;tUk; egh;fs; xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lglj; jFjpaw;wth;fs; vdr; rl;lk; $WfpwJ:
i) ikdh;fs;>
ii) gpj;Jg; gpbj;jth;fs;>
iii) rk;ge;jg;gl;l rl;lj;jpdhy; jFjpaw;wth; vdmwptpf;ffg;gl;l egh;fs;.
8. eilKiwg;gLj;Jk; rhj;jpaf; $Wfs; (Possibility of Performance)
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jpd; gphpT 29> cWjpahd nghUisjuj; jFjpaw;w my;yJ

cWjpahd nghUspy;yhj cld;gbf;iffs; nry;yhjit vdf; $WfpwJ. ,t;tpjkhd
cWjpaw;w jd;id juk;> msT> tpiy my;yJ cl;nghUspy; cilik vd vjpy;
Ntz;LkhdhYk; ,Uf;fyhk; xg;ge;jj;jpd; nrhw; $Wfs; cWjpahditfshf ,Uj;jy;
Ntz;Lk;.
1.5. xg;ge;jj;jpd; $Wfs; (Elements of Contract)
Xh; xg;ge;jj;jpy; ,uz;L Kf;fpakhd $Wfs; cs;sd. mit(i) cld;gbf;if

kw;Wk; (ii) rl;lj;jhy; eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gLk; jd;ik ,t;tpuz;L $WfisAk; tphpthff;
fhzyhk;.
(i). cld;gbf;if (Agreement)
,e;jpa xg;ge;jj; rl;lj;jpd; gphpT 2(a) “xUegh; kw;nwhU egUf;F nra;a Ntz;ba
kWgad; my;yJ ifk;khiw (Consideration) cUthf;Fk; xt;nthU cWjp nkhopAk;>
cWjp nkhopfspd; xt;nthU njhFjpAk;” cld;gbf;ifahFk;.
,e;jpa xg;ge;jj; rl;lj;jpd; gphpT 2(b) cWjp nkhopia gpd; tUkhW tiuaWf;fpwJ.
“Kd;nkhopjy; ahUf;F nra;ag;gl;lNjh mtNu mij Vw;Wf; nfhs;tjhff; $wpaTld;>
mt;thW nra;ag;gl;l Kd;nkhopjy; Vw;Wf; nfhs;sg;gl;ljhff; $wg;gLfpwJ. Vw;Wf;
nfhs;sg;gl;lTld; Mj cWjp nkhopahfpwJ”.
7
cld;gbf;if xd;iw Vw;gLj;j> KidTk; Vw;Gk; ,d;wpaikahjd vd;gij ,J

czh;j;JfpwJ. mjhtJ (KidT+Vw;G +cld;gbf;if).
cld;gbf;ifahdJ fUj;njhUkpj;j (Consensus ad idem) kdq;fspd; tpisthy;

cUthdjhf ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. mjhtJ> ,jw;F xg;ge;jj;jpy; <LgLk; ,U egh;fSk;>
xg;ge;jj;jpd; cl;nghUis xNu Neuj;jpy; xNu kdg; Nghf;fpy; Vw;Wf; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;
vd;gJ nghUshFk;.
cjhuzk; m vd;th; M vd;gthplk; &.1>00>000-f;F vd;Dila khUjp Nkhl;lhh;

thfdk; thq;fpf; nfhs;thah? vdf; Nfl;fpwhh; vd;W itj;Jf; nfhs;Nthk;. mjw;F ‘M’
vd;gth; rhp ehd; thq;fpf; nfhs;fpNwd; vd;W kWnkhop je;jhh; vdpy;> mth;fSf;fpilNa
fUj;njhUik cs;sJ vd;W nghUs; mjd; tpidthy; mt;tpU egh;fSf;F kpilNa
cld;gbf;if Vw;gLk;. fUj;njhUik ,y;iynadpy;> xg;ge;jKk; Vw;glhJ.
(ii). rl;lj;jhy; eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gLk; jd;ik (Enforceability By The Law)
xg;ge;jj;jpd; kw;nwhU $W rl;lj;jhy; eilKiwg; gLj;jg;gLk; jd;ikahFk;. ,f;$W

Fwpg;gpl;l rpy nray;fisr; nra;tjpypUe;J jtph;j;jy; my;yJ mtw;iwr; nra;Ak;
flik my;yJ Xh; rl;lf; flikia cUthf;Fk; Nehf;fpw;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; mspf;fg;gl
Ntz;Lk; vd;W fUJfpwJ. ,J r%f ,y;yJ rl;l tp\aq;fs; njhlh;ghdjhf ,Uf;fyhk;.
Mdhy; Xh; cld;gbf;if> xg;ge;jkhf Ntz;Lnkdpy;> mJ rl;lf; flik xw;iw Vw;gLj;j
Ntz;Lk;. mjhtJ> r%ff; flikia Vw;gLj;Jk; Xh; cld;gbf;if> xg;ge;jk; MfhJ.
cjhuzk; A vd;gth; jdJ filia &.1>00>000-f;F B vd;gtUf;F tpw;f cld;gLfpwhh;.

B-Ak; mij Vw;fpwhh;. ,J A f;F mthpd; filia B tplk; xg;gilf;Fk; rl;lf;
flikiaAk;>Bf;F &.1>00>000 j;ij A aplk; mspf;f Ntz;ba rl;lf; flikiaAk;
Vw;gLj;JfpwJ. ,t;tpj cld;gbf;iif Xh; xg;ge;jkhFk;.
RUq;ff; $wpd;> xg;ge;jk; = cld;gbf;if + rl;lj;jhy; eilKiwg; gLj;jg;gLk;

jd;ik> mjhtJ “vy;yh xg;ge;jq;fSk; cld;ghLfNs. Mdhy;> vy;yh cld;ghLfSk;
xg;ge;jq;fs; ,y;iy” (All Contracts are agreements but all agreements are not contract).
8
jd; kjpg;gPl;L tpdhf;fs;-1
1. xg;ge;jj;jpd; tiutpyf;fzk; jUf.
2. kWgad; vd;why; vd;d?
3. xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lgl KbahJ vd;gJ ahJ?
1.6 njhFg; G iu
xg;ge;jk; vd;gJ xU cld;ghL ePjp Jiwahy; nrayhw;W tpf;f KbAk;. nry;yj;jf;f

xg;ge;jq;fs; gy epge;jidfs; cs;slf;fpajhFk;> rl;lKiwahdJ> chpa jFjp
gilj;jth;fs; rl;l G+h;tkhd gzpfSf;fhf> rl;lKuzhdJ nry;yh epiy Mfpait
tpthpf;fg;gl;bUf;fpwJ. nry;yj;jF xg;ge;jj;jpw;F Njitahd ,d;wpaikahj $Wfs;
gw;wp KidTk; Vw;Gk;> rl;lg;G+h;tkhd njhlh;G> rl;lr;rlq;Ffs;> rl;lg;G+h;tkhd Nehf;fk;>
rl;lg;G+h;tkhd kWgad; kw;Wk; xg;ge;jff; $Wfs; gw;wp cld;gbf;if rl;lj;jhy;
eilKiwgLj;jg;gLk; jd;ik tpthpf;fg;gl;bUf;fpwJ.
1.7 Kf;f par; nrhw;fs;
 cld;gbf;if = KidT + Vw;G.

9
 xg;ge;jk; = cld;gbf;if + rl;lj;jhy; eilKiwg; gLj;jg;gLk; jd;ik
 KidT = KidT vd;gJ kw;nwhUtUld; cld;ghL nra;J nfhs;tjw;fhf

xUtuhy; njhptpf;fg;gLk; gphpTiu MFk;.
1.8 gapw;rp tpdhf;f s;
1. xg;ge;jk; vd;gJ ahJ ? mjd; ,yf;fzk; tiuf.
2. xg;ge;jj;jpd; $Wfs; ahit ?
3. rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$ba Xh; xg;ge;jj;jpd; gy;NtW $WfisAk; gl;baypLf.
4. xg;ge;jk; vd;gjd; nghUs; je;J> rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$ba Xh; xg;ge;jj;jpd; ,d;wpaikahj

$WfisAk; thpirg;gLj;Jf.
5. “rl;lj;jhy; eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gLk; Xh; cld;gbf;ifNa xg;ge;jkhFk;” ,f;$w;iw

Muha;f.
6. “vy;yh cld;gbf;iffSk; xg;ge;jq;fs; my;y Mdhy; vy;yh xg;ge;jq;fSk;

cld;gbf;iffNs”. ,f;$w;iw Muha;f.
10
ghlk; - 2
xg;ge;jj;jpd; gphpTfs;
(Classification of Contract)
,e;jg; ghlj;ij gbj;j gpwF> cq;fshy; fPo;tUtdtw;iwr; nra;a ,aYk;>
 xg;ge;jr; rl;lk;
 xg;ge;jq;fspd; tiffis tpsf;f KbAk;
 xg;ge;jj;jpd; rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$ba jd;ik
 xg;ge;jj;jpd; epiwNtw;w mbg;gil tptuk;
 xg;ge;jj;jpd; nray;Kiw jd;ik
ghl mikg;G
2.1. xg;ge;j r; rl;lk;
2.2. xg;g e;j j;j pd; tiffs;
2.3. jtph;f ;f f;$ ba xg;g e;j j;j pw;F k; nry;y hj cld;g bf;i ff;F k;
,ilNaAs;s NtWghLfs;
2.4. rl;lj;Jf;F khwhd xg;ge;jj;jpw;Fk; nry;yhj xg;ge;jj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s

NtWghLfs;
2.5. gizak; itf;F k; cld;g bf;i ff;F k; Iag;g hLila xg;g e;j j;jpw;Fk;
,ilNaAs;s NtWghLfs;
2.6. njhFg; G iu

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2.1 xg;ge;jr; rl;lk;
,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l egh;fSf;fpilNa vOk; cld;ghNl xg;ge;jkhFk;.

,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jpd; gphpT ‘2’ d; gb ve;j xU cld;ghL rl;lg;gb nray;gLj;j
KbANkh mJNt xg;ge;jkhFk;.
Nghyf;fpd; ,yf;fzk; (Dark) “rl;lg;gb nray;gLj;jj; jf;f xt;nthU cWjp

nkhopAk; cld;gbf;ifAk; Xh; xg;ge;jkhFk;”.
KidT kw;Wk; GhpTiu + Vw;G = cWjpAiu - gphpT 2 (b)
cWjpAiu + kWgad; = cld;ghL - gphpT 2 (e)
cld;ghL + rl;lhPjpahd nraYWj;jy; = xg;ge;jk; - gphpT 2 (h)
2.2. xg;ge;jj;jpd; tiffs; (Kinds of Contract)
I. rl;lg;gb nry;yj;jf;f jd;ikapd; mbg;gil (According to Validity)
a) rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$ba xg;ge;jk; (Valid Contract)
b) nry;yhj xg;ge;jk; (Void Contract )
c) jtph;f;ff;$ba xg;ge;jk; (Voidable Contract)
d) rl;lj;Jf;F khwhd xg;ge;jk; (Illegal Contract)
e) eilKiwg;gLj;j Kbahj xg;ge;jk; (Unenforceable Contract)
II. mikg;G Kiw mbg;gil (Accounting to Formation)
a) Neub xg;ge;jk; (Express Contract)

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b) kiwKf xg;ge;jk; (Implied Contract)
c) miu xg;ge;jq;fs; my;yJ xg;ge;jg; Nghy;Tfs; (Quasi Contract)
III. epiwNtw;w mbg;gil (According To Performance)
a) xU gf;fkhd xg;ge;jk; (Unilateral Contract)
b) ,U gf;fkhd xg;ge;jk; (Bilateral Contract)
IV. nray;Kiw mbg;gil (According To Execution)
a) nray;gLj;jg;gl;l xg;ge;jk; (Executed Contract)
b) nray;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;ba xg;ge;jk; (Executor Contract)
(i) rl;l g;g b nry;yj;jf;f jd;i kapd; mbg;gil
(m) rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$ba xg;ge;jk; (Valid Contract)
xU cld;ghL xg;ge;jk; rl;lk; gphpT 10-,y; Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;s midj;J ,d;wpaikahj

$WfSk; epiwNtw;wg;gLk; nghOJ> cld;gbf;if xg;ge;jkhfpwJ. rl;lj;jhy; eilKiwg;
gLj;jg;glf; $ba Xh; cld;gbf;ifNa> rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$ba xg;ge;jk; vdg;gLk;.
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk; 1872> gphpT 2(h)d; gb rl;lhPjpahf nry;yf; $ba cld;gbf;ifNa
xg;ge;jk; vdg;gLk;.
cjhuzk; uNk\; vd;gth; jd;Dila ];$l;liu Nkhfd; vd;gtUf;F &.10>000/-f;F

tpw;f Kd;tUfpwhh;. NkhfidAk; me;j tpiyf;Nf mf; ];$l;liu thq;fpf; nfhs;s
cld;gLfpwhh;. ,J rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$ba xg;ge;jkhFk;.
(M) nry;yhj xg;ge;jk; (Void Contract)
rl;lj;jhy; eilKiwgLj;jg;glhj cld;gbf;if nry;yhj cld;gbf;ifahFk;.

nry;yhj cld;gbf;if njhlf;fj;jpypUe;Nj nry;yhjjhf ,Uf;fpd;wJ. Mdhy; nry;yhj
xg;ge;jk;> mjid Vw;gj;Jk; nghOJ rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$bajhfNt ,Uf;fpd;wJ. Mdhy;
gpd;dh; nry;yhjjhfp tpLfpd;wJ.
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(,) jtph;f;ff;$ba xg;ge;jk; (Voidable Contract)
“cld;gbf;ifNahL rk;ge;jg;gl;l xd;W my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l egh;fspd; tpUg;gg;gb>

Mdhy; kW jug;gpdhpd; tpUg;gkpd;wp eilKiwg; gLj;jg;gLk; Xh; cld;gbf;ifNa”
jtph;f;ff;$ba xg;ge;jkhFk;. mjhtJ> xg;ge;jj;jpd; VNjDk; Xh; eghpd; tpUg;gj;jpw;Nfw;g
eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gLk; Xh; xg;ge;jNk jtph;f;ff;$ba xg;ge;jkhFk;. vdNt kWjug;gpdh;
tpUk;gpdhy;>me;j xg;ge;jj;ijj; jtph;f;fyhk;> my;yJ jtW ,Ue;Jk; mjid Vw;fyhk;.
,t;tpj xg;ge;jk; mjidj; jtph;f;Fk; chpik nfhz;lth; jtph;f;Fk; tiuapy; ey;y
xg;ge;jkhfNt ,Uf;Fk;. fl;lhaj;jhNyh> NkhrbapdhNyh> tw;GWj;jyhNyh> cz;ikiaj;
jphpj;Jf; $wpajhNyh vw;gLj;jg;gl;l cld;gbf;iffs; jtph;f;ff; $ba xg;ge;jq;fshfpd;wd.
cjhuzk; A vd;gth; jkJ tPl;il B vd;gtUf;F &.2>00>000/-f;F tpw;gjhf Bapd;

tw;GWj;jypd; Nghpy; cWjp $Wfpwhh;. ,t;nthg;ge;jk; A,d; tpUg;gj;jpw;Nfw;g jtph;f;fg;
glyhk;.
(<) rl;lj;Jf;F khwhd xg;ge;jk; (Illegal Contract)
rl;lj;ij kPWfpw jd;ikAila my;yJ xOf;ff; Nflhd> my;yJ mbg;gilg;

nghJf; nfhs;if tpjpia jfh;e;njhpfpw xg;ge;jk;> rl;lj;Jf;F khwhd xg;ge;jkhFk;. ,J
njhlf;fj;jpypUe;J nry;yhj xg;ge;jkhFk;.
cjhuzk; A vd;gth; &.10>000/-j;ij B vd;gthplk; ,Ue;J fldhfg; ngw;W may;

ehl;lth; xUtUld;> flj;jy; nghUl;fis ,wf;Fkjp nra;Ak; nghUl;L xU xg;ge;jj;jpy;
<Lgl;lhh;. B-f;Fk; fldpd; Nehf;fk; njhpAk;. A-f;Fk; B-f;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s eltbf;if
xg;ge;jj;jpw;F Mjuthf ,Uf;fpwJ. xg;ge;jk; rl;lj;Jf;F khwhdjhf ,Ug;gjhy;> fld;
eltbf;ifAk; rl;lj;Jf;F khwhdNjahFk;.
(c) eilKiwg;gLj;j Kbahj xg;ge;jk; (Unenforceable Contract)
rl; l j; j hy; nray; g Lj; j g; g l Kbahj rl; l f; FiwghLila xg; g e; j q; f s;

eilKiwg;gLj;j Kbahj xg;ge;jq;fs; MFk;. ,t;tpjr; rl;lf; FiwghLfshtd Kiwahd
Kj;jpiufs; ,d;ik> vOj;J tbtkpd;ik> fhyk; fle;j xg;ge;jq;fs;> Nghd;wdthFk;.
,j;jifa xg;ge;jq;fs; mjpy; <Lgl;lth;fshy; nray;gLj;jg;gl KbAk; Mdhy; mth;fs;
,tw;iw nray;gLj;jj; jtWk; gl;rj;jpy;> ghjpf;fg;gl;lth; ,jw;F rl;lj; jPh;T fhz
KbahJ.
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( ii) mikg;G Kiw mbg;gil (According of Formation)
(m) Neub xg;ge;jk; (Express Contract)
Xh; xg;ge;jk; mjd; ruj;Jf;fs; vOj;J %ykhfNth my;yJ tha;nkhop %ykhfNth

ntspg;gilahf nrhy;yg;gl;bUg;gpd; me;j xg;ge;jj;ij Neub xg;ge;jk; vd;gth;. me;j
xg;ge;jj;jpy; KidTk;> Vw;Gk; cWjpahfTk; njspthfTk; nrhy;yg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
cjhuzk; A vd;gth; “khUjpNtd; &.50>000/-f;F tpw;fj; jahuhf cs;Nsd; vd;W B

vd;gtUf;F vOJfpwhh;. ,t;nthg;ge;jk; Neub xg;ge;jk; vdg;gLfpwJ.
( M ) KiwKf xg;ge;jk; (Implied Contract)
Ngr;R %ykhf my;yJ vOj;J %ykhfNth ,y;yhky; Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gLk; xg;ge;jq;fs;

kiwKf xg;ge;jq;fs; vdg;gLk;. ,tw;iw rl;lj;jpd; %yk; njhpe;J nfhs;s KbAk;
my;yJ ,U NtWgl;l egh;fSila eltbf;if my;yJ nray;ghl;bypUe;J njhpe;J
nfhs;s KbAk;.
(,) miu xg;ge;jq;fs; my;yJ xg;ge;jg; Nghy;Tfs; (Quasi Contract)
miu xg;ge;jk; rl;lj;jhy; cUthf;fg;gLk; xg;ge;jkhFk;. ,t;tpj xg;ge;jj;jpy;

rk;ge;jg;gl;l egh; vtUf;Fk; xg;ge;jk; xd;iw Nkw;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk; vd;w Nehf;fNk
,Uf;fhJ. nghJthf> xg;ge;jq;fspd; chpikfSk; flikfSk; <LgLk; egh;fSf;fpilNa
Vw;gLk; cld;gbf;ifapdhy; Vw;gLfpd;wd. Mdhy; gFjpasthd xg;ge;jj;jpy;> chpikfSk;
flikfSk; rl;l ,af;fq;fspdhy; vOJfpd;wd.
cjhuzk; x vd;gth; y vd;gtUf;F jtWjyhf gzk; nfhLj;jpue;jhy;> y vd;gth; x

aplk; jpUk;gTk; me;jg;gzj;ijf; nfhLj;J tpl Ntz;Lk;. ,J miu xg;ge;jq;fs;
vdg;gLfpwJ.
(iii) epiwNtw;w mbg;gil (According to Performance)
(m) xU gf;fkhd xg;ge;jk; (Unilateral Contract)
xU gf;fkhd xg;ge;jq;fspd; cUthf;f epiyapy;> xg;ge;jj;jpd; <LgLk; egh;fspy;

xUth; kl;LNk mthpd; flikia epiwNtw;w Ntz;Lk;. ,th; jdJ flikia epiwNtw;wpa
gpwNfh my;yJ xg;ge;jj;jpd; ,WjpapNyh jhd; kw; nwhU egh; jkJ flikia epiwNtw;Wthh;.
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cjhuzk; A vd;gth; fhy; nlf;rp xd;iw Nfhak;NgLf;F nry;y thliff;F

mkh;j;Jfpwhh;. A ia fhy; nlf;rp Nfhak;NgL-y; nfhz;L tpl;lTld; mt;nthg;ge;jk;
KbTf;F tUfpwJ. mg;nghOJ> fhh; nlf;fp Xl;Ldh; jkJ flikia epiwNtw;wpa
epiyapYk;>A jkJ flikia epiwNtw;w Ntz;ba epiyapYk; ,Uf;fpd;wdh;. mjhtJ
A mjw;Fhpa fhy; Nlf;rp fl;lzj;ij Xl;Ldhplk; juNtz;ba flik kl;Lk; ghf;fpAs;sJ.
( M ) ,Ugf;fkhd xg;ge;jk; (Bilateral Contract)
xg;ge;jj;jpy; <LgLk; ,U egh;fspd; flikfSk;> xg;ge;jj;jpd; cUthf;f epiyapy;

epiwNtw;wg; glhky; ,Ue;jhy;> mt;tpj xg;ge;jq;fs; ,Ugf;fkhd xg;ge;jq;fs; vd
miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. ,t;tpj xg;ge;jj;jpy;> xU gf;fj;jpd; thf;FWjp> kw;nwhU gf;fj;jpd;
thf;FWjp> kw;nwhU gf;fj;jpd; thf;FWjpf;F gjpyhf mspf;fg;gLfpwJ.
cjhuzk; A vd;gth; jd;Dila thfdj;ij B vd;gtUf;F 10 ehl;fspy; tpw;gjw;f;F

xg;Gf; nfhs;fpwhh;. B vd;gth; thfdk; ngw;Wf; nfhz;L gzj;ij nfhLg;gjhf xg; Gf; nfhs;fpwhh;.
,JNt ,U jug;gpdh;fshy; nra;af;$ba xU jiy xg;ge;jk;.
( iv) nray;Kiw mbg;gil (According to Execution)
(m) nray;gLj;jg;gl;l xg;ge;j k; (Executed Contract)
xg;ge;jj;jpy; <LgLk; ,U egh;fSk; xg;ge;jg;gb mtuth;fspd; flikfis Kbf;Fk;

nghOJ mt;nthg;ge;jk; nray;Kiw xg;ge;jk; vdg;gLfpwJ.
cjhuzk; x jdJ njhiyf;fhl;rp ngl;bia &.2>000/-f;F y-f;F tpw;gjhf xg;ge;jk;

nra;J nfhs;fpwhh;. y-Ak; me;j tpiyf;F thq;Ftjhf xg;Gf; nfhs;fpwhh;. mjd;gb
x&.2>000/-I thq;fpf; nfhz;L y-f;F njhiyf;fhl;rp ngl;bia tpw;W tUfpwhh;. ,jpy;
,tUila cWjpTiufisAk; epiwNtw;wg;gLfpd;wd. vdNt ,J xU nray; gLj;jg;gl;l
xg;ge;jk; MfpwJ.
( M ) nray;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;ba xg;ge;jk; (Executors Contract)
,t;tif xg;ge;jj;jpy; ,U egh;fSila flikfSk; epiwNtw;wg;glhky; ,Ue;jhy;>

mt;nthg;ge;;jk; nray;gLj;jg; gl Ntz;ba xg;ge;jk; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
16
cjhuzk; A Ml;Nlhit gOJ ghh;j;J tpl;lhh;. Mdhy; B mjw;Fhpa fl;lzj;ijr;

nrYj;jtpy;iy. mt;nthg;ge;jk; A iag; nghWj;jkl;by; nray;gLj;jg; gl;ljhfTk;>B
iag; nghWj;jkl;by; nray;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;bajhfTk; ,Uf;Fk;.
2.3. jtph;f ;f f;$ba xg;g e;jj;jpw;F nry;yhj cld;gbf;iff;Fk;

,ilNaAs;s NtWghLfs;
(Distinction Between Voidable Contract and Void Agreement)
jtph;f;ff;$ba xg;ge;jk; nry;yhj cld;gbf;if
1. me;j egh;fspd; vtNuDk; xUthpd; xU eguhy; eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gl

tpUg;gg;gb jtph;f;fg; glf; $baJ. KbahJ.
2. ,e;j FiwahL rhp nra;af;$baJk; njhlf;fj;jpypUe;Nj nry;yhjjhf

kd;dpf;fg;glf; $baJkhFk;. ,Ug;gjhy;> mjd; FiwahLfs; rhp
nra;ag;gl KbahJ.
3. xU eghpd; ,irT jd;dpr;irahdjhf rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$ba Xh; xg;ge;jj;jpw;Fj;

,y;iy. Njitahd $Wfs; epiwNtw;wg;
gLtjpy;iy.
4. xg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;wg;glh tpl;lhy; e\;l <L Nfhu KbahJ.

mjdhy; ghjpf;fg;gl;lth e\;l <L
NfhuKbahJ.
2.4.rl;l j;J f;F khwhd xg;ge;jj;jpw;Fk; nry;yhj

xg;ge;jj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s NtWghLfs;
( Distinction Between Illegal Contract And Void Contract)
rl;lj;Jf;F khwhd xg;g e;jk; nry;y hj xg;ge;j k;
1. rl;lj;Jf;F khwhd xt;nthU nry;yhj xt;nthU xg;ge;jKk; rl;lj;Jf;F

xg;ge;jKk; nry;yhjNj. khwhdjhfhJ.
2. mjw;F Mjuthd cld;gbf;ifAk; xg;ge;jj;ij ghjpf;fhJ.

rl;lj;Jf;F khwhdNjahFk;.
17
2.5. gizak; itf;Fk; cld;gbf;iff;Fk; Iag;ghLila

xg;g e;jj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNaAs;s NtWghLfs;
(Difference between a wagering Agreement and a Contingent Contract)
gizak; itf;Fk; cld;gbf;i f Iag;g hL xg;g e;j k;
1. vjph;fhy epfo;Nt kpf Kf;fpakhd vjph;fhy epfo;T Jizahjhukhd Xh;

fhuzpahFk;. fhuzp kl;LnkahFk;.
2. ghpkhw;w thf;FWjpfs; cs;sd. ghpkhw;w thf;FWjpfs; ,y;iy.
3. cld;gbf;if nry;yhjjhFk;. xg;ge;jk; rl;lg;gb nry;yf;

$bajhFk;.
4. ,e;j xg;ge;jj;jpy; #jhl;lj; ,e;j xg;ge;jk; #jhl;lj;jpd;

jd;ik ,y;iy. KOikj;jd;ikia cilaJ.
jd; kjpg;gPl ;L tpdhf;fs;
1. xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jpd; ,yf;fzk; jUf.
2. nry;yhj xg;ge;jk; vd;why; vd;d?
3. rl;lj;Jf;F khwhd xg;ge;jk; gw;wp tpsf;fk; jUf.

18
2.6. njhFg; G iu
,g;ghlj;jpy; fPo;fz;litfis gbj;j njhpe;J nfhz;L ,Ug;gPh;fs; xg;ge;jjpd;

tiffs; (1)rl;lg;gb nry;yj;jf;f jd;ik (2)mikg;G Kiw (3) epiwNtw;w (4)nray;Kiw
mbg;gil ,it midj;Jk; tphpthf cjhuzq;fSld; tpsf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. gizak;
itf;Fk; cld;gbf;iff;Fk; Iag;ghLila xg;ge;jj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNaAs;s NtWghLfs;
kw;Wk; rl;lj;Jf;F khwhd xg;ge;jj;jpw;Fk; nry;yhj xg;ge;jj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s
NtWghLfs; tpthpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
2.7. Kf;f par; nrhw;fs;
 xg;ge;jr; rl;lk; : rl;lg;gb nray;gLj;jj; jf;f xt;nthU cWjp nkhopAk;

cld;gbf;ifAk; Xh; xg;ge;jkkhFk;.
 nry;yhj xg;ge;jk; : nry;yhj xt;nthU xg;ge;jKk; rl;lj;Jf;F khwhdjhfhJ.
 rl;lj;Jf;F khwhd xg;ge;jk; : rl;lj;Jf;F khwhd xt;nthU xg;ge;jKk;

nry;yhjNj.
1. xg;ge;jj;jpd; $Wfs; ahit ?
2. xg;ge;jj;jpd; tiffisf; Fwpg;gpLf.
3. gizak; itf;Fk; cld;gbf;iff;Fk; Iag;ghLila xg;ge;jj;jpw;Fk;

,ilNaAs;s NtWghLfisj; jUf.
4. “rl;lj;jhy; eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gLk; Xh; cld;gbf;ifNa xg;ge;jkhFk;” ,f;$w;iw

Muha;f.
5. xg;ge;jk; vd;gjd; nghUs; je;J> rl;lg;gb Xh; xg;ge;jj;jpd; ,d;wpaikahj

$WfisAk; thpirg;gLj;Jf.
19
ghlk; -3
KidT kw;Wk; Vw;G

(Offer and Acceptance)
,g;ghlj;ij fw;wg;gpd;> cq;fshy; fPo;f; fz;ltw;Wf;Fgjpy; nfhLf;f KbAk;.
 KidT - ,yf;fzk; ju ,aYk;.
 KidT tiffs; tpsf;fKbAk;.
 Kidtpw;fhdrl;lhPjpahdNfhl;ghLfs;.
 Kiditj; jpUk;gg; ngwtjw;fhdtopKiwfisgl;bayplKbAk;.
 Vw;G - ,yf;fzk;.
 Vw;gpd; tiffs;.
 jghy; top xg;ge;jk; vg;gbg;gl;lJ.
 xg;ge;jk; ey;y Vw;gpy; KbtilfpwJ.
ghl mikg;G
3.1. Kd; D iu.
3.2. KidT - ,yf;fzk;.
3.3. KidTcUthFk; Kiwfs;.
3.4. Kidtpw; f hdNfhl; g hLfs; .
3.5. Kidtpd; tiffs;.
3.6. jpUk;g ngWk; Kiwfs;.
3.7. KidTkw;Wk; Vw;GmQ;ry; topahfelf;Fk;NghJftdpf;f Ntz;barl;ltpjpfs;.
3.8. Vw;G - ,yf;fzk;.

20
3.9. Vw;Gk; mjd; rl;l hPj pahdtpjpKiwfs;.
3.10. mQ;ry; top Vw;G.
3.11. Vw;g pd; tiffs;.
3.12. njhFg; G iu.
3.13. Kf;f par; nra;j pfs;.
3.14. gapw;r p tpdhf;f s;.
3.1. Kd;Diu
xU xg; g e; j k; rl; l g; g b mika Ntz; L khapd; mt; nthg; g e; j j; j pw; F ,Uth;

Njitg;gLfpd;wdh;. xU eguhy; nra;ag;gl;l “Kidit” kw;nwhU egh; Vw;gjpdhNyNa
xg;ge;jk; cUthfpd;wJ. mjdhy; KidTk;> Vw;Gk; xt;nthU xg;ge;jj;jpYk; ,d;wpaikahj
,uz;L $Wfshf cs;sd.
3.2. KidT - ,yf;fzk;
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk; 1872> gphpT 2(a) KidT vd;gJ xU nraiyr; nra;tjhf
my;yJ nra;ahkypUg;gjhfNth xUth; kw;nwhUthplk; mtuJ rk;kjj;ijg; ngWk; nghUl;L
jdJ tpUg;gj;ij njhptpg;gij KidT my;yJ GhpTiu vd;gh;.
gphpT 2(a) = KidT
gphpT 2(b) = KidT + Vw;G = cWjpAiu
gphpT 2(e) = cWjpAiu + kWgad; = cld;ghL
gphpT 2(h) = cld;ghL + rl;lhPjpahdnraYWj;jy; = xg;ge;jk;
xU Kd;n khopT (KidT) Vw;g tuhy; Vw; f g; gl KbAk; vd; why; gpd; mJ
Kd;nkhopgthpd; (Kidgth;) jug;gpy; xU cWjpAiu my;yJ thf;FWjp MfpwJ.
cjhuzhk; x vd;gth; yaplk; jdJfhh; &.1>00>000/-f;F tpiyf;F thq;fpf; nfhs;fpwPh;fsh

vd;W Nfl;fpwhh;. ,jpy; x jdJ fhiu tpiyf;F tpw;f tpUk;Gtjhf Y-aplk; $WtJ
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KidT (m) GhpTiu vdg;gLk;. GhpTiu nra;j x-iaGhpTiuahsh; (Offer or Proposer)

vd;gh;. GhpTiu ahUf;F nra;ag; gLfpwNjh mtiu GhpTiu vd;ghsh; (m) KidNtw;ghsh;
(Offeree) vd;gh;. Kiditg; ngWgth; mk;Kidit Vw;Fk; gl;rj;jpy; Kidit Vw;gth;
(Acceptor) vd; miof;fg;gLfpwhh;.
3.3. KidT cUthFk; Kiwfs;
KidT vd;gJ nghJthf vOj;J tbj;jpNyh my;yJ tha;nkhopahfNth Vw;gLfpwJ.

Mdhy; rpy rkaq;fspy; Kidit xU egh; kw;wthpd; eltbf;if kw;Wk; elj;ijapypUe;J
njhpe;J nfhs;syhk;.
(i) ntspg; g ilahdKidT
xU egh; kw;wtUf;F tha;nkhop kw;Wk; vOj;J %ykhf jd;Dila fUj;jpid

Kd;nkhoptij ntspg;gilahd KidT vdyhk;.
cjhuzk; ; X vd; gth; jdJ tPl;i l B vd; gtUf;F &.5>00>000-f; F tpw;gjhf

Kd;nkhopfpwhh;. ,J Xh; ntspg;gil KidthFk;.
(ii) Fwpg;G top KidT
xU egh; kw;wthpd; eltbf;if kw;Wk; elj;ijapd; %yk; xU nraiy czUk;

NghJ mjid Fwpg;G top KidT vdyhk;.
cjhuzk; xU egh; xU rpw;Wz;br; rhiyf;F nrd;W cztUj;jpa gpwF mjw;Fhpa

gzj;jpidf; nfhLf;F nghOJ Fwpg;G top KidT Vw;gLfpwJ.
3.4. Kidtpw;fhd Nfhl;g hLfs;
(i) xU Kidtpd; epge;jidfs; njspthdjhfTk; cWjpahfTk;

jpl;l tl;l khdjhfTk; ,Ue;j y; Ntz;L k;
xU Kidtpd; epge;jidfs; njspthdjhfTk; jpl;ltl;lkhdjhfTk; xNu fUj;ijj;

njhptpf;ff; $bajhfTk;> ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. Kidtpd; epge;jidfs; njsptpy;yhkYk;>
Fog;gKilajhfTk;> gy nghUs; jUk;gbahfTk; ,Ue;jhy; me;j KidT xg;ge;jj;ij
cUthf;f KbahJ. GhpTiuahsh; mj;jifa thrfq;fis Ntz;LkhdhYk; jd;Dila
22
GhpTiuapy; my;yJ Kidtpy; Nrh;g;gjw;F chpikapUe;j NghjpYk;> mj;jifa thrfq;fs;

Fog;gkpy;yhky;> jpl;ltl;lkhdjhfTk; rl;lg;gbahdjhfTk; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
cjhuzk; ehd; ntw;wp ngw;why; cdf;F xU fhh; jUNtd; vd;gJ Nghy; ,Ue;jhy;
$lhJ.
( ii) xU KidT my;yJ GhpTiu rl;l hPjpahd njhlh;i g my;yJ tpisit

Vw;gLj;jf; $bajhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;
vy;yh cld;ghLfSk; xg;ge;jq;fs; Mtjpy;iy vd;Wk; rl;lg; gpizg;ig Vw;gLj;jf;

$ba cld;ghLfs; kl;LNk xg;ge;jq;fshfpd;wd. r%f rk;ge;jkhd cld;ghLfs; mjhtJ
tpUe;Jf; nfhLf;f xg;Gf; nfhs;Sjy;> ghpR nfhLf;f xg;Gf; nfhs;Sjy; Nghd;wit
rl;lj;jhy; nraYWj;jg;gLk; xg;ge;jq;fs; MfhJ. MfNt> rl;lg;gpizg;gpidNah my;yJ
rl;l tpisitNah Vw;gLj;jhf xU cld;ghL xg;ge;jkhf KbahJ. vdNt> ghpe;Jiuapd;
thrfq;fs; xg;ge;j egh;fspilNa rl;lg; gpizg;ig my;yJ rl;ltpisit Vw;gLj;jf;
$bajhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
(iii) Vw;i gg; ngWk; Nehf;F lNdNa KidT nra;a g;gl Ntz;L k;
xUthpd; KidTnra;Ak; Nehf;fk; kw;nwhUthpd; Vw;igg; ngWtjhfNt ,Ue;jy;

Ntz;Lk;. mjhtJ> jd;Dila KidT nra;Ak; Nehf;if ntspg;gLj;Jtjhf kl;Lk;
mJ mikaf; $lhJ. tprhuiz kl;Lk; KidthfhJ.
(iv) Nehf;f j;ij mwptpg;g J kl;L k; Kidty;y
,ij ehk; /gpfpaha; [(1900)1 mj;J 331] vd;w tof;fpd; cjtpahy; mwpayhk;.
,t;tof;fpy; jfg;gdhh; xUth;> jhd; tpl;Lr; nrd;w nrhj;jpy; xUgq;Fjd; kfYf;Fk;
fpilf;Fk; vd;Wjdf;F kUkfdhf tu ,Uf;fpd;wtUf;F fbjk; vOjpdhh;. Mdhy; ePjpkd;wk;
,t;thW jkJ Nehf;fj;ij gpwUf;F mwptpg;gJ Kidthfp tplhJ vd;W jPh;g;gspj;J
tpl;lJ.
(v) Kidtpw;F rl;lG+h;t cwTfis cUthf;Fk; jFjpapUe;j y; Ntz;L k;
Kidit toq;FgtUf;F rl;lG+h;t cwTfis cUthf;Fk; Nehf;fk; ,Ue;jy;

Ntz;Lk;. r%f miog;G xd;W Vw;Wf; nfhs;sg;gl;lhYk; $l> rl;lG+h;t cwTfis
23
Vw;gLj;j KbahJ.
(vi) xU GhpTiu (m) KidT nghUspd; tpiyg;gl;baypUe;J my;yJ Kidtpw;fhd

miog;g pypUe;J NtWgl;b Ue;j y; Ntz;L k;
tpiy> kjpg;Gf; $wy;> tpiyg;gl;bay;> xg;ge;jg; Gs;spfSf;fhd tpsk;guq;fs;

Nghd;witfs; GhpTiufs; MfhJ.
(vii) KidT Kiditg; ngWgtUf;F njhptpf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;
KidT KOikaila Ntz;Lnkdpy;> mJ Kidit Vw;gtUf;F njhptpf;fg;gl

Ntz;Lk;. cjhuzkhf> x vd;gth; jkJ filia &.1>00>000/-f;F y vd;gtUf;F tpw;f
Kidtjhf fbjk; xd;W vOJfpwhh;. Mdhy;> me;jf; fbjj;ij jghypy; Nrh;f;f mth;
kwe;J tpLfpwhh;. ,J Xh; KidthfhJ y mij Vw;f KbahJ.
(viii) tpiyg; gl;bay; Kidty;y
,ij ehk; `hh;Nt v/Ngrp (1893) vd;w tof;fpd; %yk; tpsf;fyhk;. Kjypy;>
`hh;Nt> jdf;F gk;gh; `hy; Ngdhit tpw;f rk;kjkh vdTk; mjd; Fiwe;jgl;r nuhf;f
tpiy vd;d vd;gijAk; Nfl;L /Ngrpf;F Xh; je;jp nfhLj;jhh;. ,jw;F kWnkhop mspf;Fk;
tifapy; /Ngrp> me;jg; Ngdhtpd; Fiwe;jgl;r tpiy &.900/- vd;W kl;Lk; Fwpg;gpl;L
gjpy; je;jp xd;W nfhLj;jhh;. mjpy; mth; me;jg; Ngdhit `hh;Ntf;F tpw;f tpUk;Gtuhf
ve;j KiditAk; nra;atpy;iy. njhlh;e;J> `hh;Nt gk;gh; `hy; Ngdhit> eP Nfl;l&.900/
-f;F jhk; thq;f tpUk;Gtjhf /Ngrpf;F xU je;jp nfhLj;jhh;.
`hh;Ntf;Fk; /Ngrpf;Fk; ,ilNa ve;jtpjkhd KOikahd xg;ge;jKk; Vw;gltpy;iy

vd jPh;g;gspf;fg;gl;lJ. ,jd; fhuzk; /Ngrp Ngdhtpd; tpiyia kl;Lk; nfhLj;jhNu>
jtpu> Kiditg; gw;wp xd;WNk nrhy;ytpy;iy. Vnddpy;> tpiyg; gl;bay; kl;Lk;
Kidthfp $lhJ.
3.5. Kidtpd; tiffs; (Kinds of Offer)
KidT gy tiffshfg; gphpf;fg;gLfpwJ mitahtd:-
(i) nghJ KidTk;> Fwpg;gpl;l KidTk;

24
(ii) xg;ge;jg; Gs;sp my;yJ epiy KidT
(iii) vjph; KidT
(iv) FWf;F KidT
(i) nghJ KidTk;> Fwpg;gpl;l KidTk; (General and Specific offer)
xU KidT Fwpg;gpl;l xU egh; Vw;Fk; Kidthf ,Ue;jhy; mJ Fwpg;gpl;l

KidT vdg;gLk;. mt;thwpy;yhy;xU KidT nghJthf ahh; Ntz;LkhdYk; Vw;Fk;
Kidthf ,Ue;jhy; mJ nghJ KidT vdg;gLk;.
cjhuzk; A jd;Dila fhiu fz;Lgpbj;Jf; nfhz;L te;jhy; &.5>000/- rd;khdk;

mspg;gjhf Y aplk; kl;Lk; njhptpj;jhy; mJ Fwpg;gpl;l KidthFk;. ,e;j Kidit Y-
d ;kl;LNk Vw;f KbAk;. kw;wth;fs; Vw;f KbahJ. X jd;Dila fhiu fhztpy;iy
fz;Lgpbj;Jf; nfhLg;gth;fSf;F &.5>000/- rd;khdk; mspf;fg;gLk;> vd;W nra;jpj;jhspy;
tpsk;guk; nrhj;jhy; ,e;j Kiditaha; Ntz;LkhdhYk; Vw;fyhk;. vdNt ,J nghJ
KiditahFk;.
(ii) xg;ge;jg;Gs;sp my;yJ epiy KidT (Tender or Standing offer)
xUtUf;F Fwpg;gpl;l fhyj;jpw;F Fwpg;gpl;l msTs;s nghUs;fs; Njitg;gLk;

nghOJ xg;ge;jg;Gs;sp NfhUtJ tof;fk;. me;j xg;ge;jg; Gs;spapid “epiy KidT
vd;Wk; njhlh; KidT” vd;Wk; $Wth;. nghJ KidthdJ xg;ge;jg; Gs;spapypUe;J
khWgl;ljhFk;. nghJ Kidtpid xUth; Vw;Wf; nfhz;lhy; mJ xg;ge;jkhfp tpLfpwJ.
Mdhy; xU xg;ge;jg; Gs;spia xUth; Vw;Wf; nfhs;tjpdhy; kl;LNk mJ xg;ge;jk;
MfptpLtjpy;iy.
(iii) vjph; KidT
xU Kidit Vw; F k; fhyj; j py; me; j Vw; G jd; d pr; i rahfTk; vt; t pj
epge;jidaw;wjhfTk; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. mjhtJ Kidtpy; $wpapUf;Fk; thrfq;fis
my;yJ epge;jidfs; khw;whky; mg;gbNa Vw;Wf; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. me;j Kidtpy;
thrfq;fspy; VjhtJ rpwpJ khw;wk; nra;jhYk; mJ Vw;ghfhJ. mJ vjph; KidT vd;W
miof;fg;gLk;.
25
(iv) FWf;F KidT
,U egh;fs; xU Fwpg;gpl;l nghUs; Fwpj;J jq;fSf;Fs; mDg;gpf; nfhs;Sk; xNu

khjphpahd KidTf;F FWf;F KidT vd;W ngah;.
3.6. jpUk;gg; ngWk; Kiwfs; (Methods of Revocation)
xU KidT jpUk;gg; ngWjy; ,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk; 1872> gphpT 2(a)d; gb

KidT vd;gJ vd;dntdpy; xU egh; kw;wthplk; jdJ tpUk;gj;ijf; $wp> xU nraiy
nra;aNth my;yJ nra;ahkypUf;fNth> kw;wthpd; ,iritg; ngWjNy KidthFk;. xU
GhpTiuia gy topfspy; jpUk;gg; ngwyhk;. xU GhpTiuia jpUk;gg; ngWjy; %ykhfTk;
Vw;f kWg;gJ %ykhfTk;> fhyg; Nghf;fpy; mopjy; %ykhfTk; KbTf;Ff; nfhz;L
tuyhk;. xU Kidia my;yJ GhpTiuia jpUk;gg; ngWtjw;fhd gy topfis Fwpj;J
xg;ge;jr; rl;lk; 6-tj gphpT tpsf;FfpwJ.
(i) mwpf;if %yk; jpUk;gg; ngWjy; (Revocation by Communication of Notice)
Kidthsh; jdJ Kiditj; jpUk;gg; ngw tpUk;gpdhy; Xh; mwpf;if %yk;

KidNtw;ghsUf;F mDg;gp jdJ Kidit KbTf;Ff; nfhz;L tuyhk;. me;j mwpf;if
KidNtw;ghsh; Kidit Vw;gjw;F Kd; Ngha;r;Nru Ntz;Lk;. KidNtw;ghsUf;F
mk;Kidit Vw;w gpwF me;j mwpf;if te;jhy; mJ rl;lg;gb nry;yhJ. jpUk;gg; ngWk;
mwpf;if KidNtw;ghsUf;F mDg;gpdhy;; kl;Lk; NghjhJ. mJ mthpd; ftdj;jpw;F
nfhz;L tug;gl Ntz;Lk;. KidNtw;ghshpd; ftdj;jpw;F te;j gpwF jhd; Kiditj;
jpUk;gg; ngWk; mwpf;if eilKiwf;F tUfpwJ.
(ii) epiwNtw;wg;glhj epge;jidfshy; KidT mopjy; (Revocation due to non –

Fulfilment of Conditions)
Kidthsh; xU epge;jid tpjpj;J me;j epge;jidia KidNtw;ghsh; (Offeree)

epiwNtw;wj; jtwpdhy; me;j KidT kWf;fg;gl;LtpLk;.
(iii) vjph; Kidtpdhy; kWj;njhopy;G (Rejection by a Counter Offer)
Kidthsh; mDg;gpa Kidia> KidNtw;ghsh; Vw;fhky; vjph; KidT xd;iwj;

njhptpj;jhy; KidT kWj;njhopf;fg;gl;ljhf fUjg;gLk;.
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(iv) fhyg; Nghf;fpy; mope;JtpLjy; (By Lapse of Stipulated Time)
Kidthsh; KidNtw;ghsUf;F xU Fwpg;gpl;lf; fhyj;jpw;Fs; KidTfis Vw;f

Ntz;Lnkd epge;jid tpjpf;fyhk;. mt;tpjk; epge;jid tpjpj;jpUe;jhy; KidNtw;ghsh;
me;j Fwpg;gpl;l fhyj;jpw;Fs; Kidit Vw;f Ntz;Lk;. mg;gb Vw;fhtpl;lhy; ,e;j
KidT jhdhfNt fhyg;Nghf;fpy; mope;J tpLk;.
(v) Kidthshpd; gpj;J epiyahy; KidT mopjy; (Revocation by Insanity of

Offeror)
KidTf;F gpd;dh; Kidthsh; gpj;J epiy mile;J tpl;lhy;> mthpd; gpj;J epiy
KidNtw;ghsUf;F njhpate;jhy; mth; me;j Kidit Vw;f KbahJ. Kidthsh;
gpj;J epiy mile;j tptuk; njhpakhy; KidNtw;ghsh; mij Vw;Wf; nfhz;lhy; me;j
Vw;G rl;lg;gb nry;yj;jf;fjhFk;.
(vi) Kidthsh; Fwpg;gpl;l Kiwapy; Vw;g pidr; nra;a hjjhy; KidT mopjy;
(Revocation by Offer not Accepted according to the mode Prescribed)
Kidthsh; Kidit xU Fwpg;gpl;l Kiwapy; jhd; Vw;f Ntz;Lnkd tFj;jpUe;jhy;>

me;j Kiwapy; jhd; KidNtw;ghsh; jdJ Vw;igj; njhptpf;f Ntz;Lk;. KidNtw;ghsh;
Fwpg;gpl;l Kiwg;gb me;j KidT Vw;fg;glhtpl;lhy;mijKidthsh; jtph;j;Jtplyhk;.
3.7. KidT kw;Wk; Vw;G mQ;ry; topahf elf;Fk; NghJ

ftdpf;f Ntz;ba rl;l tpjpfs;
nghJthf Neubahf Vw;gLfpd;w xg;ge;jq;fspy; ve;jtpj jfty; njhlh;G gpur;ridfSk;

Vw;glhJ. Mdhy;> mjw;F khwhf xg;ge;jq;fs; mQ;ry; topahf elf;Fk; NghJ> nghJthf
rpy gpur; r pidfs; vOtJ cz; L . ,jpy; cs; s Nfhl; g hL vd; d ntdpy; > xU
Kidthfg;gl;lJ> rhpahd Neuj;jpy;> njspthd tpyhrk; vOjg;gl;L mDg;gg;gLNkahdhy;>
me;j KidT rl;lg;gb nry;YgbahFk;. mNjNghy; vw;gpid mwptpf;Fk; NghJ rhpahf
tpyhrk; vOjp Kj;jpiu gjpj;J> jghypy; Nrh;f;f Ntz;Lk;.
mt;thW nra;j KidTk;> kw;Wk; Vw;Gk; rl;lg;gb nry;Yk; NkYk; epahakhd

fhyf; nfLtpw;Fs; Kiditj; jghypy; mDg;gp kw;wtUf;F xU epahakhd mtfhrk;
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nfhLj;J gpd;G jhd; Kiditj; jpUk;gg; ngw KbAk;. mNjNghy; Vw;gpidj; jghypy;
mDg;Gk; NghJ epahakhd fhyf;nfLtpw;Fs; mDg;g Ntz;Lk;.
Vw;Gj; nra;jp Kidthsiu miltjw;F Kd;dhy;> jpUk;gg; ngwyhk;. Nkw;fz;lthW

jghypy; KiditAk;> Vw;igAk; mDg;Gk; NghJ tpjpKiwfis ehk; filg;gpbf;f
Ntz;Lk;.
Vw;G (Acceptance)
Kd; D iu
Kd;nkhopjy; xd;W ahUf;F nra;ag;gl;lNjh mtuhy; mJ Vw;fg;gLk; nghOJ

mk; Kd;nkhopjy; Vw;Wf; nfhs; sg;gl;ljhff; $wg;gLfpwJ. Vw;Wf; nfhs;sg;gl; l Kd; nkhopjNy
cld;gbf;if vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. Vw;G ntspg;gilahdNjh my;yJ epiyapyhdjhfNth
,Uf;fyhk;. Vw;G> tha;thh;j;ij my;yJ vOj;J my;yJ VNjDk; gpw nray;fspdhy;
mwptpf;fg;gLk;. nghOJ mJ ntspg;gilahd Vw;G vdg;gLfpwJ.
3.8. Vw;G ,yf;fzk;
xUth; mDg;Gk; Kidit my;yJ GhpTiuia kw;wth; Vw;Wf; nfhz;lhy; mij

‘Vw;G’ vd;gh;. GhpTiu Vw;Wf; nfhs;sg;gl;lTld; mJ ‘cWjpAiu’ MfptpLfpwJ. cWjpAiu
mspg;gth; Mfpwhh;. GhpTiu Vw;ghsh; cWjpAiu Vw;gth; Mfpwhh;.
Kiditg; ngw;whtuhy; tha;r; nrhy; %ykhfNth my;yJ vOj;J %ykhfNth

xg;Gjy; mspf;fg;gl;l Vw;gpyhd ntspg;gil vd;wiof;fpNwhk;. xU KidT Vw;Gf;F gpd;
xg;Gjy; (Promise) MfpwJ. mjhtJ Vw;Gxg;Gjypy; nfhLf;fg;gl;l tuj;Jf;fspd; gb
elf;f xg;Gik jUjy;.
cld;ghL = KidT my;yJ GhpTiu + Vw;G
3.9. Vw;Gk; mjd; rl;lhPjpahd tpjp KiwfSk;
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk; gphpT 2(h) “Vw;G” vd;w nrhy;Yf;F ,yf;fzk; tFf;fpwJ.
GhpTiuiag; ngWk; egh; jdJ rk;kjj;ijj; njhptpf;Fk; nghOJ GhpTiu Vw;Wf;
nfhs;sg;gl;ljhf fUjg;gLfpwJ. Vw;Wf; nfhz;lTld; GhpTiu cWjpAiu MfpwJ.
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xg;ge;jj;jpw;F> KidTk;> Vw;Gk; ,Ufz;fs; Nghy; mike;Js;sJ. xg;gpl;Lg;

ghh;f;Fk;NghJ Kidittpl> Vw;gpwF mjpf Kf;fpaj;Jtk; cs;sJ. Vnddpy; Vw;gpid
Nkw;nfhz;Ltpl;lhy;> gpd;G mjidj; jpUk;gg; ngw KbahJ. xU Kidia Vw;Fk;NghJ
mJ cWjpnkhop MfpwJ. gpd;G mijj; jpUk;gg; ngw ,ayhJ. GhpTiu cWjpAiuahtjw;F
Vw;G vj;jd;ikAilajha; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lnkd xg;ge;jr; rl;lk; 7-tJ gphpTk; 8-tJ
gphpTk; tpjpKiwfistFj;Js;sJ. mitfs; gpd;tUkhW.
(i) Vw;G KidtUf;F j; njhptpf;fg;g l Ntz;Lk;
Kiditf;F njhptpj;jhy; jhd; Vw;G KOikahFk;. ,y;yhtpby; ,J rl;lg;gb

nry;yhJ. Vw;G tpjp 2(b) gb ,J kpf Kf;fpak;.
cjhuzk; x, y apd; tPl;il 5>00>000/- thq;f Kide;jhh;. Y jdJ tf;fPy; z-aplk;

,J gw;wp fye;jhNyhrpj;jhh;. 5>00>000/- rhp vd jPh;khdpj;jhh;. Mdhy; y Vw;ig x aplk;
njhptpf;ftpy;iy. MfNt x f;Fk; y f;Fk; xU nry;YgbahFk; xg;ge;jk; Vw;gltpy;iy.
(ii) Vw;G KOikahdjhfTk;> epge;jidaw;w jhfTk; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;
Vw;G ve;j xU epge;jidAld; $b ,Ug;gpd; mJ Vw;G MfhJ. mJ khw;W KidtUk;

(Counter Offer) mt;thW epge;jid ePf;fg;gl;L KidT KOikahf Vw;fg;gLk; tiu
KidT xg;ge;jkhfhJ.
cjhuzk; x vd;gth; jd; filia 1>00>000/-w;F tpw;gjhf yf;F njhptpf;fpwhh;. y

80>000/-f;F thq;Ftjhf $Wfpwhh;. yvd;gth; nra;if epge;jidAld; $bajhapUf;fpwJ.
,J Vw;G MfhJ x Vw;G> KidT tpjpg;gth; nfhLj;j Kiwg;gb mike;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
(iii) nksdj;ij Vw;ghf vLj;Jf; nfhs;s KbahJ
nksdk; rk;kjj;jpw;F mwpFwp vd;w nghJthd fUj;J cz;L. Mdhy; xg;ge;jr;

rl;lk; nksdj;ij Vw;gpd; nrayhfNth my;yJ rk;kjj;jpd; milahskhfNth Vw;Wf;
nfhs;tjpy;iy.
(iv) mwptpf;Fk; Kiw
Vw;ig Xh; Fwpg;gpl;l Kiwapy; jhd; njhptpf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gjpy;iy. xg;ge;jk;

nra;J nfhs;Sk; egh;fspd; tpUg;gj;jpw;fpzq;f vOj;J %ykhfNth my;yJ Ngr;R
%ykhfNth Vw;igj; njhptpf;fyhk;.
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(v) tpjptpyf; F
GhpTiuia Vw;Wf;nfhz;l tptuj;ijg; GhpTiuahsUf;F njhptpf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gJ

nghJtpjp. Mdhy; mjw;Fk; xU tpjp tpyf;F cz;L. GhpTiuahsh; tpUg;gg;glhky;
Vw;Gf;fhd mwptpg;ig njhptpf;fhkNyNa tpl;L tplyhk;. ,ij chpikiaf; iftply;
vd;gh;.
(vi) GhpTiuapy; Fwpf;fg;g l;L s;s Kiwg;gb mJ Vw;f g;g l Ntz;Lk;
GhpTiuahsh; jdJ Kidit xU Fwpg;gpl;l Kiwapy; jhd; Vw;f Ntz;Lnkdf;

Fwpg;gpl;bUe;jhy; me;j Kiwapy; jhd; GhpTiu Vw;ghsh; mij Vw;f Ntz;Lk;.
(vii) Vw;G xU Fwpg;g pl;l fhyj;jpw;Fs; njhptpf;fg;gl Ntz;L k;
GhpTiuia Vw;gjw;F xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhy tuk;G eph;zapf;fg;gl;bUe;jhy; mf;fhy

tuk;gpw;Fs; jhd; Vw;gpidj; njhptpf;f Ntz;Lk;. fhy tuk;G eph;zapf;fg;glhj gl;rj;jpy;
epahakhd fhyj;jpw;Fs; Vw;gpidj; njhptpf;f Ntz;Lk;. epahakhd fhyk; vd;gJ xt;nthU
xg;ge;jj;jpd; jd;ikiaAk; Rw;Wg;Gwr; #o;epiyiaAk; nghWj;J khWgLk;.
(viii) KidT ahUf;F mspf;fg;gLfpwNjh mth; jhd; Vw;G nra;jy; Ntz;Lk;
GhpTiu ahUf;F mDg;gg;gLfpwNjh> mth; kl;LNk me;jg; GhpTiuia Vw;f Ntz;Lk;.

GhpTiu Vw;ghsiuj; jtpu %d;whtJ egh; ahuhtJ mij Vw;why; me;j Vw;Gr; rl;lg;gb
nry;yhJ.
(ix) GhpTiu fpilj;j gpd;dNu mij Vw;f Ntz;Lk;
GhpTiuiaj; njhptpf;Fk; Kd;dNu Vw;gpidj; njhptpj;jhy; mJ rl;lg;gbahd Vw;ghfhJ.

GhpTiu tu ,Ug;gJ njhpe;J mjw;F Kd;$l;bNa Vw;gpidj; njhptpj;jhy; mJ Vw;ghfhJ.
GhpTiu fpilj;j gpwNf mij Vw;f Ntz;Lk;.
3.10.mQ;ry; top Vw;G
Vw;G rl;lg;gb nry;yg;gbahf Ntz;Lnkd;why;> mJ GhpTiuahsUf;Fj; njhptpf;fg;gl

Ntz;Lk;. Vw;G GhpTiuahsUf;Fj; njhptpf;fg;glhj tiu xg;ge;jk; Vw;glhJ. vdNt
Vw;igj; njhptpj;jhy; Xh; cld;ghL cUthtjw;F kpfTk; ,d;wpaikahjjhFk;.
30
(i) mQ;ry; top xg;ge;jj; jpy; Vw;G jghypy; Nrh;f;fg; gl clNdNa xg;ge; jk; cUthfptpLfpwJ.
jghypy; Nrh;f;Fk; Vw;G Kidthsiu (Offeror) Ngha;r;Nru fhy jhkjkhdhYk; rhp
my;yJ mJ mth;fsplk; Ngha;r; Nruhtpl;lhYk; rhp> xg;ge;jk; Kbtile;J tpl;ljhff;
fUjg;gLfpwJ.
(ii) Vw;G Kw;Wg; ngWk; fhyk; Fwpj;J $WfpwJ. GhpTiuahsiug; nghWj;J vg;nghOJ
Vw;G Kw;Wg; ngWfpwJ. Vw;ghsiug; nghWj;J vg;nghOJ Vw;G Kw;Wg; ngWfpwJ.
Vw;G Kidthpd; mwpTf;Fk; fhJf;Fk; vl;bapUe;jhy; jhd; Vw;ghFk;.
(iii) Kidtpd; Vw;G> Vw;gth; mij mQ;rypy; KidtUf;F mDg;gp> mij jpUk;gpg; ngw
Kbahj epiyapypUe;jhy; ,J KO Vw;G mwptpg;ghFk;.
(iv) Vw;G mwptpg;G fbjk; Kidthpd; mspTf;F vl;bUe;jhy; jhd; Vw;G KOikahFk;.
3.11.Vw;g pd; tiffs;
(i) KOikahd Vw;G (Absolute Acceptance) : ngWgth; Vw;ig mg;gbNa Vw;Wf;

nfhz;L mij njhptpj;Jtply; chpa fhyj;jpy;.
(ii) jw;rka Vw;G (Tentative) : Vw;G mg;Nghja rkaj;Jf;F khj;jpuk;> rkak; khhpdhy;
Vw;G epuhfhpf;fg;glyhk;> my;yJ njhlh; Vw;Gfs; mq;fPfhuk; ngwhJ.
(iii) njhptpf;fg;gl;l Vw;G (Express Acceptance) : xU Vw;G> tha; nrhy; %yNkh>

fbjk; %yNkh njhptpf;fg;gl;bUe;jhy; mJ njhptpf;fg;gl;l Vw;G vd;ghh;.
(iv) njhf;f pepw;Fk; Vw;G ( Implied Acceptance) : Kd; $wpagb mwptpf;fg;glhky;

Vw;ghdJ eghpd; nra;ifahy;> czh;j;jg; gl;lhy; mJ njhf;fp epw;Fk; Vw;ghFk;.
1. Kidtpd; ,pyf;fzk; jUf.

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2. Kidtpd; tiffis gl;baypLf.
3. Vw;gpd; nghUs; tpsf;fk; jUf.
3.12. njhFg;G iu
,g;ghlj;ij fPo;fz;litfis gbj;J njhpe;J nfhz;L ,Ug;gPh;fs; (i)KidT my;yJ

GhpTiu ( ii)Vw; G ( iii)xg; g e; j spT ,it midj; J k; tphpthf cjhuzq; f Sld;
tpsf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. xd;W Kidt nra;jy;> kw;nwhd;D Vw;gJ> ,it ,uz;L ,Ue;jhy;
jhd; cld;gbf;if Vw;gLk; Vw;G vd;gJ nfhLg;gtUk; Vw;gtUk; xg;Gf; nfhs;fpwhh;fs;.
Vw;Gk; mjd; rl;lhPjpahd tpjp KiwfSk; kw;Wk; Vw;gpd; tiffs; gw;wp tpthpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
3.13.Kf;f par; nrhw;f s;
 KidT : KidT vd;gJnghJthfvOj;jtbtj;jpNyh (m) tha;nkhopahfNth

Vw;gLfpwJ.
 vjph; KidT : xU KidT Vw;Fk; fhyj;jpy; ,e;j Vw;G jd;dpr;irahfTk; vt;tpj

epge;jidaw;wjhfTk; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
 FWf;F KidT : ,J egh;fs; xU Fwpg;gpl;l nghUs; Fwpj;J jq;fSf;Fs;

mDg;gpf; nfhs;Sk; Xnu khjphpahd KidTf;F FWf;F KidT vd;W ngah;.
 Vw;G : xUth; mDg;Gk; Kidit (m) GhpTiuia kw;wth; Vw;Wf; nfhz;lhy; mij
‘Vw;G’ vd;gh;.
32
3.14. gapw;rp tpdhf;f s;
1. KidT (m) GhpTiuapd; ,yf;fzk; jUf.
2. Kidtpd; tiffs; $W.
3. Kidtpd; ,yf;fzk; jUf mjd; rl;l hPjpahd Nfhl;ghLfs; ahit?
4. Vw;gpd; ,yf;fzk; jUf.
5. mQ;ry; top Vw;G vd;why; vd;d?
6. Vw;gpd; tiffs; ahit?
7. Vw;gpd; ,yf;fzk; jUf mjd; rl;lhPjpahdNfhl;ghLfs; ahit?

33
ghlk; -4
kWgad;
(Consideration)
,g;ghlj;ijfw;wgpd;>ePq;fs;
 kWgad; - ,yf;fzk; ju ,aYk;
 kWgadpd; rl;lhPjpahd tpjpKiwfis tpsf;f KbAk;.
 kWgadpd; tiffis tpsf;f KbAk;.
 xg;ge;j cwTf; Nfhl;ghl;bw;fhd tpjptpyf;Ffis tpsf;f KbAk;.
ghlmikg; G
4.1. Kd;Diu
4.2. kWgad; - ,yf;fzk;
4.3. kWgadpd; tiffs;
4.4. kWgadpd; ,d;w paikahik
4.5. rl;lhPj pahd tpjpKiwfs; - kWgad;
4.6. xg;g e;j cwTf; Nfhl;g hl;b w;f hd tpjptpyf;F fs;
4.7. njhFg;G iu
4.9. gapw;r p tpdhf;fs;

34
4.1. Kd; D iu
kWgad; vd;gJ xUth; xU nraiyr; nra;aNth my;yJ xU nghUisj; ju xg;Gf;

nfhz;lhy;> mjw;Fg; gjpyhf mth; VNjDk; xd;iwg; ngw Ntz;Lk;. mt;tpjk; ngWk;
VNjDk; xd;Wjhd; kWgad; vdg;gLfpwJ. vdNt>kw;wthpd; thf;FWjpf;Fj; jug;gLk;
tpiyNakWgad; vdg;gLk;.
Xh; cld;ghl;il rl;lg; gpizg;Gfs; xg;ge;jkhf khw;Wtjw;F gy fhuzpfs;

mtrpakhdit. mtw;Ws; Kf;fpakhd fhuzpahf tpsq;FtJ kWgad;. vdNt kWgad;
,y;yhky; xU cld;ghL Xh; xg;ge;jkhf KbahJ. vdNt jhd; ,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk;
10-tJ gphptpd; gb Xh; xg;ge;jj;jpd; ePjpkd;wj;jpy; nraYWj;j rl;lg;gbahd kWgad;
Njit vd;W typAWj;JfpwJ. mJ Nghd;Nw xg;ge;jr; rl;lk; 10-tJ gphptpd; Xh; xg;ge;jj;jpd;
ePjpkd;wj;jpy; nraYWj;j rl;lg;gbahd vdj; njspthf jpl;ltl;lkhff; $WfpwJ. ,e;j
kWgad; my;yJ gpujpgyd; xU xg;ge;jj;jpw;F KJ nfYk;ghf mikfpwJ.
GhpTiu (m) KidT + Vw;G = cld;ghL
cld;ghL + kWgad; = xg;ge;jk;
4.2. kWg;gad; - ,yf;fzk;
Nghyf;fpd; ,yf;fzk; (Definition of Pollock): xUthpd; thf;FWjpiag; ngw kw;wtuhy;

mspf;fg;gLk; tpiyNa kWgadhFk;. mt;thW kjpg;igg; ngWk; nghUl;L nra;ag;gl;l
thf;FWjp nray;gLj;jj; jf;fjhFk;.
y];\; n[ ,d; ,yf;fzk; (Definition of Lush J) FA+hpNah v.kp]h

vd;w tof;fpy;> “rl;lj;jpd; Nehf;fpy;> xU kjpg;G kpf;f kWgadhf xU gphptpdUf;F rpy
chpikfs;> eyd;fs;> ,yhgk; my;yJ gad;fs; Nghd;wdTk;> kW gphptpdUf;F jtph;j;jy;>
el;lk;> nghWg;ig mspj;jy;> Vw;wy; Nghd;wdTk; fpilf;fpd;wd”.
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jpd; gphpT 2(d) kWgaDf;f fPo;fz;lthW ,yf;fzk; tFf;fpwJ.

“thf; FWjp mspg;gthpd; tpUg;gj;jpd;gb> thf;FWjp ngWgtNuh> my;yJ kw;wtNuh vijNaDk;
nra;jpUe;jhYk; my;yJ nra;ahky; jtph;j;jpUe;jhYk; my;yJ nra;jhYk; my;yJ nra;ahky;
jtph;j;jhYk; my;yJ nra;tjhfNth my;yJ nra;ahky; ,Ug;gjhfNth thf;FWjp
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mspj;jpUe;jdh; vd;w nghOjpy;> mr;nray; my;yJ jtph;j;jy; my;yJ thf;FWjp>

t hf ;F Wj pf f; hd k Wga d v d m i o f ;f g;g L k ;”.
4.3. kWgadpd; tiffs; (Kinds of consideration)
i) vjph;fhy kWgad; (Future Consideration) : xU eguhy; kw;nwhU eghpd; thf;FWjpf;F

cWjpaspf;fg;gl;l tpiyNa vjph;fhy kWgadhFk;.
(ii) epfo;fhy kWgad; (Present Consideration) : cWjpAiu mspf;Fk; NghNj mjw;Fhpa

kWgaDk; nfhLf;fg; gl;lhy; mij epfo;fhy kWgad; vd;gh;. mjhtJ cWjpAiuAk;
kWgaDk; xNu Neuj;jpy; epfo;fpd;wJ. tpahghu eltbf;iffspy; gzj;ijg; ngw;Wf;
nfhz;L nghUis cldbahf jUtjhf $WtJ nuhf;f eltbf;iffspy; mikaf;
$ba kWgaid epfo;fhy kWgad; vdyhk;.
(iii) fle;jfhy kWgad; (Past Consideration) : thf;FWjp mspf; fg;gLk; Kd;Ng epiwNtw;wp
Kbf;fg;gLk; kWgad; fle;jfhy kWgadhFk;.
4.4.kWgadpd; ,d;wpaikahik (Need for Consideration)
(i) xg;ge;jk; nray;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;Lnkdpy;> thf;FWjp tpiyf;F thq;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;>

my;yJ kWgad; mspf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
(ii) thf;FWjpfs; nray; gLj;Jtjw;Fj; jFjpAiladth; vd;gij eph;zapf;fTk; kWgad;

cjTfpwJ.
(iii) xU xg;ge;jj;jpd; rhuhk;rNk mjd; kWgadhFk;.
(iv) rpy rkaq;fs; jtpu> xU cld;gbf;ifapy; kWgadpy;iyNay;> rl;lj;jpdhy; mjd;

eil Kiwg;gLj;jiy typAWj;j KbahJ.
(v) ‘kWgadpy;iyNay; xg;ge;jKk; ,y;iy’ xt;nthU xg;ge;jj;jpw;Fk; kWgaNd

tho;f;ifahfTk; ,uj;jkhfTk; nrayhw;WfpwJ.
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4.5. rl;lhPjpahd tpjpKiwfs; - kWgad;
(i) kWgad; fle;j fhy> epfo;f hy kw;W k; vjph;f hykhdjhfTk; ( Consideration

may be past, Present and Future) : kWgad; fle;jfhy> epfo;fhy kw;Wk; vjph;fhy
kWgad vd ghFgLj;jg;glyhk;. fle;jfhy kWgad;> cld;gbf;if Vw;gLtjw;F
Kd;Ng KOtJk; ngwg;gl;ljhf> my;yJ jug;gl;ljhf ,Uf;fpwJ. epfo;fhy kWgad;>
thf;FWjpAld; $lNt epfOk; kWgad; nray;gLj;jg;gl;l my;yJ epfo;fhy
kWgadhFk;. vjph;fhy kWgad;> xU eguhy; kw;nwhU eghpd; thf;FWjpf;F
cWjpaspf;fg;gl;l tpiyNa vjph;fhy kWgad; vdg;gLk;.
(ii) kWgad; ngha;i kahdjhf ,Uj;j y; $lhJ. Mdhy; cz;i kahdjhfTk;>

jfjpahdjhfTk; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. (Consideration must be real and not an illusion)
: kWgad; ngha;ikahdjhfNth> Vkhw;WfpwjhfNth ,Uj;jy; $lhJ. kWgad;
cz;ikahdjhfTk;> jFjpahdjhfTk;> kw;Wk; tiuaWf;fg;gl;ljhTk; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
eilKiwapy; rhj;jpag;gl rpy nray;fs; xg;ge;jj;jpw;F kWgadhf mika KbahJ.
(iii) kWgad; rl;lG+h;tkhdjhf ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk; (Consideration must be Lawful) :

kWgad; rl;lj;jpw; F Gwk;ghfNth. xOq; fPakhfNth nghJf; nfhs;iff;F vjpuhdjhfNth
mikaf; $lhJ. xU nry;Yk; epiy xg;ge;jj;jpy; Fwpf;Nfhs; Neh;ikahdjhfTk;
kw;Wk; rl;lj;jpd; gb mika Ntz;Lk;. MfNt kWgadpd; Nehf;fk; rhpapy;iy
vdpy; xg;ge;jk; nry;yhJ vdyhk;. kWgad; rl;lj;jpw;F KuzhfNth my;yJ
nghJf; nfhs;iff;F khWg;gl;ljhfNth my;yJ xOf;f newpf;F khWgl;ljhNth
,Ug;gpd; ePjp kd;wk; mj;jifa kWgad; Vw;Wf; nfhs;shJ.
(iv) cWjpaiu mspg;g thpd; cWjpAiuapd; mstpw;F rkkhf kWgad; ,Uf;f

Ntz;Lnkd;w mtrpakpy;iy (Consideration need not be adequate) : kWgad;>
thf;FWjpf;F rhp rkkhdjhfNth my;yJ NghJkhdjhfNth ,Uf;f Ntz;ba
mtrpakpy;iy. cld;gbf;if> kWgaidf; nfhz;bUg;gJ kl;LNk mtrpak;.
xg;ge;jj;jpy; <LgLk; egh;fs; jkf;Fs; Ngrp> thf;FWjpf;F cfw;w Xh; kWgaid
KbT gz;zpf; nfhs;syhk;. kWgad; NghJkhdjh vd;gnjy;yk; thf;FWjp toq;Fgth;
KbT nra;J nfhs;s Ntz;ba tp\;aNk MFk;. kWgaid eph;zapg;gjpYk; mJ
NghJkhdjh vdf; fz;L czu tprhuiz elj;JtjpYk; rl;lj;jpw;F ePjpkd;wj;jpw;Fk;
ve;j tpjf;flikAk; ,y;iy.
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cjhuzk; &.10>00>000/- ngWkhdKs;s jdJ tPl;il x 4>00>000/- y-f;F tpw;f

xg;Gf;nfhs;fpwhh;. kpfTk; Fiwe;j tpiyf;F tpw;gjpdhy; x-f;Fk;> y-f;Fk;>
,ilNa Vw;gl;Ls;s xg;ge;jk; nry;Ygbahfhky; Ngha;tplhJ.
(v) thf; F Wjp mspg; g thpd; tpUg; g j; j pw; N fw; g kWgad; mikjy; Ntz; L k;
(Consideration must move at the desire of the Promisor) : Fwpg;gpl;l Xh; nray;
jd;dpr;irahf ,y;yhky;> thf;FWjp mspg;gthpd; tpUg;gj;jpw;fpzq;f nra;ag;gl;bUe;jy;
Ntz;Lk;. ,e;jpar; rl;lj;jpy;> thf;FWjp mspg;gthpd; tpUg;gj;jpw;fpzq;fNt> kWgad;
mikj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
%d;whk; eghpd; tpUg;gj;jpw;fpzq;f nray;gLj;jg;gl;l nray; kWgadhfhJ. Mdhy;

xg;ge;jj;jpypUe;J thf;FWjp mspg;gtUf;F VNjDk; gad;fs; fpilf;f Ntz;Lk;
vd;w mtrpakpy;iy.
(vi) kWgad; thf; F Wjp Vw; g tuhNyh my; y J kw; w tuhNyh mspf; f g; g lyhk;
(Consideration may move from the Promisee or Any Other Person) : kWgad; thf;FWjp
Vw;g thplk; ,Ue;J kl; Lky;yhky; NtW %d;whk; eghplk; ,Ue;Jk; mjhtJ
me;epah;fsplk; ,Ue;J tuyhk;. Mdhy; thf;FWjp mspg;gthplkpUe;J ,jw;F vjph;g;G
fpsk;gf; $lhJ. mg;gbahdhy;> mt;nthg;ge;jj;ij nray;gLj;j KbAk;.
4.6. xg;ge;j cwTf; Nfhl;ghl;bw;fhd tpjp tpyf;Ffs; (Exceptions

to the Doctrine of Privity of Contract)
xg;ge;j cwTf; Nfhl;ghl;bw;Fk; ,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk; kw;Wk; Mq;fpyr; rl;lq;fshy;

mq;fPfhpf;fg;gl;l rpy tpjptpyf;Ffs; cs;sd. ,jd;fPo; xg;ge;jj;jpy; rk;ge;jg;glhj egh;fSk;
$l rl;l eltbf;if vLf;fyhk;.
(i) mwf;fl;lis (Trust) : gy ,lq;fspy; mwf;fl;lisfs; ,aq;fp tUtij ehk;

fhz;fpNwhk;. jh;k rpe;jidahsh;fshy; elj;jg;gl;L tUk; mwf;fl;lisfs; r%fj;jpy;
Mjutw;w kw;Wk; Vio vspa kf;fSf;fhf nray;Ghpe;J tUfpd;wd. rpy rkak;
rpyh; jq;fSila nrhj;Jf;fis me;j mwf;fl;lisf;F vOjp itj;J mjd; %yk;
ehl;by; Mjutw;wth;fSf;F ey;Yjtp nra;J tUfpd;wdh;. ,e;j mwf;fl;lisfs;
ntspahuhf ,Ue;jhYk; xg;ge;jj;jpd; %yk; toq;F njhluyhk;.
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(ii) jpUkzk;> ghfg;gphptpid my;yJ gpw FLk;g Vw;ghLfs; : rpy rkaq;fspy;>

jpUkzk;> ghfg;gphptpid my;yJ gpw FLk;g Vw;ghLfs; njhlh;ghd Xh; cld;gbf;if
nra;ag;gl;L> rpy egh;fSf;F gad; fpilf;FkhW nra;ag;gLfpwJ. mr;rkaq;fspy;>
ahUf; F rhjkhf mt;t optif nra; ag;g l; l Njh mth; > mt; Tld; g bf;i fapy;
rk;ke;jg;glhj eguhf ,Ue;jhYk; $l> mt;Tld;gbf;ifia nray;gLj;JkhW
typAWj;jyhk;.
(iii) %d;whk; eghpd; Kftuhfg; gzpahw;Wjy; : Kfth;fs; %ykhf Vw;gLk; xg;ge;jq;fs;>

ntspahiuAk; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk;.
(iv) epyk; njhlh;g hd cld;g bf;i f : epyk; njhlh;g hd cld;gbf; if vd; gJ

nrhe;jf;fhuh;fSf;Fs;s chpikfisAk; flikfisAk; mwpe;J me;epyj;ij vtNuDk;
thq;fpapUg;ghh;fs; vdpy;> mth;fs; me;j xg;ge;jj;jpy; gq;Nfw;ftpy;iy vdpDk;>
mjw;Ff; fl;Lg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
(v) xg;g ilg;G : fld; xg;gilg;G rl;lg;gb nra;ag;gl;bUg;gpd; mt;nthg;gilg;gpd;

%yk; flidj; jpUg;gg; ngWk; chpikiag; ngw;w egh; mf;fldhsp kPJ tof;Fj;
njhluyhk;.
(vi) Kfik : Kfth; xUth; jkJ Kjyhspf;fhf ,ufrpakhf VNjDk; xg;ge;jj;jpy;

NtnwhU egUld; <LgLth; vdpy;> mt;nthg;ge;jj;jpy; jiyapl mk;Kjyhspf;F
mjpfhuk; cs;sJ. mij xg;ge;jj;jpy; kw;nwhU egh; jLf;f KbahJ.
1. rl;lhPjpahd tpjpKiwfs; ahit?

39
2. kWgad; vd;gJ ahJ ?
3. “kWgad; ,y;yh xg;ge;jk; nry;yhJ” tpsf;Ff.
4.7. njhFg;G iu
kWg;gad; xg;ge;jf; $Wfspd; kpf Kf;fpakhd vjph;fhyk;> epfo;fhyk;> fle;jfhyk;

kw;Wk; rl;lhPjpahd tpjpKiwfs; gw;wp tpthpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. nghJthf kWgadw;w xg;ge;jk;
,y;yh epiyapid milfpwJ. xU egh; kw;nwhUtUf;F xU gzpapid Ghpa thf;fspj;
jpUg;ghNjahdhy; mjw;F gjpyhf mthplkpUe;J VjhtJ ngWjy; mtrpakhfpd;wJ.
mt;thW VjhtJ ngWjNy kWgadhFk;.
4.8. Kf;fpar; nrhw;fs;
 kWgad; : kw;wth;fspd; cWjpAiuia thq;Ftjw;Fr; nrYj;jg;gLk; tpiy.
 vjph;fhy kWgad; : xU eguhy; kw;nwhU eghpd; thf;FWjpf;F cWjpaspf;fg;gl;;l

tpiyNa vjph;fhy kWgadhFk;.
4.9. gapw;rp tpdhf;fs;
2. kWgadpd; ,yf;fzk; tiuf.
3. kWgad; vd;gJ ahJ? xg;ge;jj;jpw;F kWgad; mtrpakh?
4. kWgadpd; gy;NtW tiffisAk; RUf;fkhf tpsf;Ff.

40
5. “kWgad; ,y;yh xg;ge;jk; nry;yhJ” tpsf;Ff.
6. xg;ge;j cwTf; Nfhl;ghl;bw;fhd tpjptpyf;Ffs; ahit?
7. kWgad; vd;why; vd;d? mJ njhlh;ghd rl;lr; ruj;Jf;fis tphpthf fye;jha;T

nra;f.
41
ghlk; - 5
xg;ge;jj; jFjp
(Capacity of Contract)
fw;wypd; Nehf;f q;f s;:-
,g;ghlj;ij fw;wgpd;> ePq;fs;
 xg;ge;j jFjp ,yf;fzk;
 xg;ge;jk; nra;a jFjpaw;wth;fs; vd;gij tpsf;f KbAk;.
 kd epiy rhpapy;yhjth; gw;wp $WtJ.
ghlmikg; G
5.1. Kd;Diu
5.2. xg;ge;j jFjp ,yf;fzk;
5.3. xg;ge;j k; nra;a jFjpaw;w th;f s;
5.4. njhFg;G iu
5.1. Kd;Diu
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jpd; gb> xg;ge;jj;jpy; <LgLth;fSf;F rpy jFjpfs;

eph;zapf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. mj;jFjpfs; ,y;iy vd;why; xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lgl KbahJ. ,e;jpa
xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jpd; gphpT 11-y; xg;ge;jk; nra;a jFjpAs;s egh;fshy; nra;ag;gLk;
cld;gbf;ifNa xg;ge;jkhfpwJ vd $wg;gl;Ls;sJ. vdNt vy;yh egh;fshYk; xg;ge;jk;
nra;J nfhs;s KbAk; vd;gJ tpsq;FfpwJ.
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5.2. xg;ge;jj; jFjp
“mtUf;Fg; nghUj;jf; $ba rl;lj;jpd; gb xg;ge;jk; nra;aj; jFjpaw;wth; vd

tpyf;fg;glhjth;> my;yJ ey;y kd epiy cilath; ahNuh kw;Wk; rl;lg;gb chpa
taJ te;jth; ahNuh mt;ntht;nthU tUk; xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lglj; jFjpAilath;fs;
Mth;”.
xg;g e; jr; rl; lk; 11-tJ gphptpd; gb fPo ;f ;f z;l egh;f s; xg;g e; jk; nra;a j;
jFjpAilath;fshfpd;wdh;.
(i) “chpik tajile;jth; (Major) ey;y kd epiyapy; cs;s xg;ge;jk; nra;a

vr; r l; l j; j pdhYk; epuhfhpf; f g; g lhj xt; n thU tUk; xg; g e; j k; nra; a j;
jFjpAilath;fshth;”.
(ii) ey;y kd epiyapy; cs;sth; (Persons of Sound Mind)
(iii) ve;jr; rl;lj;jpdhYk; jFjpaw;wth;fs; vd;W gpufldk; nra;ag; glhjth;fs; (Persons

not disqualified by the Laws of the Land)
5.3. xg;ge;jk; nra;a jFjpaw;wth;fs;
xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lgl jFjpaw;wth;fs; vd;w epiy kdg;gf;Ftk; FiwtpdhYk; kw;Wk;

kdepiy rhpapy;yhj fhuzkhfTk; Vw;glyhk;. xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lgl jFjpapy;yhjth;fs;
%d;W gphpTfshf gphpf;fg;gl;Ls;sdh;.
1. kdg;gf;Ftk; FiwT
(a)ikdh; (or) ,sth; (chpa taij milahjth;)
2. kdepiy rhpapy;yhjth;
(i) gpwtpke;jh;
(ii) gpj;jh;
(iii) Fbfhuh;fs;
3. r%f kjpg;G my;Yj xg;ge;jk; nra;a jFjpaw;wth;fs;
(i) me;epa ehl;L MSeUk; kw;Wk; J}jUk; (Foreign Sovereigns and Ambassador)
43
(ii) gifehl;lth;
(iii) Fw;wthspfs;
(iv) nehbj;Jg; Nghdth;fs;
(v) fofq;fs;
(vi) njhopy; Ghpgth;fs;
(vii) jpUkzkhdngz;fs;
1. kdg; g f;F tk; FiwT
“ikdh; (or) ,sth;” (chpataij milahjth;)
ikdh; vd;gth; 18 taJf;F G+h;j;jpailahky; cs;shNuh> mtNu ikdh; vdg;gLthh;.

,th;fs; xg;ge;jk; nra;aj; jFjpaw;wth;fs; Mth;. ngw;Nwhh;fs; ,y;yhj epiyapy; ePjp
kd;wj;jpd; ghJfhg;gpy; ,Ue;J tUk; ikdh; (m) ,sth;fs; 21 taJ Kbe;j gpd;dNu
chpik tajile;jth;fshf fUjg;gLfpwhh;fs;.
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jpy; ikdh;fSila cld;gbf;if njhlh;ghd rl;lk;

(Law Relating to Minor’s Agreements)
(i) ikdUila ngw;Nwhh; nghWg;G (Law Relating to Minor Agreements) : ikdh;fSld;

nra;J nfhs;sg;gl;l xg;ge;jq;fs; mit mj;jpahtrpag; nghUl;fSf;nfd nra;ag;
gl;lhYk; $l> mthpd; ngw;Nwhh; kPJ ve;jg; nghWg;igAk; Rkj;jhJ. MapDk;
mk;ikdh;> jkJ ngw;Nwhh; Kftuhfg; gzpahw;wpdhy;> gpwF mt;nthg;ge;jj;jpd;
fPo;> mg;ngw;Nwhh;. nghWg;Gilath;fshfp tpLth;.
(ii) Kuz;jilnfhs;if ikdUf;Fk; nghUe;jhJ (The Principle of estoppel is not

applicable to Minors) : nghJthf ‘Kuz;jil’ nfhs;if vd;gJ xUtiu ‘ek;g
itj;J’ gpwF Vkhw;WtJ> ek;g itj;j egh; jdf;Fk; mf;Fwpg;gpl;l epiy my;yJ
nraYf;Fk; njhlh;gpy;iy vd kWj;Jf; $wp> jd;nghWg;gpid jl;bf; fopf;f ,ayhJ.
MapDk;> ,t;tpjj; jil vJTk; ikdUf;F vjpuhfr; nray;glhJ. mjhtJ> ikdh;
xUth; jd;id chpa taJ te;jth; vdg; ngha;ahff; $wp xg;ge;jj;jpy; <LgLk;
nghOJ> gpd;dh; jhk; ikdh; vd;W $wp mjpypUe;J jg;gpj;Jf; nfhs;s rl;lk;
toptif nra;Js;sJ.
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(iii) ikdUld; Vw;gLj;jg;gLk; cld;gbf;iffs; njhlf;fj;jpypUe;Nj nry;yhJ

(Void ab Initio) : ikdUld; Vw;gLj;jg;gLk; xg;ge;jk;> xg;ge;jj;jpy; <LgLk;
egh;fSf;fpilNa ve; jtpj rl;l chpikfisAk; flikfisAk; Vw; gLj;jhJ. ikdUld;
Vw;gLj;jg;gLk; cld;gbf;iffs; mjd; njhlf;fj;jpypUe;Nj nry;yhjitahFk;. vdNt>
,ij rl;lj;jhy; eilKiwg;gLj;j KbahJ.
cjhuzk; A vd;w ikdh; &.10>000/-f;F nrhj;Jf;fis mlkhdk; itj;J &.5>000/-

ngWfpwhh;. A ikdh; vd;W njhpe;jpUe;Jk; B Nkw;nrhd;d mlkhdg; gj;jpuj;ij vOjp
thq;fpapUe;jhy; mij uj;J nra;Ak;gb ePjpkd;wj;jpy; tof;F njhlug;gl;lJ. Mdhy;
mlkhdk; ngw;wth; mth; nfhLj;j &.5>000/-j;ij jpUk;gj; juNtz;Lk; vd;W Ntz;bdhh;.
,Wjpahf> ikdUld; Vw;gLk; eltbf;iffs; nry;yhJ vd jPh;g;G toq;fg;gl;lJ.
vdNt gzk; fldhff; nfhLj;jth; jhd; nfhLj;j gzj;ijj; jpUk;gg; ngw KbahJ.
ikdUld; nra;ag;gLk; xg;ge;jk; Kw;wpYk; nry;yhj njhifahy;> ikduhy; gpwh;
kPJ tof;F njhlu KbahJ.
(iv) ikdh; khw;WKiw Mtzq;fisr; nrayhw;Wjy; (Minor can execute Negotiable

Instruments) : ikdh; xUth; khw;W Kiw Mtzq;fis vOjyhk;> khw;wpaspf;fyhk;.
MapDk; mt;Mtzq;fspd; fPo; mthpd; kPJ ve;jr; nrhe;jg; nghWg;Gk; Rk;kj;jg;gl
KbahJ. Mdhy; ikdUf;F rhjfkhf nray;gLj;jg;gl;l khw;WKiw Mtzq;fis
mth; eilKiwg;gLj;jyhk;.
(v) ikdh; jhd; nra;j nraiy gpd;dh; Vw;W cWjpg;gLj;j KbahJ (A minor
cannot ratify his act) : ikdUld; nra;J nfhs;Sk; cld;ghL Muk;g KjNy
,y;yhepiy vd;W mwpe;Njhk;. mth; ikduhf ,Uf;Fk; nghOJ nra;J nfhz;l
cld;ghl;il jhd; chpik tajile;jTld; gpd; Vw;G nra;a KbAkh? epr;rpakhf
KbahJ.
(vi) ikdhplkpUe;J nghUisj; jpUk;gpg; ngWjy; (Restitution of Poperty from the

minor) :Xh; ikdh; jhd; chpik taJ mile;j th; vdg; ngha; Aiu $wp
kw;nwhUtUld; cld;ghL nra;J nfhz;lhy;> mjd; %yk; ikdUf;Fg; nghUNsh>
gzNkh fpilj;jhy; mij ikdhplkpUe;J jpUk;gg; ngwr; rl;lk; tif nra;fpwJ.
Mdhy;> mr;rkak; me;jg; nghUs; milahsk; fz;L nfhs;s $bajhfTk;> ikdhpd;
cilikapYk; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,y;yhtpl;lhy;> mitfisj; jpUk;gg; ngw KbahJ.
45
(vii) mj;jpahtrpaj; NjitfSf;fhd nghWg;G (Liability for Necessaries) : ikdUf;Nfh

my;yJ mtuhy; fhg;ghw;wg;gl Ntz;ba mtiur; rhh;e;jtUf;Nfh toq;fg;gl;l
mj; j pahtrpaj; NjitfSf; f hf thq; f pa flDf; F k; mtUila nrhj; J
nghWg;ghfpd;wJ. ikduhf ,Ue;j NghjpYk;> ,d;wpaikahjtw;wpw;fhfr; nra;ag;gLk;
xg;ge;jj;jpw;F mtUila nrhj;Jf;fs; nghWg;ghfpd;wd.
(viii) nehbj;jtuhf ikdh; (Minor as an Insolvent) : ikdUld; nra; J nfhs; Sk;

midj;J xg;ge;jq;fSk; nry;yhjitfshFk;. vdNt> ikdh; xUtiu nehbj;jtuhf
mwptpf;f KbahJ.
1. ,sth; vt;tifapy; fl;Lg;gl;lth;
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lg;gb tzpfhplkpUe;J jdf;F Njitahd ,d;wpaikahg;

nghUl;fisg; ngw;W nfhz;l ikdh; me;j nghUl;fSf;Fhpa kjpg;ig me;j tzpfUf;Ff;
nfhLf;f jdpg;gl;l Kiwapy; fl;Lg;gl;lth; my;y. me;j nghUl;fSf;Fhpa kjpg;ig
ikdh; nfhLf;fhj gl;rj;jpy; me;j tzpfh; mij ,sthpd; nrhj;Jf;fspypUe;J jhd; <L
nra;J nfhs;s Ntz;Lnkd ,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lg;gb $WfpwJ. ,sthplk; nrhj;Jf;fs;
vJTk; ,y;yhtpby; tzpfh; ikdhplkpUe;J gzj;ijg; ngw KbahJ.
nghJthf fld; nfhLj;jth; (Creditor) fld; thq;fpathplk; (Debtor) ,Ue;J flid

,uz;L topfspy; t#y; nra;ayhk;.
(a) fld; nfhLj;jth; fld; thq;fpath; kPJ tof;F njhlh;e;J jPh;g;ghiz ngw;W
mjd; Nghpy; fld; thq;fpa tiuf; ifJ nra;J rpiwapy; itg;gJ %yk; fld;
njhifia t#y; nra;ayhk;. mijj;jhd; fld; thq;fpath; jdpg;gl;l Kiwapy;
fl;Lg;gl;th; vd;fpNwhk;.
(b) fld; thq;fpatUf;Fr; nrhj;Jf;fs; ,Ug;gpd; mij ePjpkd;wk; %yk; tpw;W mjpypUe;J
tUk; njhifia fld; nfhLj;jtUf;Fk; flidj; jPh;f;fyhk;. ,ijj;jhd; fld;
thq;fpathpd; nrhj;Jf;fs; flDf;Ff; fl;Lg;gl;lJ. vd;fpNwhk;.
2. kdepiy rhpapy;yhjth; (Persons of Unsound Mind)
(i) gpwtp ke;jh; (Idocy) : gpwtpapypUe;Nj kdtypikAk; rpe;jpf;Fk; Mw;wiyAk;

KOikahf ,oe;jth; xUtiu “gpwtp gpj;jh;” vdf; $WfpNwhk;. ,th;fSf;F jhkhf
46
ve;j xU KbTk; vLf;Fk; kdg;gf;Ftk; ,y;yhj fhuzj;jhy; ,th;fSld; nra;J

nfhs;Sk; xg;ge;jk; ,y;yh epiy xg;ge;jk; rl;lg;gb nry;yhJ.
cjhuzk; x vd;gth; kdtsh;r;rp Fd;wpatuhthh;. mth; y vd;gtUf;F> &.10>000/-

kjpg;Gila jd;Dila ,Urf;fu thfdj;ij &.5>000/-f;F tpw;f cld;gl;lhh;. Y
,Urf;fu thfdj;ij kPl;f rl;l eltbf;if vLj;jhh;. Mdhy; x apd; jhahh; mth;
xU gpwtp ke;jh;> vd;Wk; NkYk; mth; me;eltbf;ifia Ghpe;J nfhs;sf; $ba
jpwikaw;wth; vd;Wk; ep&gpj;jhh;. ePjpkd;wk; ,e;eltbf;ifia nry;yhJ vd
jPh;g;gspj;jJ.
(ii) gpj;j h; (Lunacy) : gpwg;ghy; ey;y kdepiyAk; typikAk; cilNahnudpDk;

tho; f;ifapy; ,ilf;fhyj;jpy; NehapdhNyh kdj;JahpdhNyh my;yJ NtW
fhuzq;fspdhNyh kdtypikiaAk;> rpe;jpf;Fk; Mw;wiyAk; ,oe;jth;. gpj;Jg;
gpbj;jth;fs; rpy rkaq;fspy; rPuhd kdepiy cilath;fshfTk;> rpy rkaq;fspy;
rPuw;w kdepiy cilath;fshfTk; ,Uf;fpd;wdh;. xUth; rk kdepiyapy; ,Uf;fpd;w
nghOJ xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lglyhk;. Mdhy; kdepiy rhpapy;yhj nghOJ ,th;fs;
<Lgl;l cld;gbf;iffs; Kw;wpYk; nry;yhjitfshFk;.
cjhuzk; mUz; vd;w xU Nehahsp gpj;Jg; gpbj;j epiyapy; ,Ue;jhh;. mt;tpjr;

rkaj;jpy; mUz; vd;gth;> uNk\; vd;gthplk; ,Ue;J &.5>000/-j;ij gpuhkprhp Nehl;L
xd;iw vOjpf; nfhLj;Jg; ngw;whh;. MapDk;;> mg;gpuhkprhp Nehl;il mth; nry;yhjjhfp
tpLk;. gpd; mjd; mbg;gilapy; uNk\; jkJ gzj;ijj; jpUk;gg; ngw KbahJ.
(iii) Fbfhuh;fs; (Drunkers) : ,th;fs; kJghdk; my;yJ Nghijg; nghUl;fis

mUe;jp rpe;jp Neuk; jd; Raepidit ,oe;J kaf;f epiyapy; ,Ug;gth;. kJ
kaf;fj;jpy; nra;Ak; xg;ge;jq;fs; nry;yhJ. xg;ge;jj;jpd; NghNj mJ ,y;yhj
epiyahd xg;ge;jkhfpwJ.
cjhuzk; xU Fbfhuh; Vyj;jpy; gq;Nfw;W mjpfkhd gzj;jpw;F xU nghUis

NgRfpwhh;. Fbkaf;fk; njspe;jTld; Vyf;fhuhplk; Ntz;lhk; vd;fpwhh;. Fbfhuh;
xg;ge;jk; Kw;wpYk; nry;yhjjhFk; kw;Wk; mtiu fl;lhag;gLj;j KbahJ.
47
3. r%f kjpg;G my;yJ xg;ge;j k; nra;a jFjpaw;w th;f s;
(i) me;epa ehl;L MSeUk; kw;Wk; J}jUk; : may;ehl;by; trpg;gth;fSld; nra;ag;gLk;

xg;ge;jk; rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$ba xg;ge;jkhFk;. may;ehL murhq;fk; ,e;jpahTld;
el;ghf ,Ue;jhy; me;j may;ehl;il el;G ehL vd;Wk; me;ehl;L kf;fs; may;ehl;L
ez;gh;fs; vd;W $Wth;.
(ii) gif ehl;lth; : ,e;jpaf; Fbkfd; my;yhjth; may; ehl;lth; Mthh;. may;ehl;bdhpd;
ehL ekJ ehl;Lld; ey;y cwit itj;jpUe;jhy;> me;ehL may;ehL ez;gd;
vdTk;> mg;gbapy;yhky; gif czh;r;rp nfhz;L ekJ ehl;Lf;Fk; me;ehl;bw;Fk;
,ilNa Nghh; %z;lhy;> mJ may;ehl;Lg; gifahsp vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;.
(iii) Fw;wthspfs; : rpiwj; jz;lidia mDgtpj;Jf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; fhyj;jpy; xg;ge;jk;

nra;J nfhs;Sk; jFjpia ,oe;J tpLfpd;wdh;. mth;fs; xg;ge;jk; nra;J nfhs;s
KbahJ. Mdhy; jz;lidf; fhyk; KbTw;W tpLjiy mile;jgpd; mth;fs;
xg;ge;jk; nra;J nfhs;sf; $ba jFjpia kPz;Lk; ngWfpwhh;fs;.
(iv) nehbj;J g; Nghdth;f s; : xU egh; nrhj;jpd; kjpg;ig tpl mjpfkhf fld; Vw;gl;L
mijj; jpUg;gpf; nfhLf;f Kbahj epiyapYs;s xU egh; nehbe;jth; vd
mwptpf;fg;gl;L tpl;lhy;> mthpd; nrhj;J ‘mYty; xg;gilg;ghsh;’ trk; xg;gilf;fg;gLk;.
vdNt mtuhy; xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lgl KbahJ. ,j;jFjpapd;ik mth; jkJ flidf;
nfhLj;Jj; jPh;e;J tpl;lhy;> mthplkpUe;J tpyfp tpLk;.
(v) fofq;fs; : xU fofk; kw;Wk; fk;ngdp> rl;lj;jhy; cUthf;fg;gl;l Xh; nraw;if

eguhFk;. ,J jkJ cWg;gpdh;fsplkpUe;J Kw;wpYk; Rje;jpukhf ,aq;Fk; Xh;
mikg;ghFk;. ,jw;F rl;lG+h;tkhd jdpj;j tho;T cz;L. ,J xU nraw;if egh;
vd; gjhy;> ,jdhy; ,aw; if xUthpd; %yk;jhd; xg; ge;jj;jpy; <Lgl KbAk;. fk;ngdpapd;
xg;ge;jj; jpwd; mjd; mikg;Gr; rhrdj;jpy; $Wfs; kw;Wk; fk;ngdpr; rl;lk; tpjpfs;
Nghd;wtw;wpdhy; xOq;FgLj;jg;gLfpwJ. vdNt xU fk;ngdpapy; Vw;gLj;jg;gLk;
xg;ge;jk; rpwg;Gr; rl;lk; my;yJ mikg;Gr; rhrdk; Mfpatw;wpdhy; mspf;fg;gl;Ls;s
mjpfhu tuk;gpw;Fs; ,Ue;jhy;> rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$bajhff; fUjg;gLk;. mtw;wpd;
mjpfhu tuk;ig kPwpr; nra;ag;gl;l ve;jr; nraYk; mjpfhu tuk;ig kPwpa kw;Wk;
nry;yhj nrayhFk;.
48
( vi) njhopy; Ghpgth;fs; : ,q;fpyhe;J ehl;by; tof;fwpQh;fisg; ghhp];lh;fs; vd;W

miof;fpd;whh;fs; mth;fs; jq;fsJ njhopy; fl;lzk; rk;ge;jkhf jq;fs; fl;rpf;
fhuh;fSld; xg;ge;jk; nra;J nfhs;s KbahJ Vnddpy; mth;fsJ Nrit rKfj;jpy;
kjpg;Gs;sjhf fUjg;gLfpwJ.
( vii) jpUkzkhd ngz;fs; : xU ngz; xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lglyhk; jdJ nrhj;Jf;fis

mDgtpf;f KO chpikAk; ,tSf;F cz;L jpUkzkhd xU ngz;> tPl;bw;F
Ntz;ba mj;jpatrpaj; Njitfis thq;Fk; nghUl;L jd; fztdpd; ew;ngaiuf;
$l mlF itf;fyhk;.
1. xg;ge;jj; jFjp vd;why; vd;d?
2. kdepiy rhpapy;yhjth; vd;why; vd;d?
3. ,sth; nra;J nfhs;Sk; xg;ge;jq;fspd; nry;Yepiy gw;wp rpW Fwpg;G tiuf.

49
5.4 njhFg; G iu
xg;ge;jj;jpy; <LgLgth;fs; mjw;Fhpa xg;ge;jj; jFjp Ntz;Lk; ikdUld; nra;Ak;

xg;ge;jk; Muk;gKjNy nry;yj;jjh epiy va;JfpwJ rl;lk; ikdh;fSf;Fk; kw;Wk;
kdepiy rhpapy;yhjth;fSf;Fk; ghJfhg;G nfhLf;fpwJ. r%f kjpg;G my;yJ xg;ge;jk;
nra; a jFjpaw; w th; f s; kw; W k; ikdUld; Vw; g Lj; j g; g Lk; cld; g bf; i ffs;
njhlf;fj;jpypUe;Nj nry;yhJ ikdh; jhd; nra;j nraiy gpd;dh; Vw;W cWjpg;gLj;j
KbahJ vd;gij tpthpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ
5.5 Kf;fpar; nrhw;fs;
 ikdh; : 18 taJf;F Fiwthdth;.
 chpik cilath; : 18 taij mile;jh;.
1. ikdh; vd;gth; ahh; ?
2. gpj;Jg; gpbj;jth; ahh; ?
3. kdepiy rhpapy;yhjth; vd;gth; ahh; ? tpsf;Ff.
4. xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lglj; jFjpapy;yhjth;fs; ahth; ?
5. “rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$ba Xh; xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lgl xt;nthU egUf;Fk; jFjpapy;iy”

tpsf;Fk;.
6. xg;ge;jj; jFjp vd;gjd; nghUs; ahJ ? ikdUld; <LgLk; cld;gbf;iffs;

njhlh;ghd rl;lr; ruj;Jf;fis tphpthf tpthp.
7. kdepiy rhpapy;yhjth;fshy; Vw;gLj;jg;gLk; xg;ge;jk; njhlh;ghd rl;lj;ij Ma;T

nra;f.
50
ghlk; - 6
jd;dpr;irahd; ,irT
(Free consent)
fw;wypd; Nehf;f q;f s;:-
 ,irT ,yf;fzk;> ju ,aYk;.
 tYf;fl;lhak;> kw;Wk; Njitahd mk;rq;fis tpsf;f KbAk;.
 jphpj;Jf; $Wjy; kw;Wk; tiffis tpsf;f KbAk;.
 Nkhrbia tpsf;f KbAk;.
 jtW kw;Wk; tifis tpsf;f KbAk;.
ghl mikg;G:-
6.1. Kd; D iu
6.2. jd; d pr;i rahd ,irT
6.3. jfhj epiy tw;G Wj;j y;
6.4. jphpj;Jf; $Wjy;
6.5. Nkhrb
6.6. jtW
6.7. njhFg;G iu

51
6.1. Kd; D iu
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jpd;gb ,irT vd;gJ gphpT-13",uz;L my;yJ mjw;F

Nkw;g l; lth; fs; xU fUj;j piz XNu Neuj; jpy; > XNu mh;j ;j j; jpy; Ghpe; Jnfhz; L
nray;gLtjhFk;”. ,U egh;fs; cld;ghL nra;J nfhs;Sk; nghOJ XNu fUj;jpizf;
nfhz;lth;fshf ,Ue;jhy; kl;Lk; NghJkhdjy;y. mth;fspd; ,irTk; cz;ikahdjhfTk;
jd;dpr;irahdjhfTk; ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
6.2. jd;dpr;irahd ,irT
(i) ,irT : ,irT vd;gJ gphpT-13 ,irT vd;w nrhy;Yf;F gpd;tUkhW ,yf;fzk;
tiufpwJ “,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l egh;fs; XNu fUj;jpiz XNu Nehf;fpy;
,irtspj;J Vw;Wf; nfhz;lhy; mJ ,irT MFk;”.
(ii) jd;dpr;irahd ,irT : cld;gbf;ifapy; <LgLk; egh;fs; cld;gbf;ifapd;

cl;nghUl;fs; njhlh;ghd xUkpj;j fUj;ij $bath;fshf ,Ue;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
mth;fs; cld;ghl;Lg; nghUs; Fwpj;J XNu fUj;Jilath;fshf ,Ue;jhYk;> me;j
cld;ghl;bw;F mspf;fpd;w ,irT jd;dpr;irahd (Free) gpwUila Jz;LjYkpd;wpAk;
fhl;lhakpd;wpAk; mspf;fg;gl;LUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jpd; gphpT-14 ,jd;gb> jd;dpr;irahd ,irT gpd;tUk;

fhuzq;fshy; ghjpf;fg;gl;bUf;ff; $lhJ.
1. tYf;fl;lhak; (Coercion)
2. jfh epiy tw;GWj;jy; (Under Influence)
3. Nkhrb (Fraud)
4. jphpj;Jf; $Wjy; (Misrepresentation)
5. jtW (Mistake)
52
(iii) xj;j ,irTilik (Consensus ad Idem) : xg;ge;jj;jpy; <LgLk; egh;fsplk; kd

xw;Wik ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. mth;fs; xU tp\aj;ij> XNu Neuj;jpy;> XNu Nehf;Fld;
cld;gl Ntz;Lk;. mth;fspd; ,irT cz;ikahdjhfTk; jd;dpr;irahdjhfTk;
, Uj ;j y ; Nt z ;L k ;. , i j Na ehk ; x j ;j , i r T i l a (Consensus ad Idem) vd;fpNwhk;.
(iv) tzpfr; rl;lq;fs; : fUj;njhw;Wik ,y;yhj fhuzj;jpdhy; me;j cld;ghL

rl;lg;gb nry;YgbahfhJ.
(v) jd;d pr;iraw;w ,irT : jd;dpr;iraw;w ,irT vd;gJ tYf;fl;lhak;> jfh

epiy tw;GWj;jy;> Nkhrb> jphpj;Jf; fhl;ly;> Kjy; ehd;F fhuzq;fSs; VNjDk;
xd;wpdhy; ,irT jug;gl;bUg;gpd;> mt;tpirT jd;dpr;iraw;w ,irT vdg;gLfpwJ.
,e;j ehd;F fhuzq;fSk; VNjDk; xd;wpd; %yk; ,irT ngwg;gl;bUg;gpd;> mJ
,irtpd; gz;igNa nfhLj;J tpLfpwJ.
6.2.1. tYf;f l;l hak; (Coercion)
,U egh;fs; cld;gbf;if nra;J nfhs;Sk; nghOJ> xUth; kw;nwhUthpd; ,iritg;

ngw Ntz;Lk;. mt;thW ngwg;gLk; ,irT jd;dpr;irahdjhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. xUtiuf;
fl;lhag;gLj;jpNah> tw;GWj;jpNah> gaKWj;jpNah> ngwg;gLk; ,irT rl;lg;gb nry;yhJ.
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jpd; gphpT-15 ,d;gb “xUtid cld;gl itf;f Ntz;Lk;

vd;w Nehf;fj;Jld;> ,e;jpaf; Fw;wtpay; rl;lj;jpy; jilnra;ag;gl;Ls;s nray; vijNaDk;
nra;jy; my;yJ nra;ag;Nghtjhf gaKWj;Jjy;> kw;wtuJ nrhj;ij mtUf;Fg; ghjfk;
tpistpf; Fk; tifapy; rl;l j; Jf; F Kuzhf epWj; jp itj; jy; my; yJ epWj;j p
itf;fg;Nghtjhf gaKWj;Jjy; tYf;fl;lhak;” vdg;gLk;.
6.2.2. tYf;fl;lhaj;jpw;Fj; Njitahd mk;rq;fs; (Essentials of a Coercion)
(i) ,e;j pa jz;l idr; rl;l j;j py; jilnra;a g;g l;l xU nraiyr; nra;j y; :
,e;jpa jz;lidr; rl;lj;jpy; jilnra;ag;gl;l xU nraiyr; nra;tjd; %yk;
ngwg;gl;l ,irT tYf;fl;lhaj;jhy; ngwg;gl;l ,irT vdg;gLfpwJ.
53
(ii) ,e; j pa jz; l idr; rl; l j; j py; jilnra; a g; g l; l nraiyr; nra; t jhf
mr;RWj;jy; : ,e;jpa jz;lidr; rl;lj;jpy; jilnra;ag;gl;lxU nraiyr; nra;tjhf
mr;RWj;jy; %yk; ngwg;gl;l ,irT tYf;fl;lhaj;jhy; ngwg;gl;l ,irT vdg;gLfpwJ.
(iii) rl;l j;j pw;F Kuzhf nrhj;ij epwj;jp itj;jy; : kw;wtUf;F chpikahd
nrhj;ij my;yJ nghUis mtUf;fj; jPq;F tpistpf;Fk; tifapy; rl;lj;jpw;Fg;
Kuzhf nrhj;ij epwj;jp itf;Fk; nraYk; tYf;fl;lhakhFk;.
(iv) rl;lj;jpw;F Kuzhf nrhj;ij epWj;jp itg;gjhf mr;RWj;Jjy; : kw;wtUf;F

chpikahd nrhj;ij my;yJ nghUis rl;lj;jpw;F Kuzhf nrhj;ij epWj;jp
itg;gjhf gaKWj;jp ,irT ngwg;gl;bUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
6.2.3. tYf;fl;lhaj;jpd; tpisT (Effect of Coercion)
xU eghplkpUe; J ngwg; g l; l ,irthy; Vw; g l; l cld; g bf; i f mt; t hW

tYf;fl;lhaj;jhy; ,irtspj;j eghpd; tpUg;gj;jpw;fpzq;f jtph;f;ff; $bajhFk;. NkYk;
mt;tpj xg;ge;jj;jpd; fPo; mspf;fg;gl;l gzk; my;yJ nghUl;fisAk; $l jpUk;gg;
ngw;Wf; nfhs;s me;egUf;F chpik cs;sJ.
,e;jpa xg;ge;j rl;lj;jpd; gb tYf;fl;lhakhd xg;ge;jjpd; %yk; ngwg;gl;l nghUs;

my;yJ gzk; jpUk;gpj; jugl Ntz;Lk;. tYf;fl;lhaj;jpdhy; Vw;gLk; Kuz;ghL jtph;jF
(Voidable) epiyAilajhFk;. xU xg;ge;jj;jpy; tYf;fl;lhakhf ,irTg; ngwg;gl;bUe;jhy;>
mij ep&gpf;Fk; nghWg;G ghjpf;fg;gl;l tiuNa rhh;e;jJ. tYf;fl;lhakhf Vw;gLk;
xg;ge;jk; ePbj;J epw;fhJ.
6.2.4. clw;f l;l hak; ( Duress)
,q;fpyhe;jpy;> tYf;fl;lhak; vd;gJ clw;fl;lhak; vd;Nw miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
(i) cld;ghl;by; <LgLk; egh; my;yJ mth; FLk;gj;jpdhpd; caph; my;yJ chpikf;F
vjpuhf kl;LNk ,ijg; gad;gLj;j KbAk;.
54
(ii) cld;ghl;by; <LgLk; egh;fspy; xUth; my;yJ mtuJ Kftuhy; kl;LNk

clw;fl;lhak; nra;ag; gl Ntz;Lk;.
(iii) nghUl;fis rl;lj;jpw;Fg; Gwk;ghf epWj;jp itf;Fk; nray; clw;fl;lhakhfhJ.
(iv) clw;fl;lhak; cldbahf jPikfis Vw;gLj;jf; $bajhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
6.3. jfhj epiy tw;GWj;jy; (Undue influence)
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jpd; gb jfhj epiy tw;GWj;jy; vd;gJ xg;ge;jk; nra;J

nfhz;l egh;fSf;fpilNaAs;s cwTfs;> xUth; kw;wtUila rpe;jidj; jpwid mlf;fp
Nkyhjpf;fk; nra;af; $ba cah; epiyapypUe;J> mth; mij gad;gLj;jp Neh;ikaw;w
Kiwapy;> xU eyid mile;J nfhz;lhy; mt;nthg;ge;jk; jfhj epiy tw;GWj;jyhy;
J}z;lg;gl;l xg;ge;jkhFk;.
,e;jpa xg;ge;jk; rl;lj;jpd; gb xUth; kw;nwhUtUila rpe;jidj; jpwid mlf;fp

Mjpf;fk; nra;af; $ba epiyia gpd;tUkhW tpsf;FfpwJ.
(i) xUth; kw; nwhUth;N ky; cz; i kahd my; y J ntspg;g ilahd mjpfhuk;
nfhz;bUj;jy;.
(ii) xUth; kw;nwhUth; Nky; nghWg;ghd;ik cwitf; nfhz;bUj;jy;.
(iii) mt;tpjk; Nkyhjpf;fk; nrYj;Jk; epiyiag; gad;gLj;jp> Nkyhjpf;fk; nrYj;Jk;

epiyiag; gad;gLj;jp> Nkyhjpf;fk; nrYj;Jk; me;egh;> Neh;ikaw;w Kiwapy;
gadilfpwhh;.
6.3.1. ep&gpf;Fk; nghWg;G (Burden of Proof)
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk; 16(3)d; gb kw;wthpd; rpe;jidj; jpwid mlf;fp Nkyhjpf;fk;

nrYj;Jk; epiyapy; ,Uf; Fk; xU egh; mk;kw;wtUld; xg; ge;jj;jpy; <LgLfpwhh;.
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me;eltbf;ifapd; Njhw;wj;jpNy mJ epiwNtw;wf;$lhj mstpw;Fk; gLNkhrkhdJ vd;gJk;

ntspg;gilahfg; Gyg;gLfpwJ. jfhj Kiwapy; tw;GWj;jiyg; gad;gLj;jp xU xg;ge;jk;
Vw;gl;Ltpl;lhy; mJ jfhj tw;GWj;jyhy; Vw;gl;lJ vd;W ep&gpf;fk; nghWg;G mk;;Kiwapy;
Mjpf;fk; nrYj;jpatiur; rhuhJ mk;Kiwapy; ghjpf;fg;gl;ltiu jhd; rhUk;.
6.3.2. jfhj epiy tw;GWj;jypd; tpisT (Effect at Undue Influence)
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jpd; gb cld;ghL nra;J nfhs;Sk; ,Uegh;fspd; xUthpd;

,irT jfhj epiy tw;GWj;jy; fhuzkhfg; ngwg;gl;bUe;jhy; me;j cld;ghL jtph;jF
(Voidable) epiyAilajhFk;. mt;tpj xg;ge;jk; KOtJk; jtph;f;fg;glyhk;. my;yJ
mij jtph;f;Fk; chpik ngw;wth; VjhtJ gyid mile;jpUe;jhy; ePjpkd;wj;jpw;F
epahak; vd;W njhpatUk; epiyapy; mjid jpUk;gpj; ju cj;jputplyhk;.
6.3.3. tYf;f l;lhaj;j pw;F k; jfhj epiy tw;G Wj;j Yf;F k; ,ilNaAs;s
NtWghLfs; (Difference Betwees Coercion And Undue Influence)
tYf;f l;l hak; (Coercion) jfhj epiy tw;G Wj;j y;

(Undue Influence)
1. tYf;fl;lhaj;jpd; fPo;> Fw;wk; ,q;F ,irT kdjpy; ghjpg;ig Vw;gLj;jpg;

xd;iwr; nra;Njh my;yJ ngwg;gLfpwJ.
nra;tjhfNth gaKWj;jp ,irT
ngwg;gLfpwJ.
2. rpy jilnra;ag;gl;l eltbf;ifapy; xUth; kw;nwhUthpd; rpe;jidj; jpwid

,J Vw;gLk;. mlf;fp cah; Mjpf;fk; nra;tjhy; ,J
Vw;gLfpwJ.
3. ,J ve;j eguhYk; nra;ag;glyhk;. xg;ge;jj;jpy; <LgLk; egh;fshy; kl;Lk;

jhd; nra;a KbAk;
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4. tYf;fl;lhaj;jhy; xg;ge;jk; jfhj epiy tw;GWj;jy; xg;ge;jk;

ghjpf;fg;gl;lhy; ed;ikfisj; ghjpf;fg;gl;lhy; xUth; ngw;w ed;ikfis
jpUk;gpj; ju Ntz;Lk;. .jpUk;gpj; ju Ntz;LNkh ,y;iyah
vd;gij ePjpkd;wk; jPh;khdpf;f
Ntz;Lk;.
5. tYf;fl;lhar; nraiy jfhj epiy tw;GWj;jYf;F cs;ehl;by;

ntspehl;bypUe;J $l nra;ayhk;. ,Ue;J jhd; nra;a KbAk;.
6. tYf;fl;lhaj;jpy;> td;Kiw my;yJ ,jpy; kdk; rhh;e;j rf;jp mlq;fpAs;sJ.

cly;rhh;e;j rf;jp mlq;fpAs;sJ.
6.4. jphpj;Jf; $Wjy; (Misrepresentation)
xU egh; xU tp\aj;ij cz;ik vd ek;gp #o;r;rp vJTk; nra;ahky;> jtwhfj;

jphpj;Jf; $wptpl;lhy;> mJ jphpj;Jf; $Wjy; vdg;gLfpwJ. $wg;gl;l tp\ak; jtW vd
mijj; $wpa egUf;Fj; njhpe;jpUf;Fk; vdpy;> mJ Nkhrb my;yJ Nkhrbahfj; jphpj;Jf;
$Wjy; vdg;gLk;. Mdhy; mt;tp\ak; cz;ikahf ek;gg;gLk; nghOJ> mJ #o;r;rpaw;w
jphpj;Jf; $Wjy; vdg;gLk;.
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jpd; gb jphpj;Jf; $WjYf;Fg; gpd;tUkhW ,yf;fzk; tFf;fpwJ.
i) xUth; kw;wtUf;F vLj;Jf; $Wk; nra;jpapid jhd; cz;ik vd;W ek;gp kw;wtiuAk;
ek;gr; nra;tJ.
ii) xUth; xg;ge;jj;jpd; ikaf; fUj;jpid jtwhf vLj;Jr; nry;Yk; NghJ jphpe;Jf;
$wy; epfo;fpwJ.
iii) xUth; kw;wtiu jtwhd topapy; jdf;F rhjfkhf xU gaidg; ngWtjw;fhf

jd;Dila flikfspy; ,Ue;J jtwp nrayhw;WtjhFk;.
7.1.1. jphpj;Jf; $Wjypd; Kf;fpaf; $Wfs; (Essential Elements of Misrepresentation)
i) kw;nwhU egiu xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lglitf;Fk; Nehf;Fld; nra;ag;gl;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;.

57
ii) ,it Kf;fpakhd tp\aj;Jld; njhlh;Gilajhf ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
iii) ,J ehl;bd; rl;lj;NjhL njhlh;Gilajhf ,Uj;jy; $lhJ.
iv) ,it xg;ge;jk; Vw;gLtjw;F Kd;dhy; nra;ag; gl;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
v) ,J cz;ikaw;wjhf ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
vi) jphpe;J $Wjy; ve;jtpjr; #o;r;rpAk; ,d;wp Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
vii) jphpj;J $Wjy;> mij cz;ik vd;W ek;Gth;fshy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
6.4.2 jphpj;Jf; $Wjypd; tiffs; (Kinds of Misrepresentation)
( i) fsq;fkw;w jphpj;Jf; $Wjy; : ,Uegh;fs; xg;ge;jk; nra;J nfhs;Sk; nghOJ

cld;ghl;Lg; nghUs; Fwpj;J jhd; $Wk; tp\aq;fs; ngha;ahdit my;y> mit
cz;ikahdit vd xUth; kdjhu ek;gp me;j tptuq;fis mspj;jhy; mJ
fsq;fkw;w jphpj;Jf; $Wjy; MFk;.
xUth; kw;nwhUtUf;F cld;ghl;Lg; nghUs; Fwpj;J tptuq;fs; vLj;Jiuf;f Ntz;Lk;.

mj;jifa vLj;Jiug;G gpd;dh; cz;ikaw;wjhf khw Ntz;Lk; mj;jifa vLj;Jiug;G
kWjug;gpdiu cld;ghl;by; Nruj;J}z;Lfpd;w msTf;F typikAilajha; ,Uj;jy;
Ntz;Lk;.
( ii ) Nkhrbahd jphpj;Jf; $Wjy; : xUth; kw;nwhUtiu Vkhw;wNtz;Lk; vd;w nfl;l

vz;zj;Jld; cld;ghl;Lg; nghUs; Fwpj;J ngha;ahd tptuq;fis nfhLj;J mjd;
%yk; kw;wtiu ek;gitj;J jd;Dld; xg;ge;jk; nra;J nfhs;sj; J}z;bdhy;
mij Nkhrbahd jphpj;Jf; $Wjy; vdg;gLk;.
58
6.4.3. jphpj;Jf; $Wjypd; tpisTfs; (Consequences of Misrepresentation)
(i) jphpj;Jf; $wpaij rhpnra;AkhW tw;GWj;jp xg;ge;jj;ij cWjp nra;ayhk;.
(ii) mth; mt;nthg;ge;jj;ijj; jtph;j;J tplyhk;.
(iii) ,U egh;fs; xg;ge;jk; nra;J nfhs;Sk; nghOJ xUthpd; ,irT kWjug;gpdhpd;

jphpj; Jf; $Wjypy; fhuzkhff; ngwg;g l;b Ue; jhy; me;j xg;g e; j k; jtph;j F
epiyAilanjd xg;ge;jkhFk;.
(iv) ,U egh;fs; xg;ge;jk; nra;J nfhs;Sk; nghOJ xUthpd; ,irT Nkhrbahy;

ngwg;gl;bUe;jhy; me;j xg;ge;jk; jtph;jF epiyAilajhFk;.
6.5. Nkhrb (Fraud)
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk; 17-tJ gphpTgb Nkhrb vd;gJ xg;ge;jj;jpy; xU egh;

my;yJ mtuJ Kfth; vjph; jug;gpdiu my;yJ mtuJ Kftiu Vkhw;Wk; Nehf;fj;NjhL
xg;ge;jjpw;Fr; rk;kjpf;FkhW J}z;Lk; mz;zj;Jld; gpd;tUk; nray;fspy; VNjDk;
xd;wpid nra;jhYk; mJ NkhrbahFk;.
i) cz;iknad ek;gKbahj my;yJ Nkhrb vd mwpag;gl;l Xh; tp\ak; njhlh;ghd

Nkhrbahd Xh; ghpe;Jiu.
ii) cz;ik vd;W njhpe;jpUe;Jk; mjid Ntz;Lnkd;Nw kiwj;jy;.
iii) epiwNtw;w Ntz;Lk; vd;w Nehf;fNkkpy;yhky;> jug;gl;l thf;FWjp.
iv) Vkhw;wf;$ba VNjDk; NtW nraiyr; nra;jy;.
v) Nkhrbnad rl;lk; mwptpf;Fk; nraiy nra;jy;.
Xh; xg;ge;jj;jpy; ,U egh;fs; <LgLk; nghOJ xUtuJ tpUg;gj;ijg; ghjpf;ff;

$bait gw;wp xd;Wk; nrhy;yhky; ,Uj;jy; kl;LNk NkhrbahfhJ. Mdhy; nrhy;y
Ntz;ba cz;ikfisr; nrhy;YtJ mth; flik vd;fpd;w #o;epiyapy; mth; mijr;
nrhy;yhky; nksdk; rhjpg;gJk; NkhrbahFk;.
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cjhuzk; x vd;gth; y vd;gtUf;F jk;Kila NehAw;w gRkhLia Vyj;jpy;

tpw;fpwhh;. gRkhLtpd; NehAw;w jd;ikia gw;wp x, y aplk; vJTk; $wtpy;iy. x iag;
nghWj;jkl;by;> ,J Nkhrbay;y.
6.5.1. Nkhrbf;F Njitg;gLk; mbg;gilf; $Wfs; (Elements of fraud)
( i) nray;> kw;nwhU egiu cz;ikapNyNa Vkhw;wp ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. (The

act must have in fact deceived the other party) : jtWjyhd KiwaPL Vkhw;w
Ntz;Lk; vd;w Nehf;fj;Jld; nra;ag;gl;bUe;jy; Ntz;Lk;. kw;Wk; cz;ikapy;
Vkhw;wpAk; ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk; Vkhw;whj Va;g;G xd;W NkhrbNa my;y.
(ii) kw;nwhU egh; e\;lkile;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk; (The other Party musthave suffered
Loss) : ‘e\;lkpy;iyNay; Nkhrbapy;iy’ vd;gJ rl;lj;jpd; nghJ tpjpahFk;.
vdNt e\;lkpy;yhj Nkhrb> Vkhw;wj;jpw;F toptFf;fhJ.
(iii) Nkhrb gw;wp mwpT (Knowledge of Falsity) : nra;jp cz;ikah my;yJ ngha;ah>
vd;w ftiyNaapy;yhky; my;yJ mij cz;ik vd;W ek;ghky; my;yJ mJ
Nkhrbjhd; vd;gij mwpe;Nj KiwaPL nra;ag; gl;bUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
(iv) jtwhd KiwaPL my;yJ tw;GWj;jy; ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk; (There must be a

false representation) : Nkhrb Vw;gLj;jg;gl;l Ntz;Lnkdpy; jk;khy; gpwUf;F
mwptpf;fg;gl Ntz;ba cz;ikahd xU cz;ikia ntspaplhJ kiwj;J itj;jy;
my;yJ jkf;Fj; njhpe;j cz;ikia Ntz;Lnkd;Nw jtWjyhfj; jphpj;Jf; $Wjy;
,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
(v) KiwaPL fz;$lhd Xh; epfo;r;rpahf ,Uj;jy; (Representation must be a

fact) : KiwaPL my;yJ tw;GWj;jy;> ntWk; Nehf;fkhfNth my;yJ fUj;jpd;
ntspg;glhfNth ,y;yhky;> fz;$lhd Xh; epfo;r;rpahf ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
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6.5.2. Nkhrbf; F k; jphpj; J f; $WjYf; F k; ,ilNaAs; s NtWghLfs;

(Difference between Misrepresentation and Fraud)
6.6 jtW (Mistake)
xUtH kw;wtiu jtWjyhfg; Ghpe;Jnfhs;s top tFf;Fk; jtWjyhd ek;gpf;ifNa

jtW vd tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ. nghJthf> xg;ge;jj;jpd; $Wfis mjpfk; <LgLk;
egHfs; KOikahfg; Ghpe;J nfhs;shjjhYk; mtw;iw khWgl;l Nehf;fpy; ghHg;gjhYNk
jtW Vw;gLfpwJ. jtW ,Utifg;gLk; jtWfs; nghJthf nghUz;ikj; jtwhfNth
rl;lj; jtwhfNth ,Uf;fyhk;.
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6.6.1 jtwpd; tiffs;
1) nghUz;ikj;jtW
m),U jiyj;jtW (Bilaheral Mistake)
M)xU jiyj;jtW (Unilateral Mistake)
2) rl;lj;jtW
m),e;jpa ehl;Lr; rl;lj;jtW
M)ntspehl;Lr; rl;lj;jtW
6.6.2 nghUz;i kj; j tW
m) ,Ujiy jtW
,U eguhYk; nra;ag;gLk; jtW ,Ugf;fkhd jtW vdg;gLk; ,t;tpjj; jtWfs;

nry;yhjit MFk;. ,Ugf;fKk; jtW Vw;gl Ntz;Lnkdpy;
(i) cld;ghl;Lg; nghUs; capUld; ,Ug;gJ njhlHghd jtWfs;
(ii) cld;ghl;Lg; nghUspd; msTj; njhlHghd jtWfs;
(iii) cld;ghl;Lg; nghUspd; jd;ik njhlHghd jtWfs;
(iv) cld;ghl;Lg; nghUspd; milahsk; njhlh;ghd jtWfs;
(v) cld;ghl;Lg; nghUspd; chpik njhlHghd jtWfs;
(vi) ,uz;L egHfsplKk; jtW ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
(vii) cld;gbf;iff;F kpf Kf;fpakhd xU nra;jpAld; njhlHGilajhf jtW

,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. ,t;tpjj; jtW cld;gbf;ifia nry;yhjjhf;fp tpLfpwJ.
M) xU jiyj;jtW
xg;ge;jj;jpd; rl;lr; rpf;fy;fSlNdh my;yJ rl;lj;jpd; cl;nghUs;> $WfSlNdh

62
njhlHGila jtW xUgf;fkhd jtwhFk;. nghJthff; $wpdhy;> cld;gbf;ifapy;

<Lgl;Ls;s egh;fSs; xUtH jtwpioj;jhy; xg;ge;jk; nry;yhjhfhJ. mJ rl;lg;gb
epiwNtw;wg;glf; $bajhFk;.
(i) xU jiyf; jtw;wpdhy; cld;ghl;bd; jd;ik khwpdhy; cld;ghL

,y;yhepiyaJ MfpwJ.
(ii) cld;ghL nra;Ak; egH Fwpj;J xUjiyf; jtW Vw;gl;lhy; mJ cld;ghL

,y;iy epiyahfp tpLfpwJ.
6.6.3 rl; l j;j tW
jtWfs; rl;lj;jpd; njhlHGilajhfTk; ,Uf;fyhk;. rl;lj;jtW ,Utifg;gLk;.

mit gpd;tUkhW.
(m) ,e;jpa ehl;L r; rl;lj;jtW
xt;nthU egUk; ehl; bd; rl;lj;ij mwpe;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;W vjpHg;ghHf;fg;gLfpwJ.

rl;lk; njhlHghd jtwpiof;Fk; nghOJ> mtd; mr;rl;lk; gw;wp vdf;F xd;Wk;
njhpahJ vd;W fhuzk; fhl;b thjk; nra;a KbahJ. rl;lk; njhpahJ vd;gij
kd;dpf;f KbahJ mjhtJ rl;lk; njhpahJ vd;gJ rl;lj;jpypUe;J jg;gpg;gjw;fhd
topay;y.
(M) ntspehl;L r; rl;l j;j tW
rl;lk; njhpahJ vd;gij kd;dpf;f KbahJ vd;w Nfhl;ghL ntspehl;Lr; rl;lj;

jtWf;Fk; nghUe;jhJ. Vnddpy; cyfpYs;s midj;J ehLfSila midj;Jr;
rl;lq;fisAk; xt;nthU egUk; mwpe;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;W vjpHghHf;f KbahJ.
MfNt xg;ge;jj;jpy; <LgLk; egHfSs; xUtH> xU ntspehl;L rl;lj;jpy; VNjDk;
jtwpioj;J tpl;lhy;> mt;nthg;ge;jk; nry;yhj xg;ge;jkhfhJ.
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1. tYf;fl;lhaj;jpw;Fk; jfhjepiy tw;GWj;jYf;Fk; cs;s NtWghl;Lfspy; ,uz;bid

vOJf:
2. jphpj;Jf; $Wjy; vd;why; vd;d?
6.7 njhFg; G iu
,g;ghlj;jpy; fPo;f;fz;ltiffis gbj;J njhpe;J nfhz;L ,Ug;gPHfs;. jd;dpr;irahd

,irT> tYf;fl;lhak;> jfhjepiy tw;GWj;jy;> Nkhrb> jphpj;Jf; fhl;ly;> jtW ,it
gw;wp nrhy;yg;gl;Ls;sJ. Nkhrbf;Fk; jphpj;Jf; $WjYf;Fk; ,ilNaAs;s NtWghLfs;
kw;Wk; tYf;fl;lhaj;jpw;Fk; jfhj epiy tw;GWj;jYf;Fk; ,ilNaAs;s NtWghLfs;
gw;wp tpthpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 jphpj;Jf; $Wjy; : cz;ikaw;w tptuq;fs; nfhLj;J mjd;%yk; kw;wtiu

cld;ghL nra;aj; J}z;Ljy;.
 jtW : xUtH kw;wtiu jtWjyhfg; Ghpe;J nfhs;s top tFf;Fk; jtWjyhd

ek;gpf;if
 Nkhrb : xU cz;ik vd;W njhpe;jpUe;Jk; mjid Ntz;Lnkd;Nw kiwj;jy;

64
1. jd;dpr;irahd ,irtpd; nghUis jUf.
2. tYf;fl;lhaj;jpd; tpisT ahJ?
3. jphpj;Jf; $WjYf;Fk; Nkhrbf;Fk; cs;s NtWghl;ilj; jUf.
4. ,Ugf;fkhd jtWfs; ahit?
5. jfhj nry;thf;F vd;why; vd;d?
6. Nkhrbapd; $Wfs; ahit?
7. jtW vd;gJ ahJ?
8. jfhjepiy tw;GWj;jypd; ,yf;fzk; tiuf?

65
ghlk; - 7
rl;lhPjpahd Nehf;fk; kw;Wk; nry;yhj cld;gbf;if

(Legality of Object and Void Agreement)
ghlj;ij fw;wgpd; ePq;fs;
 rl;lg;gb Nehf;fj;ij gw;wp tpsf;fKbAk;.
 rl;lg;gb Fw;wkhd cld;gbf;iffis tpsf;fKbAk;
 nghJf;nfhs;iff;F vjpuhd cld;gbf;iffs; gw;wp tpsf;fKbAk;
 nry;yhj cld;gbf;iffs; tpsf;fk; juKbAk;
 gida cld;ghl;bd; Kf;fpaf; $W tpsf;fKbAk;
 gizak; itf;Fk; cld;gbf;iffspd; tpisTfis tpsf;fKbAk;.
ghl mikg;G
7.1 Kd; D iu
7.2 rl;lg;gb Fw;w khd Nehf;fk;
7.3 rl;lg;g b Fw;w khd cld;g bf;iffs;
7.4 rl;l Kuzhd cld;g hL
7.5 nghJf;n fhs; i ff;F vjpuhd cld;g bf;i ffs;
7.6 tpjptpyf; F fs;
7.7 nry; y hj cld;g bf;i ffs;
7.8 giza cld;g hl;b d; Kf;fpaf;$ Wfs;

66
7.9. njhFg; G iu
7.1 Kd; D iu
“rl;;lhPjp” vd;w nrhy;Yf;F “rl;lj;jhy; mDkjpf;fg;gl;l” vd;gJ nghUs;. ,e;jpa

xg;ge;jr;rl;lj;jpd; gphpT 10 kw;Wk; 23,d;gb rl;lG+Ht kWgad; kw;Wk; rl;lG+Ht
Nehf;fj;ijAila xH xg;ge;jNk rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$bajhfTk; eilKiwg;gLj;jf;
$bajhfTk; ,Uf;Fk;. “nehf;fk;” vd;gJ Kd;khjphp my;yJ cs;Nehf;fkhFk;. “kWgad;”
vd;gJ xd;Wf;Fg; gjpyhf ngWtJ my;yJ gphpjpgyd; MFk;. rpy rkaq;fspy;>
cld;gbf;ifapd; Nehf;fk; rl;lj;jpw;F Gwk;ghdjhfTk; ,Uf;fyhk; . ,e;epiyfspy; cld;ghL
nry;yhj epiyia milAk;. vdNt> kWgaDk; Nehf;fKk; rl;lhPjpahditfshf
,Uf;fNtz;Lk;. ,y;yhtpby; xg;ge;jk; nry;yhj epiyia mile;JtpLk;.
7.2 rl;lg;gb Fw;wkhd Nehf;fk; :
1. rl;l j;j hy; jilnra;a g;g l;l it : nghJtpjpf;Nfh my;yJ VNjDk; rl;lj;jpd;
tpjpfSf;Nfh Gwk;ghd xH cld;gbf;if nry;yhj cld;gbf;ifahFk;.
rl;lj;jhy; cld;gbf;if xd;wpd;kPJ VNjDk; jz;lidr; Rkj;jpapUf;Fk;
gl;rj;jpy;> mt;Tld;gbf;if rl;lj;jhy; jilnra;ag;gl;l cld;gbf;ifahff;
fUjg;gLk;.
cjhuzk; X vd;gtH Y vd;gtUf;F murhq;fj;jpy; xUNtiy thq;fpj; jUfpNwd;

vd; W thf; FWjp mspf; fpwhH. Y-Ak; mjw; F &.2>00>000 / - x-f; F j; jUtjhf
thf;FWjpaspf;fpwhH. mt;Tld;gbf;if nry;yhJ. Vnddpy;> mjw;Fhpa kWgad;
rl;lg;gb Fw;wkhdjhFk;.
67
2. rl;lj;jpw;F Gwk;ghdit my;yJ rl;l tpjpfSf;F Kuz;gl;lit : cld;gbf;if

xd;wpd; Nehf;fk; my;yJ kWgad; mDkjpf;fg;gl;lhy;> VNjDk; rl;lj;jpd;
cl;gphpTfis Njhy;tpailar; nra;Ak; jd;ikAilajhf ,Ug;gpd;> mt;Tld;gbf;if
nry;yhJ.
cjhuzk; ,e;J kjj;ijr; rhHe;j xU je;ij jkf;F tUlj;jpw;F gbia kWgadhfj;

jUk; gl;rj;jpy; jdJ kfid xUtUf;F jj;Jf; nfhLf;fr; rk;kjpf;fpwhH. ,J
,e;Jr rl;lf; Nfhl;ghl;bw;F KuzhdJ vd;gjhy;> ,t;Tld;gbf;if nry;yhJ vd
jPHg;gspf;fg;gl;lJ.
3. Nkhrb Nehf;fk; nfhz;lit : kw;wtiu Nkhrb nra;Ak; Nehf;fj;Jld; <Lgl;l

cld;gbf;if nry;yhj cld;gbf;ifahFk;.
cjhuzk; ek; ehl;bypUe;J nghUl;fis flj;Jk; Nehf;fj;Jld; tpw;f cld;gLtJ

nry;yhj cld;ghlhFk;
4. xU egUf;Nfh my;yJ mtUila nrhj;Jf;Nfh jPq;F ,iog;gjhf ,Ue;jhy;

: xh; cld;gbf;if xU egUf;Nfh my;yJ mtuJ nrhj;Jf;Nfh jPq;Fiof;Fk;
Nehf;Fld; Vw;gl;bUg;gpd;> mjd; Nehf;fk; my;yJ kWgad; rl;lg;gb Fw;wkhdjhFk;.
mt; tpj cld;gbf; ifapd; Nehf;fk; rl;lg; gb Fw; wkhdjy;y> mt;Tld; gbf;if nry;yhJ.
cjhuzk; x vd;gth; Y vd;w xU gj;jphpf;if Mrphpahplk; z vd;gtUf;F vjpuhf

mtJ}whd fl;Liu xd;iwg; gpuRhpf;FkhW Nfl;fpwhH. mjw;F x vd;gtH y-f;F &
500 jUtjhfTk; thf;FWjpaspf;fpwhH. mJ z-f;Fj; jPq;fpiog;gjhf ,Ug;gjhy;>
mt;Tld;gbf;if nry;yhJ> mj;njhifiag; ngw Y-ahy; tof;Fj; njhluTk; KbahJ
(W.H ];kpj; Mz;;L fk;ngdp v.fpspd;ld; 1908)
5. xOf;ff; NfLfs; : xU cld;gbf;ifapd; Nehf;fk; my;yJ kWgad; jtwhd

vz;zKilajhf ,Ue;jhy;> mJ nry;yhJ.
6. r%f Nfhl;ghl;bw;F Kuz;gl;l it : xH cld;gbf;if nghJf; nfhs;iff;F

vjpuhdJ vd ePjpkd;wk; fUJk;nghOJ> mt;Tld;gbf;if rl;lg;gb Fw;wkhd
cld;gbf;if vdf; fUjg;gLfpwJ. mt;tpj cld;gbf;iffs;> mtw;wpy; <Lgl;Ls;s
egHfSs; vtuhYk; $l nray;gLj;jg;gl KbahJ.
68
cjhuzk; Coiy tsHf;Fk; ve;jtpj cld;gbf;ifAk; nghJf; nfhs;iff;F

vjpuhd cld;gbf;ifNa MFk;.
7.3 rl;lg;gb Fw;wkhd cld;gbf;iffs; (Unlawful Agreement)
 rl;lj;jhy; eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gl Kbahj xH cld;gbf;ifNa rl;lg;gb Fw;wkhd

cld;gbf;ifahFk;.
 rl;lj;jpd; fz;Nzhl;lj;jpy; ,jw;F rl;lk; rhHe;j tho;T ,y;iy. ,J ,jd;

njhlf;fj;jpypUe;Nj nry;yhjJ MFk;.
 ,J mjDld; Neubahf njhlHGila egHfis kl;LNk ghjpf;Fk; ,jpy; Nkw;nfhz;L

gpd; tpisTfs; VJkpy;iy.
 rl;lj;Jf;F khwhd cld;gbf;iffs; mjd; njhlf;fjpypUe;Nj mjpy; <Lgl;Ls;s

egHfSf;fpilNa kl;Lky;yhky; mijr; rhHe;Js;s eltbf;iffisAk; nry;yhjjhfp
tpLfpwJ.
 rl; l j; j pw; F g; Gwk; g hd cld; g bf; i ffs; vg; n ghOJNk rl; l g; g b Fw; w khd
cld;gbf;iffshFk;.
 rl;lg;gb Fw;wkhd nray;fs; rl;lj;jpd; tiuaiwfis ntspg;gilahf kPWtjpy;iy.

,J nghJ xOf;fj;ij ghjpg;gjpy;iy. nghJf; nfhs;iff;F vjpuhf ve;jr;
nraYk; nra;ag;gLtJkpy;iy. ,jpy; tzpff; fl;Lg;ghL Nghd;w Fw;wtpay;
rhuhj rl;l kPwy; kl;LNk cz;L.
cjhuzk; gpfhd; gha; (v) ‘Puhyhy; (Bhikan Bay Vs Hiralal) vd;w tof;fpy;
Rq;fthp t#ypf;Fk; xg;ge;jj;ij X vd;gtH murhq;fj;jplkpUe;J ngw;W mij y
vd;gtUf;F cs; Fj;jiff;F tpl;lhH. Mdhy; Y vd;gtH x vd;gtUf;Fj; njhifia
nrYj;jj; jtwpajhy; Y vd;gtH kPJ x tof;Fj; njhlHe;jhH. Rq;fthpr; rl;lk; ,j;jifa
cs;Fj;jifiaj; jil nra;fpwnjd;Wk;> vdNt x vd;gtH y vd;gtUf;F cs;Fj;jiff;F
tpl;lJ rl;l Kuzhdnjd;Wk; MfNt xg;ge;jj;ij epiwNtw;w Kbahnjd;Wk; Y vd;gthpd;
rhHgpy; thjplg;gl;lJ. Rq;fthpr; rl;lj;jpy; $wg;gl;l jil tUthia ngUf;f Ntz;Lnkd;w
Nehf;fj;jij nfhz;lNj jtpu nghJ xOf;fj;ijf; fhg;ghw;w Ntz;Lnkd;w Nehf;fj;NjhL
nra;ag;gl;ljy;y. vdNt xg;ge;jj;ij Vw;Wf; nfhz;L Fj;jifg; gzj;ij nrYj;JkhW
69
Y vd;gtUf;F ePjpkd;wk; Mizapl;lJ.
7.4 rl;lKuzhd cld;ghL (Illegal Agreements)
 rl;lj;ij kPWfpw jd;ikAila my;yJ xOf;ff; Nflhd my;yJ mbg;gilg;

nghJf; nfhs;if tpjpia jfh;j;njhpfpw xg;ge;jk;> rl;lj;jpw;F khwhd xg;ge;jkhFk;.
,J njhlf;fj;jpypUe;Nj nry;yhj xg;ge;jkhFk;.
 rl;lj;Jf;F khwhdcld;gbf;if nghJf; rl;lj;jpw;F my;yJ rpwg;Gr; rl;lj;jpw;F

vjpuhdJ> vdNt mJ rl;lg;gb Fw;wkhdjhFk;.
 rl;lg;gb Fw;wkhd cld;gbf;if rl;lj;Jf;F khwhdjhf ,Uf;fNtz;a mtrpakpy;iy.

nghJ xOf;fj;jpw;F vjpuhd midj;Jr; nray;fisAk; cs;slf;fpaNj rl;lj;Jf;F
khwhd cld;gbf;iffshFk;.
 rl;lj;jpw;F Gwk;ghd cld;gbf;iffs; Fw;wk; Ghptij Nehf;fkhff; nfhz;ljhfNth

ntspg;gilahd jPnahOf;f epge;jidia cilajhfNth my;yJ nghJf;
nfhs;iff;F vjpuhdjhfNth ,Uf;Fk;. mit midj;Jk; rl;l tpNuhjkhdit.
,tw;iw gpd;Ndw;G nra;tjw;Fk; $l ve;j eltbf;ifAk; vLf;fg;gl KbahJ.
 rl; l j; j pw; F g; Gwk; g hd cld; g bf; i ffs; vg; n ghOJNk rl; l g; g b Fw; w khd
cld;gbf;ifahFk;.
cjhuzk; X vd;gth; &.500-I Y vd;gthplkpUe;J fldhfg; ngw;W may;ehl;ltH

xUtUld; flj;jy; nghUl;fis ,wf;Fkjp nra;Ak; nghUl;L xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lgl;lhH.
Y-f;Fk; fldpy; Nehf;fk; njhpAk;. x-f;Fk; y-f;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s eltbf;if xg;ge;jj;jw;F
Mjuthf ,Uf;fpwJ. xg;ge;jk; rl;lj;Jf;F khwhdjhf ,Ug;gjhy; fld; eltbf;ifAk;
rl;lj;jpw;F khwhdNjahFk;.
7.5 nghJf;nfhs;iff;F vjpuhd cld;gbf;iffs;

(Agreements Opposed to Public Policy)
nghJf;nfhs;iff;F vjpuhd xH xg;ge;jj;ij nray;gLj;JkhW mjd; egh;fSs;

vtNuDk; $l typAWj;j KbahJ. nghJf; nfhs;if vd;gJ “rl;lf; nfhs;if” MFk;.
Fwpg;gpl;l xH xg;ge;jk; nghJf; nfhs;iff;F vjpuhdjh vd;gij> nghJj; jj;Jtq;fis
70
itj;Jj;jhd; KbT nra;a Ntz;LNknahopa Fwpg;gpl;l xg;ge;jj;jpd; $Wfis

fUj;jpy; nfhz;L nra;ag;gl KbahJ. ,jpy; ePjpkd;wk; kpfTk; ftdkhfr; nray;gl
Ntz;Lk;. ,f;Nfhl;ghL #o;epiyf;F Vw;wgb jFe;j khWjy;fs; nra;ag;gl;Lg; gad;gLj;jg;
glNtz;Lk;. xt;nthd;Wk; mjdjd; nra;jpfspd; mbg;gilapy; KbT nra;ag;glNtz;Lk;.
nghJf; nfhs;iff;F vjpuhd rpy cld;gbf;iffs; gpd;tUkhW:
1. vjphpfSld; tpahghuk; nra;jy; (Trading with Enemies) : v j p h p f S l d ;

<LgLk; midj;J tpahghuKk; nghJf; nfhs;iff;F vjpuhdNjahFk;. MapDk;>
mikjpf;fhyq;fspy; nra;ag;gl;l xg;ge;jk; gpd;dH NghH %z;lhy; gpd;tUtdtw;Ws;
VNjDk; xd;wpid re;jpf;f Ntz;bapUf;Fk;. m) xg;ge;jk; uj;J nra;ag;gLk;
my; yJ (M) xg; g e; jj; jpd; egHfspd; Nehf;f j; j pd; gb> xg; ge; jk; Kbtpw; Ff;
nfhz;Ltug;gLk;.
2. rl;lk; rhHe;j eltbf;ifisj; jil nra;Ak; cld;gbf;if (Agreements in

Restraint of legal Proceedings) : , j ; j i y g; g p d ; fPo; ,uz;L t i fa h d
cld;gbf;iffs; cs;sd. mit (m) chpikfspd; nray;gLj;jiy jil nra;Ak;
cld;gbf;iffs; (M) tiuaiwf; fhyj;ijf; Fiwf;Fk; cld;gbf;iffs; nry;yhJ.
Vnddpy;> ,jd; Nehf;fk; rl;lr; ruj;Jf;fis Njhy;tpAwr; nra;tjhFk;.
3. Fw;wj;Jf;F cl;gLj;Jk; cld;gbf;if (Agreements to Commit a Crime) :

cld; g bf; i f xd; W > Fw; w k; xd; W Ghptij kWgadhf nfhz; b Ue; j hy; >
mt; T ld; g bf; i f nghJf; nfhs; iff;F vjpuhdJ. MfNt mJ nry; yhj
cld;gbf;ifahFk;. mijg;NghyNt xUthpd; Fw;wtpay; rhHe;j nraypd;
gpd;tpisTfshy; Vw;gLk; e\;lj;ij ehd; <L nra;Ntd; vd Vw;gLj;jg;gl;l xH
cld;gbf;if rl;lg;gb nray;gLj;jg;gl KbahJ. Vnddpy; ,J nghJf; nfhs;iff;F
vjpuhdjhFk;.
4. Vfhjpgj;j paj;ij cUthf;f tpisAk; cld;gbf;i ffs; (Agreements

Tending to Create Monopolies) : Vfhjpgj; j paj; i j cUthf; f tpisAk;
cld;gbf;iffs; nghJf; nfhs;iff;F vjpuhdit. vdNt mit nry;yhj
cld;gbf;iffshFk;. MapDk; fha;fwp Nghd;w tp\aq;fspy; Vfhjpgj;jpa
chpik ahNuDk; xUtUf;F kl;Lk; mspf;fg;glyhk;.
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5. ngw;N whHfspd; chpikfis jil nra;Ak; cld;g bf;i f ( Agreements in

Restraint of Parental Rights) ;: ikdh; Foe;ijfSf;F mtHfspd; je;ij rl;lg;
ghJfhtyH MthH. je;ij ,y;iynadpy; mtHfspd; jhahH rl;lg; ghJfhtyH
MthH. rl;lg;gb je;ijf;Nf jkJ ikdH Foe;ijfis ghJfhg;gpy; itf;Fk;
jFjpAs;sJ. ,t;tpj rl;lj;ij kPwp elf;f Ntz;ba flikAila VNjDk;
cld;gbf;ifapy; ,tH <Lgl KbahJ. mt;tpj cld;gbf;if VNjDk; Vw;gl;lhYk;
mJ nghJf; nfhs;iff;F vjpuhdjhifahy; rl;lg;gb nry;yhJ.
6. muR mYtyfq;fSld; ,op njhlHG nfhs;sy; (Traffic on Public Offices) :

muRg; gzpfs;> tpUJfs; Nghd;wtw;iwg; ngWtjw;fhd Coy;> nry;thf;ifg;
gad; g Lj; J k; Nehf; N fhL Nkw; n fhs; s g; g Lk; cld; g bf; i ffs; rl; l g; g b
Fw;wkhditfshFk;. MfNt mtw;iwr; nray;gLj;j typAWj;jKbahJ. Vnddpy;
,t;tpj cld;gbf;iffs; rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$bajhf ,Ug;gpd;> Coy; mjpfkhfp
nghJ epWtdq;fspy; jpwikapd;ikf;F toptFj;J tpLk;.
7. ,ufrpa tof;F eltbf;if (Stifling Prosecution) : eP j p k d ; w j; j h y; jP H g; G

toq;fg;glhky; epYitapy; cs;s Fw;wtpay; rhHe;j tof;F xd;iwf; iftpl> xU
njhifiag; ngw;Wf; nfhz;L cld;gbf;if xd;wpd; xU egH rk;kjpj;jy; rl;lg;gb
Fw;wkhdjhFk;. MfNt Fw;wk; rkurj;Jf;F xj;Jg; Nghff; $bajhf ,Uf;Fk;
rkak; jtpu NtW rkaq;fspy; mt;tpj cld;gbf;ifia rl;lg;gb nray;gLj;j
typAWj;j KbahJ.
8. flikf;F vjpuhd eyed cUthf;F k; cld;g bf;i ffs; ( A g r e e m e n ts

creating Interest Against Duty) :jk;Kila nghJf; flikf;F vjpuhf VNjDk;
nra;af; flikg;gLk; tpjj;jpy;> VNjDk; xH cld;gbf;ifapy; xU egH <LgLthH
vdpy;> mt;Tld;gbf;if nghJf;nfhs;iff;F vjpuhd cld;gbf;if vd;w mbg;gilapy;
nry;yhjJ vdf; fUjg;gLk;.
7.6 tpjptpyf;Ffs; (Exceptions)
“tzpfj;ijj; jil nra;Ak; xH cld;gbf;if nry;yhJ vd;w tpjpf;Fhpa tpyf;Ffs;

gpd;tUkhW:
72
m) ew;ngahpd; tpw;gid (Sale of Goodwill) : jk;kplkpUe;J tzpf ew;ngahpd;

chpikia ngw;w egNuh my;yJ mij thq;fpatNuh elj;jp tUk; tzpfj;ij
Nghd;w xU tzpfj;ij mtH elj;jp tUk; Fwpg;gpl;l cs;SH gFjpapy; elj;Jtijj;
jtph;f;f> me;ew;ngaiu tpw;gtH cld;gLfpwhh; ,J rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$bajhFk;.
M ) $l;lhspfspd; cld;gbf;iffs; (Partner’s Agreements) : $l;L tzpf epWtdk;

,aq;fpf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; tiu> epWtdj;jpd; tzpfk; jtpu NtW ve;j tzpfj;ijAk;
mjd; $l;lhspfs; Nkw;nfhs;s khl;lhh;fs;. $l;L tzpf epWtdj;ij tpl;L
ntspr; nry;Yk; $l;lhsp xUtH> Fwpg;gpl;l xU fhyj;jpw;F my;yJ Fwpg;gpl;l
cs;SH tiuaiwfSf;Fs; epWtdk; elj;Jk; mNj tzpfj;ij elj;j khl;lhh;.
,) tpahghu xUq;fpizg;Gfs; (Trade Combination) : cw;gj;jpahsHfSf;fpilNa>

Fwpg;gpl;l xH tpiyf;Ff; fPo; nghUl;fis tpw;gjpy;iy my;yJ cw;gj;jpahsHfspd;
$l;bizg;GfSila cWg;gpdHfSf;fpilNa gFjpfis gphpj;Jf; nfhs;jy;
Nghd;wtw;wpw;fhfr; nra;ag;gLk; cld;gbf;iffs; Kw;wpYk; nry;yf;$baitfshFk;.
<) Nrit xg;ge;jq;fs; (Service Contracts) : Nritfspd; Kbtpw;Fg; gpwF rpy

rkaq;fspy;> Kjyhspfs; jk;Kila mYtyHfs; jq;fspd; Nrit Kbtpw;F te;j
gpwFk; $l ve;jtpjkhd NtiyiaNah my;yJ gzpiaNah Nkw;nfhs;s khl;lhh;fs;
vd jkJ mYtYHfSld; xH cld; gbf; ifapy; <LgLfpd; w dH. ,t; tpj
cld;gbf;ifapd; Nehf;fk;> jk;Kila mYtyH jk;Kila tpahghuj;jpw;Fg;
Nghl;bahf tUtijj; jtpHf;Fk; Nehf;NfhL kl;Lk; nra;ag;gl;lhy; mJ nry;yhJ.
7.7 nry;yhj cld;gbf;iffs; (Void Agreements)
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jpd; gphpT 2 (9) nry;yhj cld;gbf;iffs; vd;w $w;wpw;F

gpd;tUkhW ,yf;fzk; tiufpwJ. “rl;lj;jhy; eilKiwg; gLj;jg;glhj cld;gbf;if
nry;yh cld;gbf;if vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ”.
nry;yhj cld;gbf;if mjd; njhlf;fj;jpypUe;Nj nry;yhjJ MFk;. ,J

ve;jtpj rl;lf; flikfisAk; chpikfisAk; cUthf;fhJ. Fwpg;gpl;l rpy tifahd
cld;gbf;iffs; rl;lj;jhNyNa nry;yhjit vd Fwpg;ghf mwptpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
73
7.7.1 nry;y hj cld;g bf;iffspd; tiffs; (Types of Void Agreements)
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jhy; nry;yhjit vd ntspg;gilahf mwptpf;fg;gl;l

xg;ge;jq;fs; gpd;tUkhW:
 ikdH> kdepiy rhpapy;yhj egHfs; Nghd;w xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lglj; jFjpaw;wtHfshy;

nra;ag;gLk; cld;gbf;iffs;.
 rl;lhPjpahd nray;fisr; nra;aTk; rl;lj;Jf;F khwhd nray;fisr; nra;aTk;

mspf;fg;gLk; gu];gu thf;FWjpfs; ,jpy; ,uz;lhtJ thf;FWjp nry;yhj
thf;FWjpahFk;.
 cld;gbf;iff;F ,d;wpaikahj xH tp\aj;jpy; gu];guk; jtwpioj;J nra;ag;gLk;

xg;ge;jq;fs;.
 rl;lg;gb Fw;wkhd kWgad; my;yJ Nehf;fj;ij nfhz;l cld;gbf;iffs;
 kWgad; my;yJ Nehf;fj;jpd; xU gFjp rl;lg;gb Fw;wkhdjhfTs;s cld;gbf;iffs;
 kWgadw;w cld;gbf;iffs;
 jpUkzj;ijj; jil nra;Ak; cld;gbf;iffs;
 tpahghuj;ijj; jil nra;Ak; cld;gbf;iffs;
 rl;l eltbf;iffis jil nra;Ak; cld;gbf;iffs;
 Iag;ghLila cld;gbf;iffs;
 elf;f Kbahj nraiyr; nra;tjw;fhd cld;gbf;iffs;
 cWjpapy;yhj nghUisAila cld;gbf;iffs; vd;gJ “cWjpaw;w my;yJ

cWjpahf;fg;gLtjw;Fhpa jFjpaw;w nghUisAila cld;gbf;iffs; nry;yhjd”
MFk;
 gizak; itf;Fk; cld;gbf;iffs; vd;gJ Fwpg;gpl;l epfo;r;rp xd;W ele;jhy; xH

egH Fwpg;gpl;l xU njhifia kw;wtUf;F jUtjhfTk;> mjw;F NeH vjphpilahd
epfo;r;rp ele;jhy; kw;wtH Kjw;$wpa egUf;F xU njhifia mspg;gjhfTk;
,U egHfshy; Vw; g Lj; j g; g Lk; xH cld; g bf; i f gizak; itf; F k;
cld;gbf;ifahFk;.
74
7.8 giza cld;ghl;b d; Kf;fpaf;$Wfs;
xU giza cld;ghl;by; fPo;f;fhZk; Kf;fpaf; $Wfs; ,Uj;jy; mtrpak;.
 cld;ghl;by; <LgLk; ,U egHfspilNa gzk; my;yJ gzj;jpw;F <lhd nghUis

mspg;gjhf thf;FWjp mspf;fg;gl;bUf;fNtz;Lk;
 vtuhYk; Kd;$l;bNa jPHkhdpf;f Kbahj xU vjpHfhy epfo;r;rpahf ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;.
 xU epfo;r;rp epfo;e;jhNyh my;yJ epfohky; ,Ue;jhNyh vd;w epge;jidahf

cWjpAiu ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
 ,UegHfSf;Fk; vjpHfhyj;jpy; elf;Fk; my;yJ elf;fhky; NghFk; epfo;r;rpapd;

kPJ ve;jtpjkhd njhlHGk; ,Uj;jy; $lhJ.
 xU egH gizaj;jpy; Njhy;tpailtjhf my;yJ elf;fhky; NghFk; epfo;r;rpapd;

kPJ ve;jtpjkhd njhlHGk; ,Uj;jy; $lhJ.
 xg;ge;jj;jpy; <LgLk; ,U egHfspilNa ge;ja cld;ghL GjpjhfTk;> NtW ve;j

tifapYk;> njhlHgpy;yhj tifapYk; mikj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
7.8.1 giza xg;g e;jj;jpw;Fhpa tpjptpyf;Ffs;
gpd;tUk; eltbf;iffs; giza xg;ge;jq;fshff; fUjg;gLtjpy;iy.
 jpwikia mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L elf;Fk; FWf;nfOj;Jg; Nghl;bfs;
 jpwikapd; mbg;gilapy; tpisahl;bw;fhf elf;Fk; ghpRg; Nghl;bfs; 1955 – Mk;

Mz;L ghpRg; Nghl;br; rl;lg;gb gizaq;fs; my;y. Mdhy; ghpRj; njhif
&.1000-f;F Nkw;glf;$lhJ.
 Fjpiug;ge;jaj;jpy; ghpR &.500-f;Fk; Nky; ,Ue;jhy; mJ giza xg;ge;jkhFk;.
 gq;Fr;re;ij eltbf;ifapy; gq;Ffis thq;fp tpw;Fk; Nehf;fj;jpy; <LgLk; nray;fs;
 fhg;gPl;L xg;ge;jk;
 rPl;Lepjp eltbf;iffs;
75
7.8.2 giza itf;F k; cld;g bf;iffSf;F k; fhg;g Pl ;L xg;ge;j j;j pd;

,ilNaAs;s NtWghLfs;
Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;lit midj;Jg; gizakhff; Njhd;wpdhYk; mjd; ed;ikiag;

nghWj;J gidakhff; fUjg;gLtjpy;iy. fhg;gPl;L xg;ge;jKk; giza xg;ge;jKk;.
fhg;gPl;L xg;ge;jq;fs; giza cld;ghLfs; Nghd;W Njhd;wpdhYk; mit khWgl;lj;

jd;ikfisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ vdNt> fhg;gPl;L xg;ge;jk; giza xg;ge;jj;jpypUe;J gy
topfspy; NtWgLfpwJ.
 fhg;gPl;L xg;ge;jq;fs; fhg;gPL nra;gtUf;F mjpy; MHtk; cz;L giza xg;ge;jq;fs;

mt;tpj MHtk; ,y;iy.
 fhg;gPl;L xg;ge;jj;jpy; ,U egHfs; jq;fisg; ghJfhj;Jf; nfhs;tjpy; MHtk;

cs;stHfs;. giza xg;ge;jj;jpy; xU egNu ghJfhg;gpy; MHtk; fhl;LfpwhH.
 fhg;gPl;L xg;ge;jj;jpy; MAs; fhg;gPl;ilj; jtpu kw;wtw;wpy; xg;ge;jk; ,og;ig

<Lfl;Ltjw;Fk;. giza cld;ghl;by; cs;s njhif Fwpg;gpl;l msthFk;.
 fhg;gPL nghJ kf;fSf;F gadspg;gjhFk;. giza cld;ghL nghJkf;fSf;F

gadspg;gjpy;iy.
 fhg;gPl;L xg;ge;jj;jpy; mwptpay; mbg;gilapy; tUfpd;w ,lHfs; fzf;fplg;gLfpd;wd.

Mdhy; giza cld;ghL xU #jhl;lkhFk;.
 fhg;gPL xg;ge;jk; rl;l ,ay;Gfisf; nfhz;Ls;sjhy; nray;gLj;j KbAk;. giza

xg;ge;jk; rl;lj;jpd; Kd; nry;yhepiyAilajhy; nray;gLj;j Kbahjjhy;
nray;gLj;j KbahJ.
 fhg;gPl;Lf;F chpaf; fl;lzk; nrYj;jg;gLfpwJ. Mdhy; giza xg;ge;jj;jpy;

fl;lzk; VJk; nrYj;jg;gltpy;iy.
 ,e;jpahtpy; giza xg;ge;jq;fs; nry;yhepiyahdJ vd;W ntspg;gilahf

mwptpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. kfhuh\;buh kw;Wk; F[uhj; khepyq;fspy; ,it rl;lj;jpw;Fg;
Gwk;ghdit vd mwptpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. giza xg;ge;jj;jpw;fhd njhifia
ePjpkd;wj;jpy; tof;fhb jpUk;gg; ngw ,ayhJ.
76
7.8.3 gizak; itf;Fk; cld;gbf;iffspd; tpisTfs; (Effects of Wagerin g

Agreements)
,e;jpahtpy; gizak; itf;Fk; cld;gbf;iffs; nry;yhjit vd ntspg;gilah

mwptpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. vdNt> ePjpkd;wj;jpd; rl;lj;jhy; ,ij nray;gLj;JkhW typAWj;j
KbahJ. MapDk;> ,J rl;lj;jhy; jil nra;ag;gltpy;iy. mjhtJ gizak;
itf;Fk; cld;gbf;iffs; nry;yhjitNaad;wp rl;lj;Jf;F khwhditay;y.
gizak; itf;Fk; cld;gbf;iffs; nry;yhjitNaad;wp rl;lj;Jf;F khwhditay;y.

Mjyhy; > ,tw; i wr; rhHe; J s; s eltbf; i ffisg; nghWj; j kl; b y; > mit
nry;yhjitay;y MfNt mtw;iw nray;gLj;j KbAk;.
cjhuzk; #jhl;lj;jpy; xUtH ngw;w flid milf;f cjTk; tifapy;> kw;wtH

mtUf;F fldspg;ghH vdpy;> mf;flid mspj;jtuhy; jhd; mspj;j flidj; jpUk;gg;
ngwKbAk;.
7.8.4 nry;yhj xg;g e;jq;f s; ( Void Contracts)
,e;jpar; xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jpd; gphpT 2 (J) ,d;gb rl;lj;jhy; eilKiwg;gLj;jg;glf;

$baijj; jtpHf;f ,aYfpd;w xH xg;ge;jk; mjd; eilKiwg;gLj;jy; jtpHf;fg;Lk;
nghOJ nry;yhjjhfpd;wJ. ,JNt nry;yhj xg;ge;jkhFk;.
rl;lj;jhy; eilKiwg;gLj;jy; jtpHf;fg;glf; $ba xH xg;ge;jNj nry;yhj

xg;ge;jkhFk; vd;gJ Nkw;fz;l ,yf;fzj;jpypUe;J ekf;Fj; njspthfpwJ. nry;yhj
xg; g e; j k; Nkw; n fhs; s g; g Lk; n ghOJ rl; l g; g b nry; y f; $ bajhfTk; rl; l j; j hy;
epiwNtw;wg;glf; $bajhfTNk fhzg;gLfpd;wd. Mdhy;> gpd;dH rpy fhuzq;fspdhy;>
mJ rl;lg;gb epiwNtw;wg;gl Kbahjjhf khwptpLfpwJ.
1. nry;yhj cldg;gbf;iffspd; ,yf;fzk; tiuf.

77
2. rl;lhPjpahd Nehf;fk; vd;gjd; nghUs; ahJ?
3. nry;yhj xg;ge;jk; vd;gJ ahJ?
7.9 njhFg; G iu
,g;ghlj;jpy; fPo;f;fz;litfis gbj;J njhpe;J nfhz;L ,Ug;gPHfs; rl;lhPjpahd

Nehf;fk;> nry;yhj cld;gbf;iffs;> gizak; itf;Fk; cld;gbf;iffs;> nry;yhj
xg;ge;jq;fs; ,it midj;Jk; tphpthf cjhuzq;fSld; tpsf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. giza
xg;ge;jj;jpw;Fhpa tpjptpyf;Ffs;> giza itf;Fk; cld;gbf;iffSf;Fk; fhg;gPl;L
xg;ge;jj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNaAs;s NtWghLfs; kw;Wk; gizak; itf;Fk; cld;gbf;iffspd;>
tpisTfs; gw;wp tpthpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 rl;lhPjp : rl;lj;jhy; mDkjpf;fg;gl
 nry;yhj cld;gbf;if : rl;lj;jhy; eilKiwg;gLj;jg; glhj cld;gbf;if nry;yhj

cld;gbf;if
 nry;yhj xg;ge;jq;fs; : rl;lj;jhy; eilKiwg;gLj;jg;glf; $baijj; j t p H f ; f

,aYfpd; w xH xg; ge; jk; mjd; eilKiwg; g Lj; jy; jtpHf; f g; g Lk; nghOJ
nry;yhjjhfpd;wJ.
78
7.11. gapw;rp tpdhf;f s;:
1. rl;lhPjpahd Nehf;fk; vd;gjd; nghUs; ahJ?
2. nghJr; nfhs;iff;F vjpuhd gy;NtW cld;gbf;iffisAk; thpirg;gLj;Jf.
3. rl;lg;gb Fw;wkhd Nehf;fj;jpd; tiffis tpthp
4. “rl;lj;Jf;F khwhd cld;gbf;ifapd; kPJ ve;jr; nraYk;

mDkjpf;fg;gltpy;iy”> ,t;tpjpf;Fhpa tpyf;Ffs; ahit?
5. nry;yhj cldg;gbf;iffspd; ,yf;fzk; tiuf.
6. nry;yh cld;gbf;iffspd; gy;NtW tiffisAk; Fwpg;gpLf
7. gizak; itf;Fk; cld;gbf;iffs; vd;why; vd;d?
8. gizak; itf;Fk; cld;gbf;iffSf;Fk; fhg;gPl;L xg;ge;jj;jpw;Fk;

,ilNaAs;s NtWghLfs; ahit?
79
ghlk; - 8
xg;ge;jg; Nghy;T kw;Wk; tpNr\ xg;ge;jk;

(Quasi Construct and special Contract)
ghlj;ij fw;wgpd;> ePq;fs;
 xg;ge;j Nghy;T ,yf;fzk; ju ,aYk;.
 xg;ge;j Nghy;T tiffis tpsf;f KbAk;
 <l;LWjp xg;ge;jj;ij gw;wp tpthjpf;fKbAk;
 cj;juthj xg;ge;jj;ij tpsf;fKbAk;
 cj;juthj xg;ge;jj;jpd; Kf;fpa mk;rq;fis gw;wp tpsf;fKbAk;
 <l;LWjp kw;Wk; cj;jputhjj;jpw;Fk; NtWghl;il gw;wp tpthjpf;fKbAk;.
ghl mikg;G
8.1 Kd;Diu xg;g e;jg;N ghy;T
8.2 xg;ge;jg; Nghy;tpd; tiffs;
8.3 tpNr\ xg;g e;j q;f s;
8.4 cj;j uthj xg;g e;j k;
8.5 <l;LWjpf;Fk; cj;jputhjj;jpw;F k; cs;s NtWghLfs;
8.6 njhFg;G iu
8.7 Kf;f par; nrhw;f s;

80
8.1 Kd; D iu
,U egHfs; NehpilahfNth kiwKfkhfNth vt;tpj xg;ge;jj;jpypYk; <LglhjNghJ

cz;ikahd xg;ge;jj;jpy; vOf;$baJ Nghd;w flik xUtd; kPJ rl;lj;jpdhy; ,aw;if
ePjpapd; mbg;gilapy; Rkj;jg;gLkhdhy; mr;#o;epiy xg;ge;jg; Nghy;T vdg;gLk;.
mjhtJ rl;lk; ,U egHfSf;fpilapy; xH xg;ge;jj;ij cUthf;FfpwJ. vdNt

rl;lk; cUthf;Fk; xg;ge;jk; ,U egHfspd; cld;ghl;bdhy; Vw;gLk; xg;ge;jj;ij “Nghd;W”
,Ug;gjhy; ,ij “xg;ge;j Nghy;T” vd;gH.
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk; xg;ge;jNghy;T vd;w nrhw;nwhlUf;F ahnjhU tiuaiwAk;

tFf;ftpy;iy. Mdhy; ePjpkd;wk; ,jw;F fPo;f;fz;lthW tpsf;fk; jUfpwJ. fUj;njhUkpj;J
nra;Jnfhz;l xg;ge;jkpy;iy vd;whYk; xg;ge;jk; Nghd;Nw xU nghWg;igj; Njhw;Wtpf;Fk;
nray; my;yJ epfo;r;rpNa xg;ge;jg; Nghy;thFk;. ,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk; gphpT 68 Kjy;
72 tiu xg;ge;jg; Nghy;Tfs; gw;wp tpsf;fk; mspf;fpd;wJ.
cjhuzk; mUz; vd;gtH md;G vd;W epidj;J nghUl;fis moFtplk; nfhLj;jhH.

moFf;Fk; mUZf;Fk; ,ilNa xg;ge;jk; ,y;iynad;whYk; moF mg;nghUl;fspd;
tpiyNa mUZf;Fk; nfhLf;fNtz;Lk;.
xg;ge;jg; Nghy;tpd; mbg;gil jj;Jtk; kw;wthpd; nrytpy; my;yJ ciog;gpy;

xUtH jd;id ePjpf;Fg; Gwk;ghd tifapy; tsHj;Jf; nfhs;sNth my;yJ jdJ tho;it
tskhf;fpf; nfhs;sNth mDkjpf;ff;$lhJ vd;gNj xg;ge;jg; Nghy;tpd; jj;JtkhFk;.
,e;jj; jj;Jtk; NeHik newpapd; mbg;gilapy; vOfpwJ.
8.2 xg;ge;jg; Nghy;tpd; tiffs;
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk; xg;ge;jg; Nghy;Tfis gpd;tUk; tiffshfg; gphpf;fpd;wJ.
1. mtrpag; nghUs;fs; toq;Fjy; (Supply of Necessaries) : xg; g e; j k; nra; J

nfhs;sj; jFjpaw;wtHfshy; nra;J nfhs;sg;gLk; cld;ghL rl;lg;gb nry;yhJ
81
vd;Wk; mtHfs; nra;J nfhs;Sk; cld;ghLfnsy;yhk; nry;yhjitfshfp tpLk;

vd;W mwpe;Njhk;. mtHfs; jq;fs; tho;f;iff;Fj; Njitahd ,d;wpaikahj
nghUs;fis $l fldhf ngw KbahJ. Vnddpy; mg;gbg;gl;l #o;epiyapy;
mtHfSf;F fld; nfhLf;fNth> cjtp nra;aNth ahUk; Kd; tu khl;lhHfs;.
vdNt xg;ge;jr; rl;lk;> xg;ge;jk; nra;Ak; jFjpaw;w egHfs; nra;J nfhs;Sk;
cld;ghL Fwpj;J 68-tJ gphptpd; %yk; xU tpjptpyf;if Vw;gLj;JfpwJ. mjd;gb
jdJ tho;f;iff;F ,d;wpaikahj nghUl;fSf;fhf mtHfs; kw;nwhUtUld;
nra;J nfhs;Sk; cld;ghL rl;lg;gb nry;yj;jf;fNj. mJ mtHfisf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk;.
czT> cil fy;tpr;nryT> kUj;Jtr; nryT Nghd;witfis ,d;wpaikahh;
nghUl;fSf;F cjhuzkhf Fwpg;gplyhk;.
2. kw;wtHfSf;F nrYj;jg;gl;l njhiffs; (Payments made on behalf of

another) : xUtH rl;lg;gb nrYj;j Ntz;ba gzj;ij mt;tpjk; nrYj;Jtjpy;
mf;fiw cs;s kw;nwhUtH nrYj;jpdhy; mij ahUf;fhfr; nrYj;jpdhNuh
mthplkpUe;J jpUk;gg; ngw chpikAz;L.
 gzk; nrYj;JgtH mjpy; mf;fiw nfhz;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
 ,J jhdhf typate;J nrYj;jpajhf ,Uf;ff;$lhJ
 ,J kw;wtUf;Fr; nrYj;jg;gl;bUf;fNtz;Lk;
 ,J NtnwhU eguhy; rl;lg;gb nrYj;j Ntz;bajhf ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;.
cjhuzk; MWKfk; vDk; epy chpikahsH muRf; Fr; nrYj; j Ntz;ba

thpg;ghf;fpf;fhf epyj;ij tpw;f Ntz;ba #o;epiy Vw;gl;lJ. mt;thW tpw;gijj;
jLf;f me;epyj;jpd; Fj;jifjhuH uhkrhkp me;j thpghf;fpiaf; fl;bdhH. ,jpy;
uhkrhkp nrYj;jpa thpg;gzj;ij MWKfk; jpUk;gf; nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;.
82
3. ,ytrkpy;yhj nray;fSf;F gzk; nrYj;j Ntz;ba flik (Obligations to

pay for non-gratuitous acts) : ,ytrnkdf; fUjhky; xUtH kw;nwhUtUf;F
VjhtJ xU nraiyr; nra;a Nehplyhk;. mj;jifa nraypdhy; Vw;gl;l gaid
mDgtpj;jtHfs; mr;nraiyr; nra;jtUf;F mr;nraypdhy; Vw;gl;l ,og;ig <L
nra;af; flikg;gl;ltuhfpwhH.
,f;flikia cUthf;Ftjw;F fPo;f;fhZk; epge;jidfis epiwNtw;wNtz;Lk;.
 xU rl;lG+Htkhd nray; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;
 mr;nraiy nra;gtH ,ytrkhf nra;tjhf Nehf;fk; nfhz;bUf;ff;$lhJ
 ahUf;fhf mr;nray; nra;ag;gLfpwNjh> mtH ,jd; ed;ikia mile;jpUf;f

Ntz;Lk;.
cjhuzk; Nfhtpe;jd; jtWjyhf uhkdpd; tPl;by; nghUl;fis tpl;Lr; nrd;whd;.

uhkd; me;j nghUl;fis jd;Dila nghUl;fshfNt ghtpj;jhd;. vdNt uhkd;
mg;nghUl;fSf;F chpa gzj;ij Nfhtpe;jDf;F nfhLf;fNtz;Lk;.
4. fhzhky; Nghd nghUl;fis fz;n lLg;g thpd; flik (Obligation of a

Finder of Goods) : xg;ge;jr; rl;lk; 71tJ gphptpd;gb xUtH njUtpNyh my;yJ
nghJ ,lj;jpNyh ftdf;Fiwtpdhy; tplg;gl;l kw;wtH nghUl;fis vLj;J
guhkhpf;fNtz;Lk; vd;w fl;lhak; VJk; ,y;iy. Mdhy; mij vLj;J xUtH jd;
ghJfhg;gpy; itj;Jf; nfhz;lhy; ,g;nghUisg; gj;jpukhf itj;jpUe;J nghUspd;
chpikahshplk; NrHg;gpf; f Ntz;ba nghWg;G epiyia rl;lk; mtUf;F Vw;gLj; JfpwJ.
mt;tpjk; nghUs; fz;nlLj;Njhhpd; nghWg;G epiy Fwpj;J xg;ge;jr; rl;lk; 71-
tJ gphpT gpd;tUkhW $WfpwJ. “kw;wtUf;Fr; nrhe;jkhd nghUl;fisf; fz;nlLj;J
mitfis jd; nghWg;gpy; itj;Jf; nfhz;l egH xUtH xg;gilT ngWgthpd;
nghWg;Gf;Fr; rkkhd nghWg;Gf;Fs;shthH.
5. jtW my;yJ tYf;fl;lhak; (Mistake or Coercion) : xUtdplk; jtWjyhf

my;yJ tYf;fl;lhaj;jpdhy; gzNkh> nghUNsh nfhLf;fg;gl;bUe;jhy; mtw;iw
mtd; jpUk;gf; nfhLj;J tpl Ntz;Lk;.
83
cjhuzk; xU fldhsp jdf;F fld; je;jtUf;F $Ljyhf nfhLj;Jtpl;l gzj;ij

jpUk;gg; ngwyhk;. ,j;jtW cz;ikj; jtW my;yJ rl;lj; jtwhf ,Uf;fyhk;.
6. gzpf;F jFe;j njhif (Quantum Merit) : ,jw;F epahakhd Cjpak; vd;W

nghUs;> xUtd; nra;j Ntiyf;F nfhLf;f Ntz;ba Cjpak; Fwpj;J ntspg;gilahd
thf;FWjp vJTk; ,y;yhjNghJ epahakhd Cjpak; nfhLf;fg;gl Ntz;Lnkd;W
rl;lk; czHj;JfpwJ. xg;ge;jj;jpd; xU gFjp epiwNtw;wg;gl;L kW gFjp epiwNtw;w
Kbahky; jilNaw;gl;lhy; ,t;tpjp nghUe;Jk;.
cjhuzk; (fpuhntd; vy;yp]; v. fhdd;g; ypkpnll;) c vd;gtH %d;W khjq;fs;

fk;ngdpapy; gzpGhpe;j gpwF gzpakHj;Jk; (Appointment) nry;yhJ vd;W
fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lJ. ,Ue;jhYk; c jhd; nra;j gzpf;F epahakhd Cjpaj;ijg;
ngwyhk; vd;W ePjpkd;wk; jPHg;gspj;jJ.
8.3 tpNr\ xg;ge;jq;fs; (Special Contract)
8.3.1 <l;LWjp xg;ge;jk; (Contract of Indemnity)
thf;FWjp mspg;gtH my;yJ kw;wtHfspd; elj;ijahy; Vw;gLk; el;lj;jpypUe;J

fhg;ghw;Wtjhf xUtH kw;nwhUtUf;F thf;FWjp mspf;Fk; xg;ge;jNk <l;LWjp xg;ge;jk;
MFk;.
kw;wtiu el;lj;jpypUe;J fhg;ghw;Wtjw;fhf thf;FWjp mspg;gtH <l;LWjp jUgtH

vdTk;> thf;FWjp ahUf;F mspf;fg;gLfpwNjh mtH <l;LWjp ngw;wtH vdTk;
miof;fg;gLfpd;wdH. ,t;nthg;ge;jk; NeubahdjhfNth my;yJ kiwKfkhdjhfNth
,Uf;fyhk;. ,JTk; xUtif xg;ge;jk; Mifahy; ,J nry;yj;jf;f xg;ge;jj;jpd;
midjJ Kf;fpa mk;rq;fisAk; G+Hj;jp nra;a Ntz;Lk;.
thf;FWjp mspg;gthpd; mwpTiuapd;gb <Lgl;l eltbf;ifahy; Vw;glf;$ba

el;lj;jpypUe;J vt;tpuj; jPq;Fkpd;wp xUtiuf; fhg;ghw;Wtjhf mspf;Fk; thf;FWjp
<l;LWjp xg;ge;jk; MFk;.
cjhuzk; ghYtpd; kPJ &.1000f;fhf> rhHy]; vLf;ff;$ba eltbf;ifapd; %yk;

ghYtpw;F Vw;gLk; ,og;Gfis <Lnra;tjhf u‘;kj; ghYtpw;F thf;fspj;jhH. ,J xU
<l;LWjp xg;ge;jkhFk;.
84
8.3.2 tof;F njhlug;gLk;N ghJ <l;LWjp ngw;wthpd; chpikfs; (Rights of a n

Indemnity Holder when sued)
<l;LWjp mspg;gthplkpUe;J <l;LWjp ngw;wtH fPo;f;fhZk; njhiffisj; jpUk;gg;

ngwKbAk;.
 <l;LWjp ngw;wtH nghUe;jf;$ba vt;tp\ak; Fwpj;j tof;fpYk; <l;LWjp ngw;wtH>

fl;lhaj;jpd; Nghpy; nrYj;jf;$ba midj;J ,og;gPLfs;
 <l;LWjp ngw;wtH vr;rhpf;ifAld; ele;J nfhz;bUe;j NghhpYk; ,j;jifa tof;fpy;>

fl;lhaj;jpd; Nghpy;> nrYj;jf;$ba midj;Jr; nryTfs;
 ,j;jifa tof;F vjpYk; rkhjhdk; nra;J nfhs;tjw;fhf Nghl;Lf;nfhz;l

epge;jidfspd;gb <l;LWjp ngw;wtH nrYj;jpapUf;ff;$ba midj;Jj; njhiffs;
8.3.3 <l;LWjp mspg;gthpd; chpikfs; (Rights of Indemnity)
<l;LWjp mspg;gthpd; chpikfs; rl;lj;jpy; Fwpg;gplg;gltpy;iy. MapDk; ,tuJ

chpikfs; ,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jpf; 141 MtJ gphptpd; fPo; gpizahsH (Surety)
xUtUf;Fs;s chpikfis xj;jdthfNth cs;sd. ,t;Thpikfs;> nghJr; rkj;Jtj;ij
mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L tpsq;Ffpd;wd. ,it <l;LWjpr; rl;lj;jpd; ,d;wpaikahj xH
mq; fkhfTk; tpsq; Ffpd;wd. NkYk; ,og;gPL xg;ge;jj;jpd; gug;gpw;F mg;ghw;gl;l #o;epiyfspd;
fhuzj;jpdhy; <l;LWjp ngWgtH e\;lk; VJk; mile;jpUe;jhy;> mjw;F <l;LWjp mspg;gtH
nghWg;ghf khl;lhH.
8.4 cj;juthj xg;ge;jk; (Contract of Guarantee)
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jpd; gphpT 126 cj;jputhj xg;ge;jj;ij ifahSfpwJ.

,g;gphptpd;gb “%d;whk; egH xUtH jhk; mspj;j thf;FWjpia nray;gLj;jNth my;yJ
Vw;Wf; nfhz;l nghWg;ig epiwNtw;wNth jtwpdhy; mijj;jhd; epiwNtw;Wtjhf xUtH
cj;juthjk; mspj;jhy; mJ cj;juthj xg;ge;jkhFk;”;.
,J %d;W egHfis cl;n fhz;L s;sJ
 gpizahsH (Surety) - cj;jputhjk; mspf;Fk; egH

85
 Kjd; ikf; fldhsp (Principal Debtors) - ahUila jtWjypd; nghUl; L>

mt;Tj;juthjk; mspf;fg;gLfpwNjh me;egH.
 fldspg;gtH (Creditor) - ahUf;F cj;juthjk; mspf;fg;gLfpwNjh me;egH.
cj;juthjk; tha; nkhopahf my;yJ vOj;J %ykhf ,Uf;fyhk;. NkYk;> ,J

Nehpilahf my;yJ kiwKfkhdjhfTk; ,Uf;fyhk;. xU %d;whk; egUf;fhf xUtH
kw;wthplk; xU flidr; nrYj;Jjy; my;yJ rpy nray;fis nra;tjw;fhd nghWg;ig
Vw;Wf; nfhs;Sjy; cj;juthj xg;ge;jkhFk;> vd;W Mq;fpyr; rl;lj;jpy; $wg;gl;Ls;sJ.
cjhuzk; tpNdhj; flidr; nrYj;jr; jtwpdhy;> jhd; milg;gjhf tpf;uk;

mspj;j thf;FWjpapd; Nghpy; tp[a; tpNdhj;jpw;F fld; nfhLj;jhH. ,jpy; tp[a; fld;
<e;jtH. tpNdhj; Kjd;ikr; fldhsp kw;Wk; tpf;uk; xU gpizahs;.
8.4.1 cj;juthj xg;ge;jj;jpd; Kf;fpa mk;rq;fs; (Essential Features of a Contract

of Gurantee)
1. nry;y j;j f;f xg;g e;j j;j pd; Kf;f pa mk;r q;f s; : cj;juthjk; xg;ge;jKk;
xUtif xg;ge;jkhFk;. vdNt ,J nry;yj;jf;f xg;ge;jj;jpd; midj;J
NjitfisAk; G+Hj;jp nra;aNtz;Lk;.
2. i fk ; k h W ( m) kWgad; ( Consideration ) : xg; g e; j j; i j r l; l j; j hy;

eilKiwg;g Lj; jf; $bajhfr; nra;a Ntz;L nkdpy; fldspg;g tUf; Fk;
gpizahsUf;FkpilNa VNjDk; kWgad; ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. mk;kWgad;
rl;lG+HtkhdjhfTk; ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. cj;juthj xg;ge;jj;jpy;> Kjd;ikr;
fldhsp ngw;w kWgaNd gpizahsUf;fhd NghJkhd kWgadhff; fUjg;gLfpwJ.
cjhuzk; C tpiy jUtjw;F cj;juthjk; mspj;jhy; A vd;gtH B-f;F nghUl;fis

tpw;gjw;F xg;Gg; nfhz;lhH. ,jpy; A toq;Fk; nghUl;fNs C-apd; thf;FWjpf;Fk;
NghJkhd ifk;khwhFk;.
3. mtrpaj; jfty;fis njhptpf;f Ntz;ba xg;ge;jky;y : cj;juthj xg;ge;jk;

mtrpaj; jfty; fisj; njhptpf;f Ntz;ba xg; ge; jky; y. vdNt fldPe;jtH fldhspapd;
epjpepiyiag; ghjpf;Fk; ve;j nra;jpiaAk; gpizahspf;Fj; njhptpf;fj; Njitapy;iy.
86
,t;thW njhptpf;fhky; ,Ug;gJ gpizahisg; nghpJk; mghaj;jpw;Fs;shFk;.

(`p]; - vy;NghH\d;) Mdhy; cj;juthjk; fhg;gPl;L rk;ge;jkhf ,Uf;Fkhdhy;
midj;J Kf;fpa nra;jpfSk; njhptpf;fg;glNtz;Lk;. ,y;iyNay; gpidahs;
xg;ge;jj;ij; jtpHf;fyhk;. (yz;ld; n[duy; Mk;dp g]; fk;ngdp v. `hNyhNt)
4. Kjd;ikf; fldhspapd; nghWg;G (Liability of a Principal debtor) : cj;juthj

xg;ge;jj;jpy; gpizahshpd; nghWg;G ,uz;lhk; gl;rNk MFk;. mjhtJ> ,t;tif
xg;ge;jj;jpy;> fldspj;jtH Kjypy; fldhsp kPNj eltbf;if vLf;fNtz;Lk;.
fldhsp jd;Dila thf;FWjpia epiwNtw;wf; jtWk; nghOjhd;> mtH gpizahsH
kPJ eltbf;if vLf;fNtz;Lk;.
cjhuzk; X vd;gtUk; y vd;gtUk; ez;gHfs; ,UtUk; z vd;gtUila filf;Fr;

nrd;wdH. x mf;filapypUe;J rpy nghUl;fis thq;fpdhH. Y mg;nghOJ
mg;nghUl;fSf;fhd tpiyia x mspf;fj; jtwpdhy;> jhdspg;gjhf thf;FWjp
mspj;jhH. ,J xH cj;juthj xg;ge;jkhFk;. ,q;F nghUSf;Fhpa tpiyia
jUk; nghWg;G x AilaNj MFk;. x mg;nghUSf;fhd tpiyia mspf;fj; jtWk;
nghOJjhd; mij mspg;gJ y apd; nghWg;ghfpwJ.
5. gpidahspd; nghWg; G ( Liability of Surety) : xg; ge; j j; j pd; NtWtpjkhff;

$wg;glhjnghOJ gpizahspd; nghWg;G Kjd;ikf; fldhspapd; nghWg;ig
xj;jpUf;Fk;. mjhtJ gpizahspapd; nghWg;G Kjd;ikf; fldhspapd; nghWg;gpw;F
,izahdjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
cjhuzk; uhkdhy; Vw;Wf; nfhs;sg;gl;l cz;baYf;fhd gzk; nrYj;jg;gLtjw;F

fpU\;zd; vd;gtH uhkDf;F cj;juthjk; mspj;jhH. ,jpy;> fpU\;zd;
cz;baYf;fhd njhifia kl;Lky;yhky; mjd;kPJ Vw;glf;$ba tl;b kw;Wk;
gpw fl;;lzq;fSf;Fk; nghWg;ghthH.
8.4.2 cj;juthjj;jpd; tiffs; (Kinds of Guarantee)
1. Fwpg;gpl;l cj;juthjk; (Specific Guarantee) : xU eltbf;if my;yJ flDf;F

cj;juthjk; nfhLf;fg; gl;bUe;jhy; mJ Fwpg;gpl;l cj;juthjk; vdg;gLk; ,J
cj; j uthjk; mspf; f g; g l; l fld; milf; f g; g l; l Tld; my; y J thf; F Wjp
epiwNtw;wg;gl;lTld; KbTf;F tUk;.
87
cjhuzk; C vd;gtUf;F B vd;gtH tpw;f ,Uf;fpd;w Fwpg;gpl;l nghUl;fSf;Fhpa

tpiyia C> jtwhJ B-aplk; mspj;JtpLthH vd B-f;F A cj;juthjk;
mspj;jhH.B mg;nghUl;fis C-aplk; toq;fptpl;lhH. C-Ak; mjw;Fhpa tpiyia
nfhLj;Jtpl;lhH. gpwF B rpy nghUl;fis C-f;F mspj;jhH. mjw;Fhpa gzj;ij
C mspf;fj; jtwp tpl;lhH.A-ahy; mspf;fg;gl;l cj;juthjk; Fwpg;gpl;l
cj;juthjkhFk;. vdNt ,jw;F A nghWg;ghspahf khl;lhH.
2. njhlH cj;juthjk; (Continuing Guarantee) :n j h l H f p w cj;juthjk;

njhlHr;rpahd eltbf;iffNshL njhlHGilajhFk;. ,t;Tj;jputhjj;jpy; gpidahsH
cj;juthjk; njhlUk; tiuapy; Fwpg;gpl;l xU njhif msTf;Fg; nghWg;Ngw;fpwJ.
cjhuzk; X vd;gtH Ntz;Lf;NfhSf;fpzq;f> y vd;gtH jd;Dila fl;blj;jpd;

thlifia t#y; nra;a Z vd;gtiu mkHj;jpdhH. Z t#y; nra;J Y-aplk;
mspf;fNtz;ba thlifj; njhifapy; &.5000 tiu X> Y-f;F cj;juthjk; mspf;fpwhH.
,J xH njhlHfpw cj;juthjk; MFk;.
3. cz;ik khwhj cj;juthjk; (Fidelity Guarantee) : xU egUila ed;dlj;ij

my;yJ NeHik Fwpj;J cj;juthjk; nfhLf;fg;gLkhdhy;> mJ cz;ik khwhf
cj;juthjk; vdg;gLk;.
8.5 <l;LWjpf;Fk; cj;jputhjj;jpw;Fk; cs;s NtWghLfs; (Distinction

Between Indemnity and Guarantee)
<l; L Wjp cj; j uthjk;
1 . nghUs; xU %d;whk; egH jd;Dila thf;FWjpia

xU egiu el;lj;jpypUe;J epiwNtw;w my;yJ nghWg;igj; jPHf;fj;
fhg;ghw;Wtjw;fhd xg;ge;jkhFk; jtwpdhy; mij epiwNtw;Wtjhf my;yJ
jPHg;gjhf Vw;gLj;jg;gLk; xg;ge;jkhFk;.
2 . xg;g e;j egHfs;

<l;LWjp xg;ge;jj;jpy; cj;juthj xg;ge;jj;jpy; %d;W egHfs;
,uz;L egh;fs; ,Ug;ghHfs; xUtH ,Ug;ghHfs;. mtHfs; gpizahs;> Kjd;ik
<l;LWjp jUgtH kw;wtH <l;LWjp fldhsp kw;Wk; fldPe;jtH MtH.
ngw;wtH
88
3 . xg;g e;j q;f spd; vz;z pf;i f

<l;LWjp jUgtH kw;Wk; <l;LWjp ,jpy; %d;W xg;ge;jq;fs; cs;sd. xd;W
ngw;wtH Mfpa ,UtUf;FkpilNa Kjd;ik fldhspf;Fk;> fldPe;jtUf;Fk;
xNu xU xg;ge;jk; kl;LNk cz;L. ,ilapyhd xg;ge;jk; 2tJ
fldPe;jtUf;Fk; gpizahSf;Fk;
,ilapyhd xg;ge;jk;. 3tJ Kjd;ikf;
fldhspf;Fk;> gpizahUf;Fk; ,ilapyhd
xg;ge;jk;
4 . Ntz;Ljypd; Nghpy; nray;gLjy; Kjd;ikf; fldhspapd; Ntz;Ljypd;

<l;LWjp jUgtH nray;gLtjw;F Nghpy; kl;LNk gpidahs; cj;juthjk
<l;LWjp ngw;wthpd; Ntz;Ljy; nfhLf;fpwhH.
vJTk; Njitapy;iy.
5 . nghWg;g pd; jd;i k gpizahspd; nghWg;G ,uz;lhtjhFk;>

<l;LWjp jUgthpd; nghWg;Ng mjhtJ Kjd;ikf; fldhsp jtWk; NghJ
Kjd;ikahdjhFk;. kl;LNk. ,tH nghWg;Gf;Fs;shf NehpLk;.
6 . Iag; g hLila nghWg; G gpizahspd; nghWg;G Iag;ghLilajy;y.

<l;LWjp jUgthpd; nghWg;G Vnddpy; ,tH elg;gpYs;s fld; my;yJ
Iag;ghLilajhFk; flikia epiwNtw;Wtjw;F jhd;
cj;juthjk; mspf;fpwhH.
7 . tof;Fj; njhlUk; cz;ik fldPe;jtDf;F gzk; nfhLj;j gpwF

<l;LWjp ngw;wthplkpUe;J flik gpizahs; Kjd;ikf; fldhsp kPJ jd;
kw;Wk; VJk; ,y;yhj NghJ <l;LWjp ngahpNyNa tof;Fj; njhluyhk;.
jUgtH gpw egHfs; kPJ jd;
ngahpy; tof;F njhlu KbahJ.
89
1. <l;LWjp xg;ge;jk; ,yf;fzk; tiuf.
2. xg;ge;j Nghy;T tiffis Fwpg;gpLf.
3. cj;juthj xg;ge;jj;jpd; ,yf;fzk; tiuf.
8.6 njhFg; G iu
xg;ge;j Nghy;T> xg;ge;j Nghy;T mbg;gilj; jj;Jtk;> xg;ge;j Nghy;T tiffs;

kw;Wk; tpNr\ xg;ge;jk;> <l;LWjp xg;ge;jk; cj;juthj xg;ge;jk;> Fwpj;J ,g;ghlj;jpy;
nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,it xg;ge;j Nghy;T gbj;J njhpe;J nfhz;L ,Ug;gPHfs;. tpNr\
xg;ge;jq;fs;>
<l;LWjp xg;ge;jk;> tof;F njhlug;gLk;NghJ <l;LWjp ngw;wthpd; chpikfs;> <l;LWjp

mspg;gthpd; chpikfs; kw;Wk; cj;juthj xg;ge;jk;> cj;juthj xg;ge;jj;jpd; Kf;fpa
mk;rq;fs;> cj;juthjj;jpd; tiffs; gw;wp tpsf;fk; mspf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
90
gpidahsH – cj;juthjk; mspf;Fk; egH
fldspg;gtH – ahUf;F cj;juthjk; mspf;fg;gLfpwNjh me;egH
<l;LWjp mspg;gtH - <l;LWjp mspg;gjhf thf;FWjp mspg;gtH
<l;LWjp ngWgtH – ahUila ,og;G <L nra;ag;gl Ntz;LNkh me;egH.
1. xg;ge;j Nghy;T vd;gjw;F eP czUk; nghUs; ahJ?
2. xg;ge;j Nghy;T tiffis Fwpg;gpLf
3. xg;ge;j Nghy;T vd;why; vd;d? ,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jhy; mspf; f g; g l; L s; s

gy;NtW xg;ge;j Nghy;TfiAk; tpthp.
4. <l;LWjp xg;ge;jk; ,yf;fzk; tiuf
5. <l;LWjp kw;Wk; cj;juthj xg;ge;jq;fSf;fpilNaahd NtWghLfisj;jUf.
6. cj;juthj xg;ge;jj;jpd; ,yf;fzk; tiuf
7. cj;juthjj;jpd; tiffis RUf;fkhf tpthp

91
ghlk; - 9
xg;ge;jq;fspd; epiwNtw;wk;
(Performance of contract)
 xg;ge;j epiwNtw;wypd; Kf;fpa Njitfis gw;wp tpsf;f KbAk;
 xg;ge;jj;ij ahh; epiwNtw;w Ntz;Lk; vd;gjid tpsf;f KbAk;
 gu];gu thf;FWjpfs; kw;Wk; mjd; tiffis gw;wp mwpa KbAk;
 xg;ge;j epiwNtw;w fhyKk; ,lKk; gw;wp tpsf;f KbAk;
 xg;ge;jq;fspd; xg;gilg;ig gw;wp mwpayhk;.
ghlmikg; G
9.1. Kd;Diu
9.2. xg;ge;j epiwNtw;wypd; Kf;fpa Njitfs;
9.3. nra;tjw;F chpa fhyKk; ,lKk;
9.4. xg;ge;jj;ij ahh; epiwNtw;w Ntz;Lk;
9.5. ahh; epiwNtw;wf; Nfhhpf;if tpLf;fyhk;
9.6. xg;g e;j q;fspd; xg;gilg;G
9.7. gu];gu thf;FWjpfs;
9.8. fhyk; xg;ge;jj;jpd; Xh; ,d;wpaikahj $W
9.9. njhFg;G iu

92
9.1 Kd; D iu
xg;ge;j egh;fspd; xUth; xU Fwpg;gpl;l nraiy Fwpg;gpl;l fhy tuk;gpw;Fs; nra;J

Kbg;gjhfg; nghWg;Ngw;Wf; nfhz;L mjd; gbr;nraiy epiwNtw;wpdhy; xg;ge;jk; epiwNtwp
tpLfpwJ. Xg;ge;jk; epiwNtwpaTld; xg;ge;j egh;fspd; chpikfSk;> nghWg;G epiyfSk;
KbTf;F te;J tpLfpwJ. Xg;ge;j epiwNtw;wk; ,U tiffspy; nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
(i) eilKiw epiwNtw;wk; (Actual Performance) : xg;ge;j epiwNtw;wj;jpy; cs;s

,U egh;fSk; mth;fspd; cWjpAiufis epiwNtw;Wk; NghJ xg;ge;jk; Kw;Wg;
ngWfpwJ. xg;ge;j epiwNtw;wk; cld;ghl;bd; epge;jidfSf;F Vw;g Kw;Wg; ngw
Ntz; L k; . ngUthhpahd xg; g e; j q; f s; xg; g e; j epiwNtw; w KiwapNyNa
tpLtpf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
(ii) mspg;G KidT epiwNtw;wk; (Attempted Performance to Tender) : cWjpAiuia

epiwNtw;Wtjw;fhd Kiditr; nra;tJ Kaw;rpf;fg;gl;l epiwNtw;wk; my;yJ
mspg;G KidT vdg;gLk;. rpy rkaq;fspy; cWjpAiu mspg;gth; jdJ gq;F
xg;ge;jj;ij epiwNtw;w Kd;tUk; nghOJ mij cWjpAiu Vw;gth; Vw;f kWj;J
tpl;lhy; xg;ge;j epiwNtwhikf;F cWjpAiu mspj;jth; nghWg;Ngw;f khl;lhh;.
cWjpAiu mspg;gth; KidT nra;jhy; xg;ge;jk; epiwNtwpajhFk;. ,JNt
Kaw;rpf;fg;gl;l epiwNtw;wk; my;yJ mspg;G KidT vdg;gLk;.
9.2 xg;ge;j epiwNtw;wypd; Kf;fpa Njitfs;
(1) mspg;Gk; mspg;G epiwNtw;Wk; (Tender)> epge;jid mw;wjhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

xg;ge;jKs;s xg;ge;j thf;fpaq;fSf;F xg;g ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
(2) xg;ge;jj;jpy; Nfhbl;l xg;ge;j cld;gbf;ifgb thrfq;fSf;F cl;gl;L ,Uj;jy;

Ntz;Lk; (Unconditional).
93
(3) xg;ge;jk; rhpahd fhyj;jpYk; Fwpg;gpl;l ,lj;jpy; epiwNtw;wg;gl Ntz;Lk;. (Time &
Place) xU xg;ge;j Gs;sp Fwpg;gpl;l fhyj;jpw;F Fwpg;gpl;l ,lj;jpy; nra;ag;gl
Ntz;Lk;.
(4) xg;g e; j k; KOikahf nra; a g; gl Ntz;L k; . xg; g e;j k; mspj; j ypy; nfhQ; r
epiwNtw;wq;fs; Vw;fg;glhjjhFk;> KOikAk; nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk;.
(5) xg;ge;j epiwNtw;wj;jpw;F NghJkhd mtfhrk; nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk; (reasonable

Opportunity).
(6) xU ruf;F mspg;G> Vw;gth; mij ghPrpypf;f mtfhrk; mspf;fhky; nra;ag;gl;lhy;

mJ KOikahd mspg;gy;y.
(7) rhpahd tpjj;jpy; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk; mspg;G gzk;> Vw;Fk; tpjj;jpy; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
(8) mspg;G (Tender) Fwpg;gpl;l eghplk; jhd; nfhLf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
(9) mspg;gth;> nra;Ak; jpwDk;> nra;Ak; MtYk; nfhz;ltuhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
(10) mspg;G my;yJ nra;Kaw;rp ,Utif ruf;F mspg;gJ (Tender Of Goods)> gzk;
mspg;gJ (Tender Of Money).
9.3 nra;tjw;F chpa fhyKk; ,lKk;

(Time and place ofperformance)
xU xg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;w fhy> ,l eph;zak; nra;J nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. ,jw;Fhpa

rl;lq;fs;:
 thf;FWjp ngw;wtuhy;> thf;FWjpia epiwNtw;Wk; tpjKk; fhyKk; eph;zapf;fg;gl;L

tpl;lhy;> mt;tpjj;jpNyNa mf;fhyj;jpNyNa mt;thf;FWjp epiwNtw;wg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
 xU Vw;wj;jf;f fhy> tiuf;Fs; nra;a Ntz;Lk;. vq;F xg;ge;jj;jpy; fhyk; Fwpg;gplg;gl

tpy;iyNah mq;F tpNtfkhd fhyj;Jf;Fs; nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk;.
 xg;ge;j epiwNtw;wj;ij Fwpg;gpl;l rkaj;jpy; nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk;> Fwpg;gpl;l ,lj;jpy;

nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk;.
94
 njhopy; elf;Fk; Nehf;fq;fspy; epiwNtw;wg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
 rhpahd ,lk; njhoptpf;fg;glhkypUe;jhy; nra;gth; kw;w egiu Nfl;L mwpe;J mq;F

mkyhf;f Ntz;Lk;.
 rpy rkaq;fspy;> xg;ge;jj;ij epiwNtw;Wtjw;fhd ehs; xg;ge;jj;jpy; Fwpg;gplg;

gl;bUf;Fk; Mdhy; thf;FWjp mspj;jth; mij> thf;FWjpiag; ngw;wth; Nfl;Fk;
nghOJ jhd; epiwNtw;w Ntz;Lk;.
9.4 xg;ge;jj;ij ahh; epiwNtw;w Ntz;Lk;

(Who Must Perform the contract)
nghJthf xg;ge;jk; thf;FWjp mspg;gtuhNyNa epiwNtw;wg;gLfpwJ. MapDk;> rpy

rkaq;fspy;> mJ mthpd; gphpjpepjp my;yJ Kfth; Nghd;NwhuhYk; $l epiwNtw;wg;glyhk;.
ahh; xg;ge;jj;ij epiwNtw;w Ntz;Lk; ? vd;w Nfs;tp> egh;fSila Nehf;fj;jpd; cjtpahy;
KbT nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk;. vdNt egh;fspd; Nehf;fj;jpdbg;gilapy;> xg;ge;jk; gpd;tUk;
egh;fshy; epiwNtw;wg;glyhk;.
(i) thf; F Wjp toq; F gth; (The Promisor) : nghJthf xg; g e; j k; thf; F Wjp
toq;FgtuhNyh my;yJ mtUila rl;lhPjpahd gphpjpepjpahNyh my;yJ mtuhy;
gzpakh;j;jg;gl;l jFjpAila VNjDk; NtW eguhNyh epiwNtw;wg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
MapDk;> nrhe;j Mw;wy;> JzpT> tpUg;gk;> jsuhj Cf;fk; Nghd;wtw;iwf; ifahStJ
mtrpak; vdf; fUjg;gLk;. xg;ge;jq;fisg; nghWj;jkl;by;> mit thf;FWjp
toq;fpatuhNyNa epiwNtw;wg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
cjhuzk; X vd;gth; glk; xd;iw tiue;J jUtjhf Y vd;gtUf;F thf;FWjp

mspf;fpwhh;. X ,t;thf;FWjpia jhNd epiwNtw;w Ntz;Lk;. Vnddpy; ,jpy; X-apd;
nrhe;j Mw;wy; mlq;fpAs;sJ.
(ii) Kfth; (The Agent) : jd;eghpd; Mw;wy;> jpwik> tpUg;gk; Nghd;wtw;wpd; Njitaw;w
xg;ge;jk; thf;FWjp mspj;jtuhy; epakpf;fg;gl;l Kfth; xUtuhy; $l epiwNtw;wg;gl
KbAk;.
95
cjhuzk; X vd;gth; Y vd;gtUf;F &.1000 jUtjhf thf;FWjp mspj;jhh;. X

,t;thf;FWjpia jhNk nrhe;jkhf me;jg; gzj;ij mspj;Njh my;yJ NtW
xUtiu Y-aplk; me;j gzj;ij mspf;FkhW nra;Njh epiwNtw;wyhk;.
(iii) rl;lhPjpahd gphpjpepjp (Legal Representative) : thf; F Wjp mspj; j th; ,we; J
tpl;lhy;> mthpd; rl;lhPjpahd thhpRjhuh; mt;nthg;ge;jj;ij epiwNtw;wf; flikg;
gl;l tuhth; . Mdhy; mt; n thg; g e; j k; thf;F Wjp mspj;j thpd; jpwikapd; g b
epiwNtw;wg;gl Ntz;Lnkdpy;> mij mthpd; rl;lhPjpahd gphpjpepjp epiwNtw;w
KbahJ. MapDk;> ,we;jthplkpUe;J mth; ngw;w nrhj;jpd; kjpg;G tiuasTf;F
kl;LNk ahUk; rl;lhPjpahd gphpjpepjpia nghWg;Ngw;fr; nra;a KbAk;.
cjhuzk; X vd;gth; Y vd;gthpd; cUtg;glj;ij Fwpg;gpl;l Xh; ehSf;Fs;

Fwpg;gpl;l Xh; tpiyf;F tz;zk; jPl;Ltjhf thf;FWjpaspj;jhh;. me;ehSf;F Kd;ghf
X ,we;J tpLfpwhh;. mt;nthg;ge;jk; X Aila gpujpepjpahNyh my;yJ Y ahNyh
epiwNtw;wg;gl KbahJ.
(iv) %d;whtJ egh; (Third Person) : thf;FWjp ngw;wth; rk;kjpf;Fk; gl;rj;jpy;> xg;ge;jk;
%d;whk; eguhy; $l epiwNtw;wg;glyhk;. %d;whk; egh; xUth; mij epiwNtw;wyhk;
vd rk;kjk; njhptpf;f gpwF> thf;FWjp toq;fpatNu mij epiwNtw;w Ntz;Lk;
vd thf;FWjp ngw;wth; tw;GWj;j KbahJ.
(v) $l; L thf;F Wjpfspd; epiwNtw; w k; (Performance of Join Premises) : gyh;

xd;whff;$b thf;FWjp mspj;jpUe;jhy;> mjd; epiwNtw;wk; njhlh;ghd rl;ltpjpfs;
gpd;tUkhW:
 ,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l egh;fs; $l;lhf thf;FWjp xd;iw mspj;jpUg;ghh;fs;

vdpy;> gpwF mth;fs; midtUk; xd;W $b jkJ tho;ehSf;Fs; $l;lhf
mt;thf;FWjpia epiwNtw;w Ntz;Lk;.
 ,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l egh;fs; $l;lhf Xh; thf;FWjpia mspf;Fk;

nghOJ> thf;FWjp ngw;wth; $l;lhf thf;FWjp mspj;jth;fSk; ahNuDk; xUtiuNah
my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;lth;fisNah thf;FWjp KOtijAk; epiwNtw;WkhW
tw;GWj;jyhk;. mt;thW tw;GWj;j KbahJ vd;w ntspg;gilahd cld;gbf;if
VJkpUe;jhy;> mth; mt;tpjk; nra;aKbahJ.
96
 thf;FWjp mspj;jth;fSd; xd;W my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;lth;fs; jk;Kila gq;if

mspf;fj; jtwp tpLthh;fs; vdpy;> kPjKs;sth;fs; (thf;FWjp mspj;jth;fSs;
kPjKs;sth;fs;) mt;tpog;ig rhprkkhf Vw;f Ntz;Lk;.
 thf;FWjp ngw; wth;> $l;lhf thf;FWjp mspj;jth;fSd; VtNuDk; xUtiu tpLtpj; jhy;>
mjw;F mth; gpw thf;FWjp mspj;jth;fshYk; tpLtpf;fg;gl;ljhfg; nghUshfhJ.
 $l;lhf thf;FWjp mspj;jth;fSs; ahNuDk; xUth; kl;Lk; nkhj;j xg;ge;jj;ijAk;

epiwNtw;WkhW fl;lhag; gLj;jg;gLk; nghOJ> mth; kw;wth;fsplk; ,Ue;J rhprkkhf
njhifia Nfl;Lg; ngwyhk;. Mdhy; mt;thW ngw KbahJ vd cld;gbf;if
vJTk; mth;fspilNa nra;ag;gl;bUe;jhy;> mth; mt;thW ngw KbahJ.
 %yKjy; fldhsp ,we;jdhy;> mtUf;F xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l vz;zpf;ifapyhd

thhpRjhuh;fs; ,Ue;J mth;fs; midthplKk; mJ xg;gilf;fg;gLk; rkak;> thf;FWfp
ngw;wth; jd;Dila tof;if mt;tidj;J thhpRjhuh;fspd; kPJk; $l;lhfg;Nghl
Ntz;Lk;. mth;fs; ahNuDk; xUtiuNah my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;lth;fisNah
nkhj;jf; flidAk; mspf;FkhW ,th; Nfl;f KbahJ. Vnddpy; ,th;fs; nghWg;G
$l;Lg; nghWg;Ngad;wp $l;L kw;Wk; jdpj; jdpahd nghWg;G my;y.
9.5 ahh; epiwNtw;wf; Nfhhpf;if tpLf;fyhk;?

(Who Can Demand Performance ?)
xg;ge;jj;jpd; fPo;> thf;FWjp ngw;wtNu> mt;thf;FWjpia epiwNtw;WkhW Nfhu

chpikAs;s xNu eguhFk;. mt;thf;FWjp %d;whtJ egh; xUth; gad;ngWk; nghUl;L
nra;ag;ggl;bUe;jhYk; $l> epiwNtw;wf; NfhUk; chpik thf;FWjp ngw;wthplNk ,Uf;Fk;.
cjhuzk; X vd;gth; Z vd;gtUf;F &.1000 jUtjhf Y vd;gthplk; thf;FWjp

mspf;fpwhh;. Mdhhy; X, Z–f;F mj;njhifia mspf;fj; jtwp tpl;lhh;. ,q;F mj;njhifia
mspf;FkhW Nfhu Ntz;bath; Y-Na md;w Z my;y.
Mdhy; thf;FWjp ngw;wth; ,we;jtpl;lhh;> mthpd; rl;lhPjpahd gphpjpepjp mij

epiwNtw;WkhW Nfhuyhk;> Mdhy; xg;ge;jk; jdpegh; Mw;wy; my;yJ kWgaidf;
nfhz;bUf;Fk; gl;rj;jpy;> ,we;jthpd; rl;lhPjpahd gphpjpepjp mjid epiwNtw;WkhW
Nfl;f KbahJ. MapDk; rpy tpjptpyf;fhd rkaq;fspy;> xg;ge;jj;jpy; rk;ke;jg;glhj
97
%d; w htJ egh; $l mjd; epiwNtw; w j; i j typAWj; j yhk; . ,it> %d; w htJ
mj;jpahakhd”kWgad;” ,y; tphpthf tpthpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
9.6 xg;gilg;G (Assignment of Contracts)
xg;gilg;G vd;w nrhy;Yf;F khw;wpaspj;jy; vd;W nghUs;. Fwpg;gpl;l #o;epiyfspy;>

xg;ge;jj;jpd; xU egUila chpikfSk; nghWg;GfSk; gpwhplk; xg;gilf;fg;glyhk;>
xg;gilg;G 1.egh;fspd; nrayhNyh my;yJ 2.rl;lj;jpd; nray;ghl;bdhy; tpLtpg;G. ,t;tpU
xg;gilg;Gfs; njhlh;ghd tpjpfis ehk gpd;tUkhW Muhayhk;.
1. egh;fspd; nrayhy; nra;ag;gLk; xg;gilg;G (Assignment by act of parties)
 jdpegh; jpwik> Mw;wy; Nghd;wtw;wpd; Njitia cl;nfhz;l xg;ge;jq;fs;

xg;gilf;fg;gl KbahJ.
 xg;ge;jj;jpd; fPo; cs;;s nghWg;Gf;fshd Rik> nghWg;Gfs;> Nghd;wd xg;gilf;fg;gl

KbahJ.
 thf;FWjp mspj;jtNu mij epiwNtw;w Ntz;Lk; vd;W xg;ge;jk; fUjtpy;iy

vdpy;> mt;nthg;ge;jk; Kfthpd; %yk; epiwNtw;wg;glhyk;. Mdhy; xg;ge;jj;jpd;
flikfis epiwNtw;WjyhdJ> %yKjy; eghpd; nghWg;ghf kl;Lnk ,Uf;Fk;.
 jdpegh; nrhe;jkhd Ntiyfis (%d;whk; eghplk;) gpwhplk; xg;ge;jk; nra;a KbahJ.
 xg; ge;jk; xd; wpd; fPo; xU egUf;Fs;s chpikfs; tof;fhlj;jf; f chpikfs;Actionable

(
Claim) vdf;fUjg;glyhk;.
2. rl;l nray;ghl;bdhy; tpUtpg;G (Assignment by operating of law)
 ,wj; jy; (Death) : xU xg; ge; jk; xUthpd; jdpj;jFjp> jpwik Mfpatw; wpd; mbg;gilapy;
Vw;glhky; xg;ge;jj;jpy; cWjpAiu mspj;jth; ,we;J tpl;lhy; me;j xg;ge;jk;
mtUilNdNa mope;J tpLk; mij mtuJ thhpRfs; epiwNtw;w ,ayhJ. mth;fis
epiwNtw;Wk; gb fl;lhag;gLj;j cWjpAiu Vw;gtUf;F chpik fpilahJ.
98
 nehbg;G epiy (Insolvency): xUth; jdJ rf;jpf;F kPwp xUth; fld; thq;fp mij
jpUg;gpf; nfhLf;f Kbahj msTf;F nehbj;Jg; NghFk; epiyikapy; fldPe;Njhh;fspd;
njhy;iyfspypUe;J tpLgLk; nghUl;L jd;id nehbj;jth; vd mwptpf;f Ntz;Lnkd
ePjp kd;wj;jpy; tof;Fj; njhlh;e;J mtiu ePjp kd;wk; nehbj;jth; vd;W mwptpj;jhy;
Vw;fdNt nra;jpUe;j xg;ge;jq;fspypUe;J mth; tpLtpf;fg;gLfpwhh;.
9.7 gu];gu thf;FWjpfs; (Reciprocal Promises)
xd;Wf;nfhd;W kWgadhf my;yJ kWgadpd; gFjpahf mikAk; thf;FWjpfs;

gu];gu thf;FWjpfshFk;> vd ,jw;F gphpT 2(F) ,yf;fzk; tiufpd;wJ. mjhtJ> xU
egh; jkJ thf;FWjpia kw;wthpd; thf;FWjpf;F kWgadhf mspf;Fk; nghOJ> mt;tpU
thf;FWjpfSk; gu];gu thf;FWjpfs; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
9.7.1 gu];gu thf;FWjpfspd; tiffs; (Kinds of Reciprocal Promises)
N[hd;]; v.ghh;fNy vd;w tof;fpy; Nkd;];/gPy;L gpuT vd;gth; nra;j ghFghl;bd;gb>

gu];gu thf;FWjpfs; %d;W tifg;gLk;. Mit
1. gu];g ukhd kw;W k; xNu rkaj;j py; epiwNtw;w g;gl Ntz;L a thf;F Wjpfs;
(Mutual and Concurrent) : ,uz;L thf;FWjpfSk; xNu rkaj;jpy; epiwNtw;wg;gLk;
nghOJ> mit gu];gukhd kw;Wk; xNu rkaj;jpy; epiwNtw;wg;gl Ntz;ba
thf;FWjpfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.
cjhuzk; X vd;gth; Y vd;gtUf;F 100 gQ;R %l;ilfis xU %l;ilapy; tpiy

&.200 vd;w tPjj;jpy; tpw;f cld;gLfpd;whh;. mg;gQ;R %l;ilfs; toq;fg;gl;lTld;
mjd; tpiy Y-ahy; mspf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;. ,q;F thf;FWjpfs; gu];gu kw;Wk; xNu
rkaj;jpy; epiwNtw;wg;gl Ntz;badthf cs;sd Vnddpy;> gQ;R %l;ilfis
toq;FjYk; mjw;fhd tpiyia mspj;jYk; xNu Neuj;jpy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl
Ntz;bAs;sd.
2. epge;j idf;F l;g l;l kw;W k; rhh;e ;j pUf; f pd;w thf; F Wjpfs; (Conditional and
Dependent) : ,t;tpj thf;FWjpfspy;> xU eghpd; epiwNtw;wk; kw;wth; jk;Kila
thf;FWjpia Kd;$l;bNa epiwNtw;Wtijg; nghWj;J mikfpd;wJ.
99
cjhuzk; X vd;gth; Y vd;gtUila tPl;il gOJ ghh;g;gjhf thf;FWjpaspf;fpwhh;.

Y mjw;Fj; Njitahd rpnkz;l;> nrq;fy; Nghd;w Kf;fpakhd nghUl;fis mspg;gjhf
thf;FWjpaspf;fpd;whh;. vdNt X Aila epiwNtw;wk;> X Njitahd nghUl;fis
mspg;gij ek;gpAs;sJ. ,t; tpj thf; FWjpfs; epge; jidf;Fl; gl;l kw;Wk; rhh;e;jpUf;fpd;w
thf;FWjpfshFk;.
3. gu];gukhd kw;Wk; jd;dpr;irahd thf;FWjpfs; (Mutual and independent) :

xt;nthUtUk;> kw;wth; mtUila thf;FWjpia epiwNtw;Wfpwhuh my;yJ epiwNtw;w
tpUk;Gfpwhuh vd ghh;j;Jf; fhj;jpuhky;> mtuth; jq;fspd; thf;FWjpia epiwNtw;wk;
nghOJ mit gu];gukhd kw;Wk; jd;dpr;irahd thf;FWjpfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.
cjhuzk; X vd;gth; Y vd;gtUf;F nghUl;fis 1998 me;j tUlk; toq;Ftjhf

cld;gLfpwhh;. Mdhy; Y mjw;Fhpa tpiyia 1998 me;j tUlNk jUtjhf
cld;gLfpd;whh;. ,it gu];gukhd kw;Wk; jd;dpr;irahd thf;FWjpfshFk;.
9.7.2 gu];gu thf;F Wjpfspd; epiwNtw;wk; njhlh;ghd tpjpfs; (Rules

Regarding performance of reciprocal promises)
1. xNu rkaj;j py; epiwNtw;wg;g l Ntz;b a gu];gu thf;FWjpfs; : x N u

rkaj;jpy; epiwNtw;wg;gl Ntz;ba gu];gu thf;FWjpfis xg;ge; jk; xd;W
nfhz;bUf;Fk; nghOJ> thf;FWjp ngw;wth; jk;Kila gu];gu thf;FWjpia
epiwNtw;wj; jahuhfTk; tpUg;gj;NjhLk; ,y;yhj tiuapy;> thf;FWjp mspj;jth;.
jkJ thf;FWjpia epiwNtw;w Ntz;ba Ntz;ba mtrpakpy;iy.
cjhuzk; X vd;gth; Y vd;gtUf;F Xh; xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lgl;ldh;. nghUl;fisg;

ngWk; nghOJ> mjw;Fhpa tpiyiaj; ju Y jahuhfTk; tpUg;gj;NjhLk; ,y;yhj
tiuapy;> X mg;nghUl;fis toq;f Ntz;ba mtrpakpy;iy. X gzj;ijg; ngw;Wf;
nfhz;L nghUl;fisj; juj; jahuhfTk; tpUg;gj;NjhL ,y;yhj tiu> mjw;Fhpa
njhifia Y-Ak; ju Ntz;ba mtrpakpy;iy.
2. gu]; g u thf; F Wjpfspd; thpir fpukkhd epiwNtw; w k; : thf; F Wjpfs;

epiwNtw;wg;gl Ntz;ba thpir> xg;ge;jj;jpy; ntspg;gilahff; Fwpg;gplg;gl;bUg;gpd;>
mit mNj thpirf; fpukg;gb epiwNtw;wg;glyhk;. mt;thpir xg;ge;jj;jpy; eph;zapf;fg;
gltpy;iynadpy;> mit eltbf;ifapd; jd;ikf;Nfw;w thpirapy; epiwNtw;wg;glyhk;.
100
cjhuzk; X vd;gth; Y vd;gtUf;F> Fwpg;gpl;l Xh; tpiyf;F fil xd;W fl;Lthh;

vd X Ak; Y Ak; Xh; xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lg;gl;ldh;. tPl;bw;Fhpa tpiyia Y mspg;gjw;F
Kd;Ng> X jkJ thf;FWjpahd fil fl;Lk; gzpia Kbj;J tpl Ntz;Lk;.
3. gu];g u thf;F Wjpfis epiwNtw;w j; jtWtjd; tpisT : xg; g e; j k ; xd ; W

gu];gu thf;FWjpfisf; nfhz;bUe;J> mt;nthg;ge;jj;jpd; xU egh; thf;FWjpia
epiwNtw;WtjpypUe;J kw;wtiuj; jUg;ghh; vdpy;> mt;nthg;ge;jk;> mt;thW jLf;fg;gLk;
eghpd; tpUg;gj;ijg; nghWj;J jtph;f;fg;glf; $bajhFk;. NkYk;> mt;nthg;ge;jk;
epiwNtw;wg;glhky; Nghdjhy;> mt;thW jLf;fg;gl;l egUf;F VNjDk; e\;l
Vw;gl;bUg;gpd;> mjw;Fhpa e\;l <l;ilAk; mth; ngw KbAk;.
cjhuzk; Y vd;gth; X vd;gtUf;fhf Fwpg;gpl;l gzpia &.10>000-f;F Kbg;ghh;

vd X Ak; Y Ak; cld;gl;ldh;. Y Ak; mjd;gb elf;f tpUg;gj;JlNdNa ,Uf;fpwhh;.
Mdhy; mt;thW nra;tjpypUe;J Y ia X jLf;fpwhh;. mt;nthg;ge;jk; Y apd;
tpUg;gj;jpw;Nfw;g jtph;f;ff; $bajhFk;. Y mt;nthg;ge;jj;ij uj;J nra;a KbT
nra;J tpl;lhh; vdpy;> mt;nthg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;wg;glhjjdhy; mtUf;F VNjDk;
e\;lk; Vw;gl;bUg;gpd;> mijAk; X aplk; ,Ue;J kPl;f mtUf;Fj; jFjp cz;L.
4. Kjypy; epiwNtw;w g;g l Ntz;b a thf;F Wjp epiwNtw;wg;glhjjhy; Vw;g Lk;

tpisT : Kjypy; xU thf;FWjp epiwNtw;wg;gl;l gpwNf kw;nwhU thf;FWjp
epiwNtw;wg;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;w jd;ikAs;s gu];gu thf;FWjpfis Xh; xg;ge;jk;
nfhz;Ls;sjhf itj;Jf; nfhs;Nthk;. ,t;tpj xg;ge;jj;jpy;> Kjypy; epiwNtw;wg;gl
Ntz;ba thf;FWjp epiwNtw;wg;gltpy;iy vdpy;> kw;wtiu mthpd; thf;FWjpia
epiwNtw;WkhW Kjyhkth; Nfl;f KbahJ. NkYk; xg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;wg;glhjjhy;>
,uz;lhkth; VNjDk; el;lkile;jpUe;jhy;> me;el;lj;ijAk; Kjyhkth; <Lfl;l
Ntz;Lk;.
cjhuzk; X vd;gth; Y vd;gtUf;F %d;W ehl;fSf;Fs; 100 gQ;R %l;ilfis

tpw;gjhf thf;FWjp mspj;jhh;. mjw;F Y> mjw;Fhpa gzj;ij xU khjj;jpw;Fs;
mspg;gjhf X-f;F thf;FWjpaspf;fpwhh;. X mthpd; thf;FWjpg;gb nghUl;fis
toq;ftpy;iy. Y jkJ thf;FWjpia epiwNtw;w Ntz;bajpy;iy kw;Wk; mjw;Fhpa
e\;l <l;ilAk; X>Y f;F mspj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
101
5. Kjypy; rl;lhPjpahd nray;fisAk; gpd; rl;lj;Jf;F khwhd nray;fisAk;

nra;tjw;f hd gu];g u thf;FWjpfs; : gu];gukhd thf;FWjpfis mspf;Fk;
egh;f s; > Kjypy;> rl;l hP jpahd rpy nray;f isr; nra; tjhfTk; > Fwpg; gpl; l
#o;epiyfspy;> rpy rl;lj;Jf;F khwhd nray;fis nra;tjhfTk;> thf;FWjpfis
mspf;Fk; nghOJ Kjy; fl;l thf;FWjpfs; Xh; xg;ge;jkhfTk;> ,uz;lhtJ fl;l
thf;FWjpfs; nry;yhj Xh; cld;gbf;ifahfTk; fUjg;gLfpd;wd.
cjhuzk; X vd;gth; jdJ xU filia Y vd;gtUf;F> &.1>00>000 f;F tpw;ghh;

vdTk;> Mdhy; mt;tPl;il Y #jhl;lj;jpw;Fg; gad;gLj;jpdhy; mf;filf;nfd
mth; jkf;F &.5>00>000 ju Ntz;Lk; vdTk; X Ak; Y Ak; cld;gl;ldh;. Mdhy;
mf; filia rl; l j; Jf;F g; Gwk;g hd Xh; Nehf; fj;j pw; Fg; gad;g Lj; j Y f; F
mDkjpaspj;jJ Xh; nry;yhj cld;gbf;ifahFk;.
6. rl;l hPj pahd nraiyr; nra;t jhfTk; kw;W k; mjw;F khwhf rl;l j;Jf;F
khwhd nraiyr; nra;tjhfTk; nra;ag;gLk; gu];gu thf;FWjpfs; : rl;lhPjpahd
Fwpg;gpl;l rpy nray;fisr; nra;tjhf kw;Wk; mjw;F khwhf rl;lj;Jf;Fy khwhd
rpy nray;fisr; nra;tjhfTk; Xh; egh; thf;FWjpaspf;Fk; nghOJ rl;lhPjpahd
gFjpapd; epiwNtw;wj;ij kl;LNk rl;lg;gb typAWj;j KbAk;.
9.8 fhyk; xg;ge;jj;jpd; Xh; ,d;wpaikahj $W

(Time is the essential of contract)
xg;ge;jj;jpy; <LgLk; egh;fs; jq;fspd; thf;FWjpfis Fwpg;gpl;l fhyj;jpw;Fs;

epiwNtw;wp tpLjy; Ntz;Lk;. xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lgl;Ls;s egh;fs; jq;fshy; eph;zapf;fg;gl;l
fhyj;ij kpfTk; Kf;fpakhd Xh; epge;jidahff; fUJk; nghOJ> fhyk; xg;ge;jjpy; Xh;
,d;wpaikahj $W vdg;gLfpwJ. mt;thW fhyg;gb> Xh; xg;ge;jk; <Lgl;l egh;fSf;F
chpikaspf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
xg;ge;jq;fis epiwNtw;Wtjw;nfd cWjpahd fhyk; vJTk; Fwpg;gplg;gltpy;iy

vdpy; mit> epahakhd Xh; fhyj;jpw;Fs;Sk; cWjpahd fhyk; Fwpg;gplg;gl;bUg;gpd;
mit> mf;fhyj;jpw;Fs;Sk; epiwNtw;wg;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;gJ nghJ tpjpahFk;. Xg;ge;jk;
xd;wpd; nghUs; tpsf;fk; mwpAk; nghOJ> mt;Tld; gbf;ifapd; fUg;nghUisAk;
rhuhk;rj;ijAk; ghh;j;J fhyk; mt;nthg;ge;jj;jpd; Xh; Kf;fpakhd mk;rkh my;yJ
,y;iyah vd;gij KbT nra;tJ ePjpkd;wj;jpd; nghWg;ghFk;.
102
gpd;t Uk; xg;g e;j q;f isg; nghWj;j kl;b y;> fhyk; vg;N ghOJk; Kf;f pakhd
rhuhk;r khfNt fUjg;g LfpwJ
 fhyj;ij xg;ge;jj;jpd; rhuhk;rkhf xg;ge;jj;jpy; <LgLk; egh;fs; ntspg;gilahf

cld;gLk; nghOJ.
 fhyjhkjk; ,og;ig Vw;gLj;Jk; tifapy; nray;gLk; nghOJ> kw;Wk;
 fhyj;ij xg;ge; jj;jpd; rhuhk;rkhff; nfhs;tij xg;ge;jj; jpd; jd; ikAk; mj;ahtrpaKk;
mtrpakhf;Fk; nghOJ fhyk; xg;ge;jk; Vw;gLfpwJ.
1. gu];gu thf;FWjpfs; ahit ?
2. “fhyk; xg;ge;jj;jpd; Xh; ,d;wpaikahj $W” tpsf;Ff.
3. xg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;wk; vd;gjw;F eP czUk; nghUs; ahJ?

103
9.9 njhFg; G iu
xg;ge;jq;fspd; epiwNtw;wk; gy topfspy; Vw;gLfpwJ. mit> xg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;wk;>

cld;ghL nra;J nfhs;sy;> ,ayhJ Nghjy;> fhyk; fle;J tply;> xg;ge;jk; kPWif
rl;lj;jpd; nrayhf;fk; ,itfs; midj;Jk; xg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;wy; vdg;gLk;. rl;lhPjpahd
nraiyr; nra;tjhfTk; kw;Wk; mjw;F khwhf rl;lj;Jf;F khwhd nraiyr; nra;tjhfTk;
nra;ag;gLk; gu];gu thf;FWjpfs; kw;Wk; fhyk; xg;ge;jj;jpd; Xh; ,d;wpaikahj $Wfis
tpthpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
9.10 Kf;f par; Nrhw;f s;
 gu];gu thf;FWjpfs; : xd;Wf;nfhd;W kWgadhf my;yJ kWgadpd; gFjpahf

mikAk; thf;FWjpfs;.
 xg;ge; jq;fspd; epiwNtw;wk; : xg;ge;jk; thf;FWjp mspg;gtuhNyNa epiwNtw;wg;gLfpwJ.
1. xg;ge;j epiwNtw;wk; vd;gjd; nghUs; ahJ?
2. gu];gu thf;FWjpfs; ahit ? mtw;wpd; tiffis Fwpg;gpLf.
3. “fhyk; xg;ge;jj;jpd; Xh; ,d;wpaikahj $W” tpsf;Ff.
4. xg;ge;jj;jpd; xg;gilg;G njhlh;ghd rl;lj;ij Mua;f.
5. xg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;wk; vd;gjw;F eP czUk; nghUs; ahJ? xg;ge;jj;ij ahh;

epiwNtw;wf; Nfhhpf;if tpLf;fyhk;? Xg;ge;jq;fs; ahuhy; epiwNtw;wg;gl Ntz;Lk;?
104
ghlk; - 10
xg;ge;j tpLg;G
(Discharge of Contract)

 xg;ge;j tpLg;gpd; nghUs; tpsf;fk; ju KbAk;.
 xg;ge;j tpLtpg;gpd; tiffis tpsf;Fk; ju KbAk;.
 Vw;gpd; rl;l hPjpahd tpjpKiwfis tpsf;f KbAk;.
 njhiyNgrp %yk; Vw;gLk; xg;ge;jq;fs; rl;l tpjpfis tpsf;f KbAk;.
ghl mikg;G
10.1. Kd;Diu
10.2. epiwNtw;W jypd; %yk; tpLg;G
10.3. gu];gu cld;g bf;ifapd; %yk; tpLg;G
10.4. ,ayhJ Nghjyhk; tpLg;G
10.5. rl;l j;jpd; ,af;f j;jpdhy; tpLg;G
10.6. xg;g e;j Kwptpdhy; Kbg;G
10.7. fhyk; fle;J Nghdjhy; Kbg;G
10.8. njhFg;G iu
10.10. gapw;rp tpdhf;fs;

105
10.1. Kd; D iu
,e;jpa xg;ge;j rl;lk; gphpT-37d; gb xg;ge;j tpLg;G vd;why; xg;ge;jk; xd;wpd; %yk;
cUthf;fg;gl;l flikfs; KbTf;F tUk;nghOJ mt;nthg;ge;jk; tpLtpf;fg; gLfpwJ.
xg;ge;j tpLg;G gy topfspy; Vw;glyhk;. xg;ge;jg; gb rk;ge;jg;gl;l egh;fs; mtutUila
thf;FWjpia epiwNtw;Wk; nghOJ xt;nthg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;Wg;gl;L tpl;ljhf $wyhk;.
my;yJ xU egh; jd;Dila thf;FWjpia epiwNtw;Wtjhf KidT nra;J mij Vw;f
kWf;Fk; nghOJ mk;Kjy; egh; mtUila flikapypUe;J tpLtpf;fg;gLfpwhh;. xg;ge;j
tpLg;G gy topfspy; Vw;gLfpwJ.
1) epiwNtw;wy;
2) gu];gu cld;ghL nfhs;sy;
3) ,ayhJ Nghjy;
4) rl;lj;jpd; ,af;fk;
5) xg;ge;j KwpT
6) fhyk; fle;J Nghjy;
10.2. epiwNtw;Wjypd; %yk; tpLg;G (Discharge of Performance)
xg;ge;jk; xd;wpd; egh;fs; mtuth;fspd; thf;FWjpia epiwNtw;Wk; nghOJ>

mt;nthg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;wg;gl;ljhff; $wg;gLfpwJ. ,JNt nghJthf Xh; xg;ge;jj;ij
tpLtpf;fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; KiwahFk;. epiwNtw;wk; ,uz;L gf;fKk; Kiwg;gbAk;
KOikahfTk; ,Ug; g pd; > xg; g e; j j; j py; <Lgl; l egh; fs; Kw;w pYk; mtuth;f spd;
nghWg;gpypUe; J tpLtpf;fg;gLth;. XNu xU egh; kl; Lk; jhdspj;j thf;FWjpia epiwNtw;Wthh;.
vdpy; mth; kl;LNk nghWg;gpypUe;J tpLtpf;fg;gLthh;. thf;FWjpiag; epiwNtw;whky;
tpl;l kw;wthpd; kPJ eltbf;if vLf;Fk; chpikiaAk; ngWthh;. epiwNtw;wk; ,uz;L
tifg;gLk;> mit
(i) cz; i kahd epiwNtw;w k; ( Actual Performance) : “thf;F Wjpia egh; fs;
epiwNtw;Wjy;” vd;gJ ,jd; nghUshFk;. xg;ge;jj;jpd; ,uz;L egh;fSk; mtuth;fspd;
106
thf;FWjpfis epiwNtw;wptpLk; nghOJ> mt;nthg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;wg;gl;L tpl; ljhfTk;

$wg;gLfpwJ. epiwNtw;wk; KOikahdjhfTk; Jy;ypakhdjhfTk; ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
mJ xg;ge;jj;jpd; $Wfspd; gb ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. ngUk;ghYk; xg;ge;jq;fs;
,t;tpjj;jpNyNa tpLf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
( ii) epiwNtw;Wtjhf KidT nra;jy; my;y J xg;g e;jg;Gs;sp (Offerto Perform

or Tender) : xg;ge;jk; xd;wpd;fPo;> flik xd;iw Mw;Wtjhf KidT nra;jNy
xg;ge;jg;Gs;sp vdg;gLfpwJ. xU egh; jd;Dila thf;FWjpia epiwNtw;Wtjhf
KidT nra;J kw;wth; mij Vw;f kWf;Fk; nghOJ> mt;nthg;ge;jk; nry;yf;$bajhf
,Uf;Fk; gl;rj;jpy;> mk;Kjy; egh; mtUila flikapypUe;J tpLtpf;fg;gLfpd;whh;.
10.3. gu];gu cld;gbf;ifapd; %yk; tpLtpg;G

(Discharge of Mutual Agreement)
xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lgl;Ls;s egh;fs; ntspg;gilahfNth my;yJ cl;fpilahfNth

xg;ge;jj;ij KbTf;Ff; nfhz;L tu cld;gLk; nghOJ> mt;nthg;ge;jk; gu];gu
cld;gbf;ifapd; %yk; tpLtpf;fg;gLtjhff; $wg;gLfpwJ.
cjhuzk; mjd; nray;ghL jpUg;jpfukhff; fhuzg;glhtpl;ly; 5 ehl;fSf;Fs;

jpUg;gpj; je;J tpLtjhff; $wp x vd;gth; y vd;gthplkpUe;J fhh; xd;iw thq;Ffpwhh;.
mjd; nray;ghL jpUg;jpfuhkhf ,y;yhjjhy;>x mij 5 ehl;fSf;Fs; y aplk; jpUg;gpj;
je;Jtpl;lhh;. mt;nthg;ge;jk; gu];gu cld;gbf;ifapy; %yk; tpLtpf;fg;gl;lJ.
gu];g u tpLg;G gpd;t Uk; VNjDk; xU topapy; nra;ag;g lyhk;
( i) ghpkhw;wk; (Novation) : xg;ge;jfhuh;fSila xUkpj;j ,iztpd; gb gioa

xg;ge;jj;jpw;Fg; gjpyhf Gjpa Xh; xg;ge;jj;ij Vw;gLj;JtJ ghpkhw;wk; vdg;gLfpwJ.
,J gioa xg;ge;jj;jpw;F khw;whf Gjpa Xh; xg;ge;jj;ij Vw;gLj;JfpwJ. ,J
gioa xg;ge;jj;ij tpLtpj;J tpLfpwJ. gioa xg;ge;jj;ij tpLtpg;gNj Gjpa
xg;ge;jj;jpd; kWgadhf ,Uf;Fk;. Gjpa xg;ge;jk; gioa egh;fSf;F ,ilNaNah
my;yJ khWgl;l egh;fSf;F ,ilNaNah Nkw;nfhs;sg;glyhk;> flikapd; jd;ikAk;
khWglyhk;. vdNt ghpkhw;wk; gpd;tUk; VNjDk; xU tpjj;jpy; mikAk;.
107
 gioa xg;ge;jj;jpy; Gjpa epge;jidfis ,ize;J Gjpa xU xg;ge;jk; gioa

egh;fSf;fpilNa Vw;gLjy;.
 gioa xg;ge;jk; mg;gbNa Gjpa Xh; eguhy; Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gLjy;.
cjhuzk; x vd;gth; y vd;gthplk; &.50>000/- fld; gl;bUe;jhh;. mf;flDf;F x jdJ

nrhj;ij mlkhdk; itj;J y Ald;> Xh; cld;gbf;ifia Vw;gLj;jpf; nfhz;lhh;.
,t;Tld; gbf;ifapdhy; gioa xg;ge;jk; KbTf;Ff; nfhz;Ltug;gl;L Gjpa Xh;
xg;ge;jk; cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ.
( ii) js;Sg;gb (Remission) : “thf;FWjp ngw;w xt;nthUtUk;> jkf;fspf;fg; gl;l

thf;FWjpia KOikahfNth my;yJ mjpy; xU gFjpiaNah js;Sg;gb nra;ayhk;>
my;yJ mjd; epiwNtw;wf; fhyk; ePl;bf;fg;glyhk; my;yJ mjw;Fg; gjpyhf
jkf;F jpUg;jpaspf;Fk; vdj; jhd; fUJk; vijNaDk; Vw;fyhk;”. vd rl;lg; gphpT-
63y; $WfpwJ. js;Sg;gb vd;gJ nra;Jnfhs;sg; gl;l xg;ge;jj;jpypUe;J Fiwthf
Vw;why; mJ js;Sg;gb vdg;gLfpwJ.
cjhuzk; x vd;gth; y vd;gthplk; &.10>000/- fld;gl;bUe;jhh;. &.10>000/- ju

Ntz;bajw;;F x, y - f;F &.6>000/- nfhLj;jhh;. y Ak; mij KOf; flDf;Fkhf
Vw;whh;. mk;KOf;flDk; tpLtpf;fg;gLtjhfNt ,jw;Fg; nghUshFk;.
(iii) uj;J nra;jy; (Recission) :uj;J nra;jy; vd;gJ xg;ge;jj;jpw;F midj;J my;yJ
rpy epge;jidfisAk; ePf;Fjy; uj;J nra;jy; vdg;gLk;. ,J gpd;tUk; #o;epiyfspy;
Vw;glyhk;.
 egh;fsp;d; gu];gu Vw;gpd; %yk;> my;yJ
 jtph;f;ff; $ba xg;ge;jj;jpy;> xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lgl;Ls;sth;fSf;F mij uj;J nra;af;

$ba chpik ,Uf;Fk;. my;yJ
 xg;ge;jk; xd;wpd; xU egh; jkJ flikia epiwNtw;wj; jtWk; nghOJ> kw;wth;

jk;Kila chpikfSf;F CW vJTk; Vw;glhj tifapy; xg;ge;j kPWiff;fhd
e\;l <l;ilg; ngWk; Nehf;NfhL xg;ge;jj;ij uj;J nra;ayhk;.
108
cjhuzk; xU Fwpg;gpl;l Njjpapy; xU nraiyr; nra;tjhf x vd;gtUk; y

vd;gtUk; xU xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lgl;ldh;. epiwNtw;wk; nra;ag; glNtz;ba Njjpf;F
Kd;Ng> mt;nthg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;wg;gl Ntz;ba mtrpakpy;iy. vd ,UtUNk
gu];gu cld;gl;ldh;. mq;F ,t;nthg;ge;jk; gu];gu cld;gl;bdhy; uj;J nra;ag;gLk;.
( iv) jpUj;jk; (Alternation) : xg;ge;jj;jpy; cs;s rpy my;yJ midj;J epge;jidfis

khw;Wjy; jpUj;jk; vdg;gLfpwJ. jpUj;jk; xg;ge;jj;jpd; midj;J egh;fspd; xg;GjNyhL
nra;ag;gLk; nghOJ jhd;> rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$bajhff; fUjg;gLfpwJ. ,r;rkaj;jpy;>
gioa xg;ge;jk; tpLtpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
cjhuzk; x vd;gth; y vd;gthplkpUe;J xU fhiu &.80>000/-f;F thq;FtjhfTk;>

mjw;Fhpa njhifia xU khjk; fopj;Jj; jUtjhfTk; cld;gl;lhh;. gpd;dh;>
mj;njhifia ,uz;L khjk; fopj;Jj; jUtij Vw;FkhW x,y-aplk; Ntz;LNfhs;
tpLj;jhh;. y-Ak; mthpd; Ntz;LNfhis Vw;whh;. Kjy; xg;ge;jk; gu];gu xg;Gjypd;
%yk; KbTf;F tUfpwJ.
( v) ,izg;G (Merger) :xg;ge;jk; Vw;gl;L ele;JtUk; NghJ ,ijtpl mjpfg;gbahd

chpik cila xg;ge;jj;ij Nkw;nfhs;Sk; nghOJ ,izg;G Vw;gLfpwJ. ,q;F
Kjy; xg;ge;jk; ,uz;lhtJ xg;ge;jj;Jld; ,ize;J tpLfpwJ. ,q;F Kjy;
xg;ge;jj;jpd;gb xU egUf;Fs;s Fiwe;j chpik jhdhfNt mfd;WtpLk;.
cjhuzk;; uNk\; vd;gth; xU tPl;il Fj;jiff;F vLj;jhh;. gpwF me;epyj;ij

mtNu nrhe;jkhf thq;fpf; nfhs;fpwhh;. ,q;F Fj;jif chpik nrhe;j chpikAld;
,izfpwJ.
( vi) jsh;j;Jjy; (Waiver) : xg;ge;j egh; xUth; jdf;Fs;s chpikiaj;jhdhf typate;J

tpl;Lf; nfhLj;jhy; mjw;F chpiktply; my;yJ jsph;j;Jjy; vd;W ngah;. ,jd;
%yKk; xU xg;ge;jj;ijj; jPh;f;fyhk;.
10.4. ,ayhJ Nghjyhy; tpLg;G (Discharge of Impossibility)
xU xg;ge;jj;ij epiwNtw;w ,ayhJ Nghdhy; mt;nthg;ge;jk; KbtilAk; my;yJ

KbTf;F te;JtpLk;. mt;thW xU xg;ge;jj;ij epiwNtw;Wtjw;F ,ilA+whf ,Uf;Fk;
,ayhik fPo;f;fhZk; topfspy; Vw;glyhk;.
109
1. cld;gbf;i f Vw;gLk; nghONj epiwNtw;w ,ayhik ( Impossibility at

the time of Agreement) : ,t;tpj ,ayhik cld;gbf;if Vw;gLk; nghONj
fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J mt;nthg;ge;jj;ij mjd; njhlf;fj;jpypUe;Nj nry;yhjjhf;fp
tpLfpwJ. vdNt> ,t;tpj xg;ge;jk; xg;ge;j egh;fspd; kPJ ve;j chpikfisAk;
flikfisAk; cUthf;fhJ.
( i) ,ayhik xg;ge;j egh;fSf;Fj; njhpahjpUj;jy; (Impossibility Un kn o wn

to both the Parties) : epiwNtw;w ,ayhj epiy> xg;ge;j egh;fSf;F njhpahjpUf;Fk;
nghOJ> mt;nthg;ge;jk;> mt;tpayhik fz;Lgpbf;fg;gLk; nghOJ nry;yhjjhfpwJ.
,q;F xg;ge;j egh;fspd; gu];guj; jtwpdhy; xg;ge;jk; nry;yhJ Ngha;tpLfpwJ.
MapDk;> thf;FWjp mspj;jtUf;F kl;LNk xg;ge;jj;ij epiwNtw;w ,ayhJ vd;w
tp\ak; xg;ge;jk; Vw;gLk; nghOJ njhpe;jpUf;Fnkdpy;> mt;nthg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;whky;
tplg;gl;ljdhy;> mt;thf;FWjpiag; ngw;wth; mile;j e\;lj;ij> mth; <Lfl;l
Ntz;Lk;. (gphpT-56 gj;jp-3)
cjhuzk; A vd;gtUk; B vd;gtUk; flypy; mDg;gg;gl;l xU nghUspd; tpw;wy;

thq;fy; njhlh;ghd Xh; xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lgl;lth;. mg;nghUs; xg;ge;jk; Vw;gLtjw;F
rpy ehl;fSf;F Kd;dNu nfl;Lg;Ngha; tpl;lJ. Mdhy; ,t;tp\ak; mt;tpUtUf;Fk;
njhpatpy;iy. ,t;nthg;ge;jk; nry;yhJ vd jPh;g;G toq;fg;gl;lJ.
( ii) ,ayhik egh;fSf;Fj; njhpe;jpUj;jy; (Impossibility known to both the

Parties) : epiwNtw;wj;jpd; ,ayhik xg; ge;j egh;fSf;Fj; njhpe; jpUg;gpd;>
mt;Tld;gbf;if mjd; njhlf;fj;jpypUe;Nj nry;yhjjhfptpLk;. ,J xg;ge;j egh;fspd;
kPJ ve;jtpj chpikfisAk; flikfisAk; cUthf;fhJ.
2. xg;ge;jk; cUthfpa gpd;d h; Vw;gLk; ,ayhik my;yJ e p i yf ; F iy Tf ;

Nfhl;ghL (Impossibility Arising Subsequent to the Formation of Contract or Doctrine
of Frustration) : xg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;w Kbahikahy; epiyFiyT Vw;glyhk;.
,t;tpayhik xg;ge;jk; cUthfpa gpd;dh; vOfpwJ. ,J ,ilapy; ,ayhky;
Nghjy; vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,t;tpayhik xg;ge;jj;ij nry;yhjjhf;fp tpLfpwJ.
egh;fSk; mjd; epiwNtw;wj;jpypUe;J tpLtpf;fg; gLfpd;wdh;. vdNt xg; ge; jk; KbTf;Ff;
nfhz;L tug;gLfpd;wJ.
110
cjhuzk; A vd; w ,e;j pa gpui[ B vd; w may; ehl; ltUf;F mtUila

JiwKfj;jpNyNa rpy nghUl;fis mspg;gjhf Xh; xg;ge;jj;jpy; <LgLfpwhh;. mijj;
njhlh; e ; J > mt; t puz; L ehLfSf; F kpilNa Nghh; mwptpf; f g; g LfpwJ. Nghh;
mwptpf; f g; g l; l TlNdNa mt; n thg; g e; j k; nry; y hjjhfp tpLfpwJ. kw; W k;
mt;nthg;ge;jj;ij epiwNtw;Wk; flikapypUe;J me;egh;fSk; tpLtpf;fg;gLfpd;wdh;.
vdNt> xg;ge;jKk; KbTf;F te;JtpLfpwJ.
10.4.1. ,ilapy; ,ayhJ Nghjypd; tpisTfs; ( Effects of Supervening

Impossibility)
(i) xg;ge;jk; mjd; cUthf;fj;Jf;Fg; gpwF rl;lj; Jf;F khwhdjhfNt my;yJ ,ayhkNyh
NghFk; nghOJ nry;yhjjhfpd;wJ.
(ii) thf;FWjp mspj;jtUf;F jhd; mspj;j thf;FWjp epiwNtw;wg;gl KbahJ vd;gJ

cWjpahfj; njhpe;jpUe;J> Mdhy; mt;tp\ak; thf;FWjp ngw;wtUf;F njhpahky;
,Ue;jhy;> mt;nthg;ge;jk; epiw Ntw;wg;glhky; Nghdjhy; thf;FWjp ngw;wth;
mile;j e\;lj;ij thf;FWjp mspj;jth; <Lgl;l Ntz;Lk;.
(iii) xg;ge;jk; xd;W nry;yhJ vd;W fz;Lgpbf;fg;gLk; nghOJ my;yJ xU xg;ge;jk;

nry;yhj xg;ge;jkhFk;. nghOJ> mt;tpj xg;ge;jk; my;yJ cld;gbf;ifapd; fPo;
gad; vijAk; mile;jth;fs; mtw;iw jpUg;gp mspf;ff; flikg; gl;lth;fshf
cs;sdh; my;yJ ahhplkpUe;J mg;gaidg; ngw;whh;fNsh mth;fSf;F mjw;Fhpa
e\;l <l;il mspf;ff; flikg; gl;lth;fshth;.
10.4.2. ,ilapy; ,ayhky; Nghjyhy; Kbg;G (Discharge by Supervening Impossibility)
(i) cl;nghUs; mope;J Nghjy; : xg;ge;jk; Vw;gLj;jg;gl;l gpwF mjd; cl;nghUs;

xg;ge;j egh;fspd; jtW VJkpd;wp mope;J Nghdhy;> mt;nthg;ge;jk; tpLtpf;fg;gLk;.
cjhuzk; nla;yh; v/fhy;Lnty; ,t;tof;fpy; x vd;gth; xU ,ir muq;fj;ij y

vd;gtUf;F thliff;F jUtjhf xg;Gf;nfhz;lhh;. Mdhy; mt;tuq;fk; neUg;gpdhy;
mope;J NghdJ. vdNt xg;ge;jk; nry;yhJ vd;W jPh;g;gspf;fg;gl;lJ.
111
( ii) rl;lj;jpy; khw;wk; (Change in Law) : xg;ge;jk; Vw;gl;lgpwF rl;lk; khwpdhy;> me;j
xg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;w ,ayhJ Nghfyhk;.
c jh u z k ; x vd ; g th ; y vd ; g tUf; F mh pr p tpw; w h h; . mij mthp lk ;

toq;FKd;G>mt;thprpia muR rl;lg;gb ek;kplk; mspf;FkhW Mizapl;lJ. xg;ge;jk;
epiwNtw;wg;gl ,ayhJ fhuzj;jhy;> tpLtpf;fg;gl;lJ.
(iii) Nghh; mwptpg;G (Out break of War) : xg;ge;jj;jpd; NghJ my;yJ mjd;gpwF Nghh;
mwptpf;fg;gl;lhy;> mt;nthg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;w ,ayhJ Nghfyhk;.
cjhuzk; A vd;w ,e;jpag; gpui[. B vd;w may; ehl;ltUf;F mtUila

JiwKfj;jpNyNa rpy nghUl;fis mspg;gjhf Xh; xg;ge;jj;jpy; <LgLfpwhh;. mijj;
njhlh; e ; J . mt; t puz; L ehLfSf; F kpilNa Nghh; mWtpf; f g; g LfpwJ Nghh;
mwptpf; f g; g l; l TlNdNa mt; n thg; g e; j k; nry; y jjhfp tpLfpwJ kw; W k;
mt;nthg;ge;jj;ij epiwNtw;Wk; flikaypUe;J me;egh;fSk; tpLtpf;fg;gLfpd;wdh;
vdNt xg;ge;jKk; KbTf;F te;J tpLfpwJ.
( iv) xg;ge;j egHfs; ,we;jy; my;yJ jpwikaw;wtHfshjy; (Death or personal

incapacity of the promisor) : xg;ge;jj;jpd; epiwNtw;wk; thf;FWjp mspj;jthpd;
jdpj; jpwikia ek;gpapUe;J mtH ,we;Jtpl;lhy; my;yJ mtH jdpegH
jFjpia ,oe;Jtpl;lhy;> mt;nthg;ge;jk; KbTf;F te;JtpLk;.
cjhuzk; A vd;gtH B vd;gtH mspj;j kWgaDf;fhf xU tUlk; B-apd;

muq;fpy; ebf;f cld;gLfpwhH. gyjlit A kpfTk; cly;eykpd;wpg; Nghdjhy;
ebf;f ,aytpy;iy. ,jdhy;> ,t;nthg;ge;jk; nry;yhjjhfpwJ.
(v) xg;g e;jj;j pd; epiwNtw;w j;jpw;Fj; Njitahd Kf;fpa mk;r k; , y ; y h k y;

Nghjy; my;yJ mjd; epiykhWjy; (By the Non- Existence of a state of
things necessary for the performance) : xg;ge;jj;jpw;Fj; Njitahd rpy mk;rq;fs;
njhlHe;J ePbj;jpUf;Fk; vd;w mbg;gilapy; xg;ge;jk; xd;W Vw;gl;L mt;tk;rq;fs;
njhlHe; J ,y; y hky; Nghdhy; my; y J mit khwpdhy; > xg; g e; j k;
tpLtpf;fg;gl;ljhFk;.
112
cjhuzk; vl;tHL VII vd;w ,q;fpyhe;J murhpd; Kb#l;L tpoh CHtyj;ijf;fhz

A vd;gtH B vd;gthplk; ,Ue;J xU miwia 2 ehl;fSf;F thliff;F vLj;jhH.
xg;ge;jj;jpd; Nehf;fk; B-f;F njhpAk;. murhpd; cly;eyk; Fd;wpajhFk;> CHtyk;
uj;J nra;ag;gl;lJ. CHtyj;ijf; fhz;gNj xg;ge;jk; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;ljd;
mbg;gil Nehf;fkhFk;. mt;T+HtyNk uj;J nra;ag;gl;L tpl;;ljhy;> mt;nthg;ge;jk;
tpLtpf;fg;gl;Ltpl;lJ. vdNt A mjw;Fhpa thlifia mspf;fj; Njitapy;iy
vd;W jPHg;G toq;fg;gl;lJ.
10.5 rl;lj;jpd; ,af;fj;jpdhy; tpLg;G (Discharge by Operation of

Law)
rl;lr;nray;ghl;bd; %yk; fPo;fhZk; topfspy; xU xg;ge;jj;ij KbTf;F

nfhz;Ltuyhk;.
 xU Nkyhd xg;ge;jj;Jld; fPohd xg;ge;jj;ij ,izj;jy;
 xUtid jpthyhdjhf mwptpj;jy;
 mjpfhukw;w jpUj;jk; my;yJ vOj;J %yg;gj;jpuj;ij njhiyj;jy;
,J gpd;tUk; VNjDk; topfspy; nra;ag;glyhk;.
(i) ,wj;jy;(Death) : xU xg;ge;jk; xUthpd; jdpj;jFjp> jpwik Mfpatw;wpd;

mbg;gilapy; Vw;glhky; xg;ge;jj;jpy; cWjpAiu mspj;jtH ,we;Jtpl;lhy; me;j
xg;ge;jk; mtUilNdNa mope;JtpLk; mij mtuJ thhpRfs; epiwNtw;w
,ayhJ. mtHfis epiwNtw;Wk;gb fl;lhag;gLj;j cWjpAiu Vw;gtUf;F
chpik fpilahJ.
(ii) nehbg;G epiy (Insolvancy) : xUtH jdJ rf;jpf;F kPwp xUtH fld; thq;fp
mij jpUk;gpf; nfhLf;f Kbahj msTf;F nehbj;Jg; NghFk;epiyikapy;
fldPe;NjhHfspd; njhy;iyfspypUe;J tpLgLk; nghUl;L jd;id nehbj;jtH
vd mwptpf;f Ntz;Lnkd ePjpkd;wj;jpy; tof;Fj; njhlHe;J mtiu ePjpkd;wk;
nehbj;jtH vd;W mwptpj;jhy; Vw;fdNt nra;jpUe;j xg;ge;jq;fspypUe;J mtH
tpLtpf;fg;gLfpwhH.
113
(iii) ,izg;G: (Merger) : ,J Vw;fdNt ,t;tj;jpahaj;jpy; gu];gu cld;gbf;ifapd;

%yk; tpLg;G” vd;w jiyg;gpd;fPo; Muhag;gl;Ls;sJ.
(iv) Kf;fpakhd (epge;jidapy;) jpUj;jk; (Material Alteration) : xg;ge;j egHfspd;

flikfisAk; chpikfisAk; nghpJk; ghjpf;Fk; tifapyhd khw;wq;fis
my;yJ jpUj;jj;ij xg;ge;jj;jpy; nra;tijNa ehk; Kf;fpakhd jpUj;jk;
vd;fpNwhk;. mjhtJ nrYj;j Ntz;ba njhif> nrYj;jg;gl Ntz;ba fhyk;>
nrYj;j Ntz;ba ,lk;> nghUl;fspd; msT> juk;> Nghd;wtw;iw jpUj;Jjiy
Kf;fpakhd jpUj;jk; vd;fpNwhk;. ,t;tpjj; jpUj;jq;fs; xg;ge;jj;ij KbTf;F
nfhz;L te;J tpLk;.
10.6 xg;ge;j Kwptpdhy; Kbg;G (Discharge by Breach of Contract)
jd;Dila flikfspypUe;J xg;ge;jj;jpd; xU egH jtWjiy> xg;ge;j KwpT

vd;fpNwhk;. jd;Dila flikfis epiwNtw;w jtWk; me;j egNu xg;ge;jj;ij
Kwpj;jhff; fUjg;gLk;. Xg;ge;jk; Kwpe;jjhy; ghjpf;fg;gl;l egUk; jk;Kila flikfis
epiwNtw;WtjpypUe;J tpLtpf;fg;gLfpwhH. ,J gpd;tUk; VNjDk; xH topapy; Vw;glyhk;.
(i) vjpHghHj;j xg;ge;j KwpT (Anticipatory Breach of Contract) : xg;ge;jj;jpd;

xU egH xg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;wg;gLtjw;fhd epHzapf;fg;gl;l fhyj;jpw;F Kd;Ng
mij epiwNtw;w kWj;jhYk; my;yJ mtuJ thf;FWjpia KOtJkhf
epiwNtw;w KbahJ NghdhYk; vjpHghHj;j xg;ge;j KwpT Vw;glyhk;. ,q;F
xg;ge;jk; KjpHtilAk; Kd;Ng KwpT Vw;gLfpwJ.
 thf;FWjp ngWgthpd; chpikfs; (The Rights of the Promisee): vjpHghHj;j xg;ge;j

Kwptpdhy; ghjpf;g;gl;ltH mjhtJ thf;FWjp ngw;wtUf;F gpd;tUk; chpikfs;
cs;sd.
 mtH xg;ge;jk; tpLtpf;fg;gl;ljhff; fUjpf; nfhs;syhk; kw;Wk; e\;l<LNfl;L

cldbahf eltbf;if vLf;fyhk;.
 xg;ge;jk; elg;gpYs;sjhff; fUjpf; nfhz;L mjd; epiwNtw;w fhyk; tUk; tiu

fhj;jpUf;fyhk;.
114
 vjpHghHj;j KwpT Vw;gLk; nghOJ ghjpf;fg;gl;l egH xg;ge;jj;ij iftpl

cld;gLk; nghOJjhd; mt;nthg;ge;jk; KbTf;F tUfpwJ.
 Mdhy; thf; FWjp ngw;wtH> xg; ge;j tpLg;ig Vw;f kWj;J> gpd; mt;nthg;ge;jk;
rl;lhPjpahf Kbf;fg;glNtz;bajhfp tpl;lhy; ghjpf;fg;gl;ltH mjw;Fhpa e\;l<L
Nfl;L tof;Fj; njhlUk; chpikiaAk; ,oe;JtpLtH.
(ii) cz;ikahd xg;ge;j KwpT (Actual Breach of Contract)
( a) epiwNtw;wk; epfo Ntz;ba Neuj;jpy; cz;ikahd xg;ge;j K w p T

(Actual Breach of Contract at the time when the performance is Due) :
xg;ge;j egHfSs; xUtH jk;Kila gq;if Fwpg;gpl;l Neuj;jpy; epiwNtw;wj;
jtWtjhy; ,t;tpj KwpT Vw;gLfpwJ. ,q;F jk;Kila gq;if Mw;wj; jtWk;egNu>
Kwptpw;Fk; nghWg;Ngw;f Ntz;Lk;.
(b) xg;ge;jk; epfOk; Neuj;jpy; Kwpjy; (Breach during the Performance of

the Contract) : xg;ge;jk; epfOk; Neuj;jpy; xg;ge;jj;jpy; xU egH jk;Kila gq;if
Mw;wj; jtWk; my;yJ kWf;Fk; gl;rj;jpy; ,t;tpj KwpT Vw;gLfpwJ.
10.7 fhyk; fle;J Nghdjhy; Kbg;G (Discharge by Lapse of Time)
xU xg;ge;jk; mjd; fhytiuaiwf;Fs; typAWj;jg;gltpy;iy vd;why; mt;nthg;ge;jk;

KbTf;F te;JtpLk;. Rhjhuz xg;ge;jq;fSf;F fhytiuaiw %d;W Mz;Lfs; MFk;.
1. ,ayhJ Nghjyhy; tpLg;G vd;why; vd;d?

115
2. ,ayhJ Nghjyhy; Vw;gLk; tpLg;gpd; tiffs; ahit?
3. xg;ge;j KwpT vd;why; vd;d?
10.8 njhFg; G iu
xg;ge;j tpLtpg;;G gy topfspy; Vw;gLfpwJ. mit epiwNtw;wk; cld;ghL nra;J

nfhs;Sjy; ,ayhJ Nghjy; rl;lj;jpd; ,af;fk;> xg;ge;j KbT. fhyk; fle;J tply;.
Nkw;nfhs;s topfs; jf;f cjhuzq;fSld; tphpthf vLj;Jiuf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 xg;ge;j KwpT: xU egH xg;ge;jj;jpdhy; Vw;gLk; flikfis epiwNtw;WtjpypUe;J

jtWjy;
 jsh;j;Jjy;: xg;ge;jj;jpdhy; Vw;gLk; chpikfis NfhUtij iftpLjy;.
1. xg;ge;j epiwNtw;wk; vd;why; vd;d?
2. xg;ge;j tpLg;G vd;gJ ahJ?
3. rl;lj;jpd; ,af;fj;jpdhy; Vw;gLk; xg;ge;j tpLg;ig tpsf;Ff?
4. vjpHghHj;j xg;ge;j KwpT vd;gjd; nghUs; ahit?

116
5. gu];gu cld;gbf;ifapd; %yk; Vw;gLk; tpLg;gpd; tiffis RUf; fkhf Muha;f:
6. epiwNtw;wj;jpd; %yk; Vw;gLk; tpLg;gpd; gy;NtW tiffs; ahit?

117
ghlk; - 11
xg;ge;j Kwptpw;fhd jPHTfs;

(Remedies for breach of contract)

ghlj;ij fw;wgpd;> ePq ;f s;
 Xg;ge;jj;ij uj;J nra;jiy tpsf;Fk; ju KbAk;.
 Vw;gl;l el;lj;jpw;fhd ,og;gPLfis tpsf;fKbAk;
 jpl;ltl;lkhd epiwNtw;wjpw;fhd tof;if vd;gJ Fwpj;J tpsf;f KbAk;.
 gzpf;F Vw;w njhiff;fhd tof;if – rl;l tpjpfis tpsf;fKbAk;
 jilAj;jutpw;fhd tof;if tpsf;fKbAk;.
ghl mikg;G
11.1 Kd; D iu
11.2 xg;g e;jj;i j uj;J nra;j y;
11.3 Vw;g l;l el;lj;jpw;f hd ,og;gPL
11.4 jpl;l tl;l khd epiwNtw;w j;jpw;fhd tof;F
11.5 gzpf;F Vw;w njhiff;fhd tof;F
11.6 jilAj; j utpw;f hd tof;F
11.7 njhFg; G iu
11.9 gapw;r p tpdhf;f s;

118
11.1 Kd; D iu
rl;lKiw jPHT xg;ge;jk; nfhs;Sk; egHfs; jq;fs; cWjpahd epiwNtw;wNtz;Lk;

vd vjpHghHf;fg;gLfpwJ. Mdhy; xg;ge;jj;jpd; xU egH jd;Dila thf;FWjpia epiwNtw;w
kWg;gjd; %yk; xg;ge;jj;ij Kwpf;fyhk;. ,ijNa ehk; xg;ge;j KwpT vd;fpNwhk;.
xg;ge;jj;jpd; VNjDk; xU egH xg;ge;jj;ij Kwpj;jTld;> kw;wtUf;F gpd;tUk; jPHTfs;
fpilf;f tha;g;Gs;sJ.
1. xg;ge;jj;ij uj;J nra;jy; (Recession of the Contract)
2. Vw;gl;l el;lj;jpw;fhd ,og;gPL (Damages for the Loss suffered)
3. jpl;ltl;lkhd epiwNtw;wj;jpw;fhd tof;F (Suit for Specific Performance)
4. gzpf;F Vw;w njhiff;fhd tof;F (Suit upon Quantum Meruit)
5. jilAj;jutpw;fhd tof;F (Suit for Injunction)
11.2 xg;ge;jj;ij uj;J nra;jy;
xg;ge;jj;ij uj;J nra;jy; vd;gJ xg;ge;jj;jpy; <LgLgtHfSs; xUtH xg;ge;jj;ij

Kwpf;Fk;nghOJ kw;wtH mt;nthg;ge;jk; uj;J nra;ag;gl;ljhff; fUjpf; nfhs;syhk;.
Xg;ge;jk; uj;J nra;ag;gl;lTld;> ghjpf;fg;;gl;l egH mt;nthg;ge;jj;jpd; fPo; jkf;Fs;s
midj;Jf; flikfspypUe;Jk; tpLtpf;fg;gLfpwhH.
cjhuzk; xg;ge;j tof;F njhLg;Nghuhy; jtpHf;ff;$banjdpd;> (Voidable by

Plantiff) xg;ge;j rl;lj;jpw;nfht;thik ntspg;gilahf njhpahjJ kl;Lkpd;wp> trjpiatpl
(tof;Fj; njhLg;NghH gpujpthjpNa) topr; nrhy;Yf;F chpatH vdpd; uj;jspf;f ePjpkd;wk;
kWf;Fk; #o;epiyfs;;.
 jtpHf;ff;$ba xg;ge;jk; xd;iw uj;J nra;jy; : xg;ge;jk; xd;iw uj;J nra;Ak;

xU egH> mt;nthg;gj;jpd; fPo; kw;wthplkpUe;J gad; VJk; ngw;wpUg;Nghk; vdpy;>
mtw;iw ngw;wthplNk mtw;iw jpUg;gpaspj;J tplNtz;Lk; vd;W ,e;jpa xg;ge;jr;
rl;lj;;jpd; gphpR 64 $WfpwJ.
119
chpikNahL xg;ge;jj;ij uj;J nra;jtH mt;nthg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;wg;glhjjhy;

mile;j el;lj;jpw;fhd ,og;gPl;ilg; ngwTk; jFjpAilatuhthH vd gphpT 75
$WfpwJ.
 uj;J nra;jiy ePjpkd;wk; mDkjpf;f $ba #o;epiyfs; : ePjpkd;wk;

g pd ;t U k ; # o ;e pi y f s pd ; uj ;J n r a ;j i y m D k j pf ;F k ; ( a) thjpapd;
tpUg;gj;jpw;fpzq;f xg;ge;jk; jtph;f;ff; $bajhf ,Uf;Fk; nghOJ my;yJ (b)
xg;ge;jk; rl;lg;gb Fw;wkhdjhff; fhzg;gLk;nghOJ kw;Wk; mt;tp\aj;ij
thjp mwpahjnghOJ>
 uj;J nra;j iy ePjpkd;wk; kWj;jspf;ff; $ba #o;epiyfs; : xg;ge;jj;ij

xJf;fp itf;f tpUk;Gk; egH ntspg;gilahfNth my;yJ cl;fpilahfNth
mt;nthg;ge;jj;ij gpd;Ndw;G nra;Ak;nghOJ xg;ge;jk; xd;wpd; xU gFjpia
kl;Lk; xJf;fp itf;f tpUk;Gk; rkak; mg;gFjp xg; ge; jj;jpd; kP jKs;s gFjpapypUe;J
gphpj;J vLf;fg;gl KbahjnghOJ.
11.3 Vw;gl;l el;lj;jpw;fhd ,og;g PL
,og;gPL vd;gJ ePjpkd;wk; thjpf;fg;gl;l xU egUf;F mtUf;F Vw;gl;l el;lk;

my;yJ Jd;gj;jpid <Lfl;Lk; tifapy; gzkhf mspf;f MizapLk; <l;Lj;
njhifahFk;. Xg;ge;j kPWif epfOk;nghOJ mjdhy; Jd;gkilAk; egH ,og;gPL
Nfhhp tof;Fj; njhluyhk;. Xg;ge;j kPWifapdhy; Jd;gk; my;yJ el;lkile;j egH
nghUshjhu hPjpahf vd;d epiyapy; ,Ue;jhNyh> me;epiyapy; mtiu mkHe;j
Ntz;Lnkd;gNj ,og;gPL toq;Ftjpd; Nehf;fkhFk;.
11.3.1 ,og;gPl;bd; tiffs; (Types of Damages)
1. rhjhuz ,og;gPLfs;
2. rpwg;G ,og;gPLfs;
3. gopthq;Fk; jd;ikAs;s ,og;gPLfs;
4. ngausT ,og;gPLfs;
120
1. rhjhuz ,og;gPLfs; (Ordinary Damages) : rhjhuz ,og;gPL vd;gJ xg;ge;j

Kwptpdhy; tof;fkhd eltbf;iffspy; ,aw;ifahf Vw;gLk; el;lj;jpw;fhf
ghjpf;fg;gl;l egHfSf;Ff; nfhLf;fg;gLk; ,og;gPL ,t;tifiar; rhHe;jJ. ,J
cz;ikapy; Vw;gl;l el;lj;ij kjpg;gpl;l njhifahFk;. vdNt> ,J xg;ge;j
Kwptpw;F Neubahfj; njhlHGs;s tpisTfSf;F kl;LNk nghUe;Jk;.
kiwKf my;yJ njhlHgpy;yhj tpisTfSf;F ,J nghUe;jhJ.
cjhuzk; m vd;gtH , vd;gtH Mizf;fhf 1000 ld; Nk 1Mk; Njjp gQ;R

jUtjhf xg;ge;jk; nra;jhH. chpa fhyj;jpy; m gQ;R nfhLf;ftpy;iy. , ,og;gPl;bw;fhf
ePjpkd;wk; nrd;why; mjpy; Miy %l Ntz;bapUe;jJ. mjdhy; e\;lq;fs;
Mfpait NfhhpapUe;jhH. Mdhy; ePjpkd;wk; ‘gQ;R tpiy’ xg;ge;j tpiyf;Fk;
jw;NghJ cs;s tpiyf;Fk; cs;s tpj;ahrj;jpid jhd; rhjhuz ,og;gPlhf
toq;fpaJ.
2. rpwg;G ,og;gPLfs; (Special Damages) : tof; fj;jpw;F khwhd #o;epiyfspd;

fhuzkhf ghjpf;fg;gLgtHfSf;F mspf;fg;gLk; ,og;gPNl rpwg;G ,og;gPL MFk;.
mjhtJ> ,it xg;ge;jk; Kwpe;jjdhy; Vw;gl;l ,aw;ifahd tpisTfSf;fhf
mspf;fg;gLk; ,og;gPby;iy. ,it xg;ge;j Kwptpd; fhuzkhf ghjpf;fg;gl;l egH
mile;j kiwKfkhd el;lj;ij cl;nfhz;Ls;sd. xg;ge;jfhuH ,UtUf;Fk;
xg;ge;jk;nra;J nfhs;Sk; Neuj;jpNyNa xg;ge;j kPWifapdhy; Vw;glg; NghFk;
tpisTfisg; gw;wp njhpe;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
cjhuzk; kzp> utpf;F xU ,ae;jpuk; nra;J jUtjhf xg;Gf;nfhz;lhd; fhy

epHzaj;Jld; utp me;j ,ae;jpuj;ij Fg;gDf;F mNJ fhynfLtpy; nfhLg;gjhf
xg;ge;jk; nra;J nfhz;lhd;. ,J utpf;Fk; njhpAk;. kzp chpa fhyj;jpw;fhf
e\;l<Lk; jhd; Fg;gDf;Fk; juNtz;ba e\;l<l;ilAk; Nfhhpdhd;. tof;F ntw;wp
,J rpwg;G ,og;gPlhFk;.
3. gopthq;Fk; jd;ikAs; ,og;gPLfs; (Vindictive Damages) : xg;ge;j kPWifia

nra;j egiu jz;bg;gjhNyh my;yJ gop thq;FtjhfNth mikAk; ,og;gPL
MFk;. rl;lf; Nfhl;ghLfspd;gb ,og;gPL vd;gJ xg;ge;j kPWifapy; Jd;gKw;NwhuJ
el;lj;jpid ,L nra;tNjad;wp> xg;ge;j kPWif nra;Njhiu jz;bg;gjy;y vd;fpw
121
fhuzj;jhy;> ,k;khjphpahd gopthq;Fk; my;yJ jz;lidahd ,og;gPl;bw;F rl;lj;jpy;

toptif fpilahJ. ,Ug;gpDk; ,U tpjptpyf;fhd #o;epiyfspy; mk;khjphpahd
vr;rhpf;if ,og;gPL mspf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
mitahtd
 jpUkzk; nra;J nfhs;tjw;fhd cWjpnkhopia kPWjy;
 NghJkhd njhif xUtuJ fzf;fpypUf;Fk; nghOJ mt;thbf;ifahshpd;

fhNrhiyia jtwhf kWj;jtpLk; tq;fpahpd; nra;if.
4. ngausT ,og;gPLfs; (Nominal Damages) : xg;ge;j kPWifapy; ghjpf;fg;gl;ljhy;

jdJ chpik epiyehl;Ltjw;fhf Jd;gKiw egH ngWk; Mizahf mikfpwJ.
,t;thW ngaustpy; toq;fg;gLk; ,og;gPlhdJ kpff;Fiwe;j my;yJ mw;gkhd
njhifahapUf;Fk;.
cjhuzk; x vd;gtH y vd;w xU fhH ByhplkpUe;J fhH xd;iw thq;Ftjhf

xg;ge;jk; xd;wpd; <LgLfpwhH. Mdhy; mtH me;j fhiu thq;fj; jtwptpl;lhH.
MapDk;> fhHfSf;fhd Njit> mjd; mspg;ig tpl kpf mjpfkhfNt ,Ue;jJ.
vdNt y-ahy; ve;jtpj ,yhg ,og;Gkpy;yhky; me;j fhiu NtW xUtUf;F
tpw;W tplKbAk;. ,q;F y ngausT ,og;gPL kl;LNk ngwj; jFjpAilatuhtH.
11.3.2 KbT fl;l g;gl;l ,og;gPLfSf;Fk;> mguhjjp;w ;Fk; ,ilNaAs;s

NtWghLfs; (Distinction Between Liquidated Damages and Penalty)
KbT fl;lg;gl;l ,og;gPLfs; vd;gJ xg;ge;j egHfs; midtUk; xg;ge;j Kwptpd;

rkak;> xH cld;gbf;ifapd; %yk;> jtwpioj;j eguhy; jug;glNtz;ba njhifahf
epHzapf;Fk; xH njhifNa KbT fl;lg;gl;l ,og;gPLfshFk; ,J Vw;glg;$ba ,og;Gfspd;
epahakhd kw;Wk; NeHikahd xH Kd;fzpg;ghFk;.
mguhjk; vd;gJ xg;ge;j kPWif eilngWk; nghOJ Vw;glf;$ba ,og;Gf;F

VJkhwhf> xg;ge;jj;jpy; Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;s njhifapUg;gpd; mJ mguhjk; vdg;gLfpwJ.
mguhjk; cz;ikahd el;lj;ij mstplhkNyNa epHzapf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,J xg;ge;jj;ij
kPWtjpypUe;J xg;ge;j egiuj; jLf;Fk; xH fUtpahfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
122
 tiuaWj;Jr; nrhy;yg;gl;l njhif epfof;$ba el;lj;jpd; cz;ikahd

Kd;fzpg;ghf ,Ue;jhy;> mj;njhif KbT fl;lg;gl;l ,og;gPlhff; fUjg;gLk;.
 tiuaWj;Jr; nrhy;yg;gl;l njhif> epfof;$ba el;lj;ij tpl kpf mjpfstpdjhf

,Ue;jhy;> mj;njhif mguhjkhFk;.
11.4 jpl;l tl;l khd epiwNtw;wj;jpw;fhd tof;F
jpl;ltl;lkhd epiwNtw;wj;jpw;fhd tof;F vd;gJ rpy rkaq;fspy; ,og;gPLfs;

xg;ge;j Kwptpw;fhd NghJkhd xH jPHthf ,Uf;fhJ. ,r;rkaq;fspy; ePjpkd;wk;> xg;ge;j
Kwptpw;F fhuzkpy;yhj egH njhLj;j tof;fpd; mbg;gilapy;> xg;ge;jj;ij Kwpj;j
egiu> xg;ge;jj;jpd; $Wfspd;gb mtuJ thf;FWjpia epiwNtw;WkhW Mizaplyhk;.
jpl;ltl;lkhd epiwNtw;wj;jpw;F ePjpkd;wk; Mizaplf; $ba rpy #o;epiyfs;

gpd;tUkhW:
 xg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;wg;glhjjhy; Vw;gl;l ,og;ig gzj;ijf; nfhLj;J <L fl;l

Kbahj nghOJ.
 xg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;wg;glhjjhy; Vw;gl;l cz;ikahd el;lj;ij epHzapf;f

jumsTfs; VJk; ,y;yhj nghOJ MapDk; jpl;ltl;lkhd epiwntw;Wk; gpd;tUk;
topfspy; Mizaplg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 ,og;gPL NghJkhd jPHthf mikAk; nghOJ.
 xg;ge;jk; e\;l<l;il epHzapf;Fk; jd;ikAilajhf ,Uf;Fk; nghOJ.
 xg;ge;jk; jdpegH Mw;wiy cl;nfhz;bUf;Fk; nghOJ.
 xg;ge;jj;jpd; epiwNtw;w eilKiwia ePjpkd;wj;jhy; Nkw;ghh;itapl Kbahj

nghOJ.
 xg;ge;jk; ePjp kw;Wk; NeHikaw;wjhf ,Uf;Fk; nghOJ
cjhuzk; X vd;gtH 100 %l;il mhprpia Y vd;gtUf;F tpw;f xH xg;ge;jj;jpy;

<Lgl;lhH. Xg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;wg;gl Ntz;ba md;W> mhprpia tpw;f X kWj;J tpl;lhH.
123
,q;F Y mt;nthg;ge;jj;jpd; jpl;ltl;lkhd epiwNtw;wj;ijg; ngwKbahJ. Vnddpy;

mhprpia mtH NtW xU tpahghhpaplkpUe;J $l vspjhf thq;fp tplyhk;. NkYk;>
,og;gPLk; xg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;wg;glhjjw;Fk; NghJkhd xH jPHthf ,Uf;Fk;.
11.5 gzpf;F Vw;w njhiff;fhd tof;F
vt;tsT rk;ghjpf;fg;gl;lNjh mt;tsT gzpf;F Vw;w njhif vdg;gLfpwJ. mjhtJ

Kbf;fg;gl;l gzpf;F tpfpjhr;rhug;gb mspf;fg;gLk; njhif gzpf;F Vw;w njhif
MFk;. ,j;jj;Jtk; xg;ge;jj;jpd; xU gFjp epiwNtw;wg;gl;L kWgFjp epiwNtw;wg;gl
Kbahky; jilNaw;gl;lhy; xg;ge;jj;jpd; xU gFjpia Kbj;j egUf;F ,og;gPL
fpilf;f tif nra;fpwJ.
 xH xg;ge;jj;jpd; fPo; Vw;Wf; nfhz;L nra;J Kbf;fg;gl;l gzp gpd;dH

nry;yhjJ vdf; fz;L gpbf;fg;gLk;nghOJ.
 xU egH KO xg;ge;jj;ijAk; epiwNtw;wj; jtWk; my;yJ epiwNtw;whky;

tpl;L tpLk;nghOJ.
 ifk;khW fUjhky; nra;aNtz;Lk; vd;w Nehf;fkpy;yhky; VNjDk; nra;ag;gLk;

nghOJ.
 xg;ge;jk; ghpe;Jiuf;ff; $bajhf ,Ue;J Kbf;fg;gl;l gzpahy; xU egH

VNjDk; gad;fis mDgtpj;jpUg;ghH.
11.6 jilAj; jutpw; f hd tof;F
xg;ge;jj;jpd; cl;nghUshf ,Uf;fk; vijNaDk; nra;ahky; jtpHf;FkhW xU

egiu mwpTWj;Jk; ePjpkd;wj;jpd; MizNa jilAj;juthFk;. vijNaDk; nra;akhl;Nld;
vd thf;FWjpaspj;j xU egH mijr; nra;J> mjdhy; xg;ge;jk; KwpAk;nghOJ
ghjpf;fg;gl;l egH Fwpg;gpl;l rpy #o;epiyfspy; ePjpkd;wj;jpd; ghJfhg;ig ehb> jilAj;juT
xd;iwg; ngwyhk;.
cjhuzk; “thjh gpujH]; v ney;rd; (1937) LK B 289” Fwpg;gpl;l xU fhyj;jpw;F

ehd; Y vd;gthpd; muq;fpypd;wp NtW vq;Fk; ghlkhl;Nld; vd;W X vd;gtH Y-ld; xH
xg;ge;jj;jpy; <Lgl;lhH. gpd;dH X vd;gtH ghLk; nghUl;L Z vd;gtUld; xH
124
xg;ge;jj;ij Vw;gLj;jpf; nfhz;Ltpl;L Yapd; muq;fpy; ,dp ghlkhl;Nld; vd

kWj;Jtpl;lhH. ,t;nthg;ge;jk; Kw;wpYk; jdpegH Mw;wiyf; nfhz;ljhf ,Uf;fpd;w
fhuzj;jhy; ePjpkd;wk; jpl;ltl;lkhd epiwNtw;wj;jpw;F Mizapl kWj;Jtpl;lJ.
Mdhy; X NtW vq;Fk; ghlf;$lhJ vd;w jilAj;juit gpwg;gpj;jJ.
jd; kjpg;gPl;L tpdhf;fs;?
1. xg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;wk; vd;why; vd;d?
2. xg;ge;j ,og;gPL vd;why; vd;d?
3. rpwg;G ,og;gPL vd;why; vd;d?
11.7. njhFg; G iu
xg;ge;j Kwptpd; nghOJ xg;ge;jj;ij vg;gb uj;J nra;jy; vd;gijAk; e\;lk;

mile;jjw;F ,og;gPL> jpl;ltl;lkhd epiwNtw;wj;jpw;fhd tof;F> jilAj;jutpw;fhd
tof;F gw;wpAk; mwpe;Njhk;. KbT fl;lg;gl;l ,og;gPLfSf;Fk;> mguhjjp;w;Fk; ,ilNaAs;s
NtWghLfs; kw;Wk; jpl;ltl;lkhd epiwNtw;wj;jpw;fhd tof;F tpthpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
125
 xg;ge;jj;ij uj;J nra;jy; - gzpf;F njhifapd; Nghpy; tof;F njhLj;jy;.
 ,og;gPL - xg;ge;j Kwpe;jjdhy; ghjpf;fg;gl;l egH mile;j el;lj;ij <Lfl;Ljy;.
 mguhjk; - xg;ge;j kPWif eilngWk;nghOJ Vw;glf;$ba ,og;gPL.
1. ,og;gPL vd;why; vd;d?
2. rpwg;G ,og;gPLfs; ahit?
3. gzpf;F Vw;w njhiff; Nfhl;ghl;bw;F eP czUk; nghUs; ahJ?
4. xg;ge;jk; xd;wpd; Kwptpd;nghOJ ghjpf;fg;gl;l egUf;F ,e;jpa x g ; g e ; j rl;lk;

mspj;Js;s gy;NtW jPHTfisAk; RUf;fkhf Muha;f.
5. vg;nghOJ gzpf;F Vw;w njhiff;fhd Nfhhpf;if vOk;?

126
ghlk; - 12
ruf;F tpw;gid rl;lk;> 1930

(Sale of Goods Act, 1930)
 ruf;F tpw;gid xg;ge;jk; cUthf;fk; Fwpj;J $w KbAk;.
 tpw;gid kw;Wk; tpw;gjw;fhd cld;gbf;iff;Fk; cs;s NtWghLfis

mwpaKbAk;.
 ruf;fpd; ,yf;fzj;ij njhpe;J nfhs;s KbAk;.
 ruf;F tpw;gidapd; tiffis gphpf;f ,aYk;.
 epge;jid kw;Wk; cj;juthjk; gw;wp tpsf;f KbAk;.
ghl mikg;G
12.1 Kd; D iu
12.2 tpw;g id kw;Wk; tpw;gidf;f hd cld;g bf;i f
12.3 tpw;gidf;F k; tpw;g jw;fhd cld;g hl;b w;F k; cs;s NtWghLfs;
12.4 rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$ba xH tpw;gid my;yJ tpw;gid xg;g e;j j; j pd;

,d;w paikahj $Wfs;
12.5 tpw;gid xg;ge;jj;jpd; cl;nghUs;
12.6 ruf;fpd; tiffs;
12.7 ruf;F moptpd; tpisTfs;
12.8 ruf;fpd; tpiy
12.9 njhFg; G iu

127
12.1 Kd; D iu
ruf;F tpw;gid Kjypy; ,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk; 1872-y; gphpthfNt ,Ue;jJ.

1930-k; Mz;L mirAk; nghUl;fspd; tpw;gidia rl;lk; ,aw;wg;gl;lJ. ,e;jr;
rl;lk;>[k;K fh\;kPH ePq;fyhf midj;J ,e;jpahtpw;Fk; nghUe;Jk;. ,e;jr; rl;lk;
mirahr; nrhj;Jf;fspd; tpw;gidf;Fg; nghUe;jhJ. ,e;j rl;lk; thq;fy;> tpw;wy; vd;w
ghpkhw;wg; gzpAld; njhlHGilajhf fUjg;gLtjhy;> ,J xH kpfTk; Kf;fpakhd
rl;lkhFk;.
ruf;F tpw;gidr; rl;lj;jpd; 4(1) MtJ gphptpd;gb>”xH xg;ge;jj;jpd; %yk; tpw;gtH

thq;FgtUf;F> xU tpiyf;F ruf;fpd; chpikia khw;wpdhy; my;yJ khw;wpj; jUtjhf
cld;gl;lhy; mt;nthg;ge;jk; ruf;F tpw;gid xg;ge;jkhFk;”. mjhtJ ruf;fpd; chpikia
khw;wpj; jUtjw;fhd xg;ge;jk;> tpw;gid xg;ge;jk; vdg;gLfpwJ. ,jpy; chpik
tpw;gthplkpUe;J thq;FgtUf;F khw;wpj; jug;gLfpwJ.
ruf;if tpw;gtH my;yJ tpw;f cld;gLgtH tpw;gidahsH (Seller) vd;Wk;> ruf;if

thq;FgtH my;yJ thq;f cld;gLgtH thq;FgtH (Buyer) vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wdH.
tpw;gid xg;ge;jk; gue;Jgl;l xd;whFk;. ,jpy; tpw;gid kw;Wk; tpw;gidf;fhd

xg;ge;jk; ,uz;Lk; mlq;Fk;. ,J (1) vOj;JtbtpNyh> my;yJ (2) tha;nkhopahfNth
my;yJ (3) gFjp vOj;J tbtpYk; gFjp tha;nkhopahfNth my;yJ (4) egHfspd;
elj;ijapypUe;J Ghpe;J nfhs;sf; $bajhfNth ,Uf;fyhk;.
12.2 tpw;g id kw;W k; tpw;gidf;fhd cld;g bf;if
1. tpw;gid (Sale) : ,q;F nghUl;fspd; chpik cldbahf tpw;gthp;lkpUe;J

thq;Fgthplk; khw;wpaikf;fg;gLfpwJ. “tpw;gid vd;w nrhy; ruf;F tpw;gid
rl;lj;jpd; 4 (3) MtJ gphptpy; gpd;tUkhW tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ. xH tpw;gid
xg;ge;jj;jpd; fPo; ruf;fpd; chpik tpw;gthplkpUe;J cldbahf thq;Fgthplk;
khw;wpaspf;fg;gLk; nghOJ mt;nthg;ge;jk; tpw;gid vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
 tpw;gidapy; gbg;gbahf gzk; nfhLj;J thq;FtJ
 KOg;gzj;ijak; ngw;Wf;nfhz;L rpwpJ fhyj;Jf;F gpwF nghUs; ifkhWfpwJ

(Sale By Appropriation)
128
 nghUs; Kjypy; ifkhWfpwJ gzk; gbg;gbahf nfhLf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,tw;wpd;

jd;dk;gpf;if vOj;J %y xg;ge;jk; Mfpait mlq;Fk;. ,JNt rpy tpw;gid
MFk;.
2. tpw;gidf;fhd cld;gbf;if (Agreement to sell) : tpw;gid xg;ge;jk; vd;gjw;Fr;

ruf;F tpw;gidr; rl;lk; 4(1) gphpT gpd;tUkhW ,yf;fzk; tFf;fpwJ. ruf;fpd;
chpik khw;wk; vjpHfhyj;jpy; epfOk;nghOJ> mJ tpw;gidf;fhd cld;gbf;if
vdg;gLfpwJ. ruf;fpd; chpik khw;wk; nra;tjw;fhd epakpf;fg;gl;l fhyk;
flf;Fk;nghOJ my;yJ ruf;fpd; chpik khw;wpj; jUtjw;F vd tpjpf;fg;gl;l
epge;jidfs; G+Hj;jp nra;ag;gLk;nghOJ tpw;gjw;fhd cld;gbf;if tpw;gidahf
khWfpwJ.
12.3 tpw;g idf;Fk; tpw;gjw;f hd cld;ghl;b w;Fk; cs;s

NtWghLfs;
(Difference between Sale and Agreement to sell)
tpw; g id tpw;g jw;f hd cld;g bf;i f
1. chpik khw;w k;
,jpy; xg;ge;jj;jpd;NghNj nghUl;fis ,jpy; tpw;gjw;fhd cld;ghL
thq;FgtH mg;nghUl;fspd; tpw;gidahFk; NghJjhd; thq;FgtH
chpikahsH Mfp tpLfpwhH. nghUl;fspd; chpikahsH MfpwhH.
xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyKbtpw;Fg; gpd;
my;yJ epge;jidfis G+h;j;jp
nra;ag;gl;lTld; jhd; ,t;Tld;ghL
tpw;gidahFk;.
2. xg;ge;jj;jpd; tif ,J xU nray;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;ba

,J xU nray;gLj;jg;gl;l xg;ge;jk; xg;ge;jk;
3. xg;g e;j j;j pd; jd;i k ,J xU rhjhuz kw;Wk; fyg;gpy;yhj

,J xU xg;ge;jKk; chpik xg;ge;jkhFk;
khw;wKkhFk;
4. thq;F gthpd; chpikfs; ,J jdpg;gl;l chpikia kl;Lk;

,J midj;Jyf chpikia Vw;gLj;JfpwJ. mjhtJ tpw;gidahsH
Vw;gLj;JfpwJ. mjhtJ kPJ ,og;gPL Nfhhp tof;Fj; njhLf;Fk;
129
midj;J cyfj;jpw;Fk; vjpuhfg; Fwpg;gpl;l chpikia kl;Lk; ,J

nghUl;fis itj;J kfpOk toq;FgtUf;F toq;FfpwJ.
chpikia ,J thq;FgtUf;F
toq;FfpwJ.
5. ,og;g pw;f hd mghak; tpgj;jpdhy; ruf;F NrjKw;why;> ruf;F

ruf;F tpw;gtH trk; ,Ue;jhYk;. thq;Fgthpd; trk; ,Ue;jhYk; tpw;gtH
ruf;F Vw;gl;l Nrjj;jpw;F mjw;Fg; nghWg;Ngw;f Ntz;Lk;.
thq;FgtNu nghWg;Ngw;f Ntz;Lk;.
6. Kwptpd; tpisTfs; ,jpy; thq;FgtH ,og;gPL kl;LNk

tpw;gidahsH nghUl;fis ju Nfhuyhk;.
kWj;J xg;ge;j Kwpit
Vw;gLj;jpdhy; thq;FgtH chpikahsH
vd;w jFjpapy; tof;F njhluyhk;.
7. xg;g e; j j;j pd; %yg; n ghUs; vjpHfhy my;yJ Iag;ghLila
Fwpg;gpl;l nghUl;fSf;F kl;LNk nghUl;fSf;Fk; tpw;gjw;fhd cld;ghL
tpw;gid Vw;glyhk; Vw;glyhk;.
8. kWtpw;g id chpik kW-tpw;gidapd; NghJ thq;FgtH
tpw;gidapy; tpw;gtH ruf;if ruf;if kWgaDf;fhf thq;fpapUe;J
kWtpw;gid nra;a KbahJ. Ke;jpa cld;gbf;iff;fhd mwptpg;G
mt;thW mtH nra;jhy;> gpd;dH VJkpd;wpAk; ,Ug;gpd;> mjw;Fhpa
rpwe;j chpikia ngwkhl;lhH. chpikiag; ngWthH. ,t;tpjr;
rkaj;jpy;> Kjypy; thq;fpatH tpw;gthpd;>
kPJ ,og;gPL Nfl;L kl;LNk tof;Fj;
njhLf;fKbAk;.
9. tpw;g idahsH jpthyhjy; ,jpy; thq;FgtH tpiyiar; nrYj;jp
,jpy; tpw;gidahsH jpthyhdhy ,Ue;jhy;> tpw;gidahshplkpUe;J
thq;FgtH nghUl;fisf; fldhsp tpfpjhr;rhu gq;if kl;LNk ngwyhk;.
nrhe;jf;fhuhplkpUe;J ngwyhk;. nghUl;fisg; ngwKbahJ.
10. thq; f patH jpthyhjy ,jpy; tpiy nrYj;jg;glhj tiuapy;

,e;epiyapy; tpiy nrYj;jg; tpw;gidahsH nghUl;fis nfhLf;fj;
gltpy;iy vd;why; nghUl;fspd; Njitapy;iy.
; kPJ gw;Whpik ,y;yhj tpw;gidahsH
tpiyf;fhd tpfpjhr;rhug; gq;if
kl;LNk Nfl;fyhk;.
130
12.4 rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$ba xH tpw;gid my;yJ tpw;gid

xg;ge;jj;jpd; ,d;wpaikahj $Wfs; (Essential elements of a
valid sale or a Contract of Sale)
(i) rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$ba xg;ge;jk; xd;wpd; ,d;wpaikahj $Wfs; (Essential

Elements of a Valid Contract) : rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$ba xg;ge;jk; xd;wpd;
,d;w paikahj $Wfis jd;d pr;i rahd ,irT> kWgad; > egHfspd;
xg;g e; jj;j pwd; > rl; lG+Ht Nehf;f k; > kw; Wk; kWgad; Nghd; w midj;J k;
epiwNtw;wg;glNtz;Lk;. ,tw;Ws; VNjDk; xd;W ,y;iynad;whYk; tpw;gid
xg;ge;jk; rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$bajhf ,Uf;fhJ.
cjhuzk; X vd;gtH ve;jtpj kWgaDk; ngwhky; y vd;gUtf;F jdJ ehw;fhyp

xd;iw tpw;f cld;gl;lhH
(ii) ,uz;L egHfs; (Two Parties) : ,uz;L egHfs; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. mtHfspy;
xUtH tpw;gidahsuhfTk;> kw;nwhUtH thq;FgtuhfTk; ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;. tpw;gid
xg;ge; jj;jpy; ruf; fpd; chpik xU eghplkpUe;J kw;nwhUtUf;F khw; wpj;jug;glNtz;Lk;.
vdNt thq;FgtUk; tpw;gtUk; khWgl;l egHfsha; ,Uj;jy; mtrpak;. Vnddpy;
xUtNu thq;FgtuhfTk; tpw;gtuhfTk; ,Uj;jy; KbahJ. Mdhy; ,jw;Fk; rpy
tpjptpyf;Ffs; cs;sd. xUtUila ruf;Ffs; ePjpkd;w Mizia epiwNtw;Wk;
nghUl;L tpw;fg;gLk;nghOJ mtNu mtuJ ruf;Ffis thq;fpf; nfhs;syhk;.
cjhuzk; “];Nll; ghq;f; Mg; F[uhj; v. uhkd;yhy;” $l;L tzpf epWtdk;

xd;W fiyf;fg;gl;L ifapUg; G ruf;F fs; ghf];j HfSf;fpilNa gphpj;J f;
nfhs;sg;gl;lJ. ,J tpw;gidahfhJ.
(iii) ruf;F (Goods) : ruf;F tpw;gidr; rl;lj;jpd; 2(7) MtJ gphptpy; tiuaWf;fg;gl;Ls;s
ruf;fhf ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;/ ,r;rl;lj;jpd; 2(7) MtJ gphptpd;gb 1).];lhf;Ffs;
kw;Wk; gq;Ffs; 2).tsUk; gapHfs;> Gy; 3).epyj;jpd; Nky; Njhd;wp mjdplkpUe;J
gphpj;J vLj;J tplf; $bait Mfpait cs;spl;l kw;Wk; midj;J tifahd
mirAk; nrhj;Jf;fSk; ruf;F MFk;. xg;ge;jj;jpd; cl;nghUshf VNjDk; ruf;F
,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
131
iv) tpiy (Price) : ruf;F tpw;gidr;; rl;lj;jpd; gphpT 2(10) ,d;gb> tpiy vd;gjw;F
“ruf;fpd; tpw;gidf;F gzj;jhyhd kWgad;” vd;gJ nghUshFk;. ,J tpw;gid
xg;ge;jj;jpw;fhd Kf;fpakhd epge;jid MFk;. ,J rl;lKiwg; gzkhf
,Uf;fNtz;Lk;. ,J NtW topfspy; nrYj;jg;gl;lhy;> xg;ge;jk; tpw;gidf;fhd
xg;ge;jkhff; fUjg;glkhl;lhJ.
(v) chpik khw;wk; (Transfer of Ownership) : xt;nthU tpw;gid xg;ge;jj;jpYk;

ruf;fpd; chpik tpw;gthplkpUe;J thq;FgtUf;F khw;wpj;jug;glNtz;Lk;. MapDk;>
nghUl;fs; thq;Fgthplk; cldbahf toq;fg;gl;L tplNtz;Lk; vd;gjpy;iy.
12.5 tpw;gid xg;ge;jj;jpd; cl;nghUs;

(Subject Matter of Contract of Sale)
ruf;fpd; ,yf;f zk;
ruf;F tpw;gidr; rl;lj;jpd; 2(7) MtJ gphptpd;gb>”Vyk; NfhUjy; chpik Nfhhpg;

ngwg;gLfpd;w ghf;fp kw;Wk; gzk; ePq;fyhd gpw midj;J tifahd mirAk;
nrhj;Jf;fSk; ruf;fhFk;> kw;Wk; ];lhf;FfSk; gq;FfSk;> tsUk; gapHfs;> tpw;gidf;F
Kd;Ngh my;yJ tpw;gid xg;ge;jj;jpd; fPNoh gphpj;J vLf;f cld;gl;l epyj;jpd;
Nky; Njhd;wpa my;yJ mNjhL ,izf;fg;gl;l nghUl;fisAk; ,J cs;slf;FfpwJ.
fk;ngdpfs; kw;Wk; Vfhjpgj;jpa kw;Wk; tiuaWf;fg;gl;l tzpf eilKiwfs;

rl;lj;jpd; kPjhd rhrH fkpl;b mwpf;ifapd; gb>”,e;jpahtpy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk;
kw;Wk; jahH nra;ag;gLk;> ntl;bnaLf;fg;gLk; my;yJ gjg;gLj;jg;gLk; nghUl;fs;
cs;spl;l ruf;F tpw;gidr; rl;lj;jpd;gb tiuaWf;fg;gl;l ruf;fhFk;.
12.6 ruf;fpd; tiffs; (Classification of Goods)

132
(i) eilKiwapy; cs;s nghUl;fs; (Existing Goods) : x g ; g e ; j j ; j p d ; NghJ

tpw;gidahshpd; chpikahfNth my;yJ nrhj;jhfNth ,Uf;Fk; nghUl;fs;
eilKiwapy; cs;s nghUl;fs; vdg;gLk;. mjhtJ tpw;gid xg;ge;jj;jpd; nghOJ
cz;ikapy; fhzg;gLk; nghUl;fs; eilKiwapy; cs;s nghUl;fshFk;. tpw;gtH
mg; nghUl; fspd; cilikahsuhfNth my;yJ mij itj;jpUg;gtuhfNth
,Uf;fyhk;. nghJthf tpw;gtH jhd; ,jd; chpikahsuhf ,Ug;ghH. rpy
rkaq;fspy; nghUl;fs; tpw;gtH trk; ,Uf;Fk;. Mdhy; mjw;F ,tH chpikahsuhf
,Uf;fkhl;lhH. ,J %d;W tpjq;fshf ghFghL nra;ag;glyhk;.
(m) Fwpg;gpl;l nghUl;fs; (Specific Goods) : tpw;gid xg;ge;jj;jpd; NghJ milahsk;

fz;L xg;Gf; nfhs;sg;gl;l nghUl;fs; Fwpg;gpl;l nghUl;fs; vdg;gLk;;.
cjhuzk; X vd;gtH gy fk;ngdpfspy; cw;gj;jpahd fhHfspy; 6 fhHfis

itj;jpUe;jhH. mtw;Ws; ,tH khUjpfhH Y vd;gtUf;F tpw;gjhf thf;FWjpaspj;jhH
kw;Wk; Y-Ak; mij thq;f cld;gl;lhH. ,J Fwpg;gpl;l nghUSf;fhd xg;ge;jkhFk;.
(M) cWjpg;g Lj;jg;g l;l nghUl;fs; (Ascertained Goods) : ,it xg;ge;jj;jpd;

NghJ Fwpg;gplg;gl;l nghUl;fisNah my;yJ gpd;dH fz;lwpa my;yJ
milahsk; fhzg;gl;l nghUl;fs; cWjpg;gLj;jg;gl;l nghUl;fs; MFk;.
cjhuzk; X vd;gtH 100 %l;il NfhJikia jdJ ruf;ffj;jpy; itj;jpUe;jhH.

,tH ,jpy; 40 %l;il Yf;F tpw;f cld;gl;lhH. Y-Ak; mij thq;f cld;gl;lhh;.
xg;ge;jk; nra;ag;gl;l gpwF Yf;F toq;fg;gl Ntz;ba NfhJik %l;ilfs;
milahsk; fhzg;gl;ld kw;Wk; mit X ahy; jdpahf itf;fg;gl;ld. YAk;
mtw;iw vLj;Jf; nfhs;tjhf cld;gl;lhH.
(,) cWjpg;gLj;jg;glhj nghUl;fs; (Unascertained Goods) : ,tw;iw Fwpg;gpl;L

milahsk; fhzKbahJ. Mdhy; ,tw;iw tpthpj;jypd; %yk; Rl;bf;fhl;lyhk;.
cjhuzk; X vd;gtH 10 gRit itj;jpUe;jhH. mtw;Ws; ,uz;il YVd;gtUf;F

tpw;f cld;gl;lhH. ,q;F tpw;gid xg;ge;jj;jpd; rkak; gRf;fs; milahsk;
fhl;;lg;glhjjhy;> ,J cWjpg;gLj;jg;glhj nghUl;fSf;fhd xg;ge;jkhFk;.
133
(ii) vjpHfhy nghUl;fs; (Future Goods) : tpw;gid xg;ge;jj;ij Vw;gLj;jpa gpwF

tpw;gidahsH thq;fNtz;ba my;yJ cw;gj;jp nra;aNtz;ba nghUl;fs;
vjpHfhyg;nghUl;fs; vdg;gLk;.
cjhuzk; X vd;gtH mLj;j tUlk; jd;Dila Njhl;lj;jpy; tpisAk;

midj;J Mg;gps; goq;fisAk; Y vd;gtUf;F tpw;f cld;gl;lhH. ,J
vjpHfhyg; nghUl;fis tpw;gjw;fhd xH cld;gbf;if MFk;.
(iii) Iag;ghLila nghUl;fs; (Contingent Goods) : t p w ; g i d a h s H

nghUl;fis thq;FtJ elf;Fkh elf;fhjh vd;w Iag;ghl;ilr; rhHe;jpUf;Fkhdhy;
me;j nghUl;fs; Iag;ghLila nghUl;fs; vdg;gLk;.
cjhuzk; X xU thndhyp ngl;bia mjd; chpikahshplkpUe;J ngw;Wtpl;lhy;>

tpw;gjhf xg;Gf; nfhz;lhH. ,k;khjphpr; #o;epiyapy; X-apdhy;
thndhypg;ngl;bia ngw Kbatpy;iynadpy; mtH ,og;gPl;bw;Fg; nghWg;ghf
khl;lhH.
12.7 ruf;F moptpd; tpisTfs; (Effects & Destruction of Goods)
 Fwpg;g plg;g l;l nghUl;f Sf;f hd tpw;g id xg;ge;j k;
nghUl; f s; tpw; g idahsUf; F j; njhpahky; nfl; L g; NghapUe; j hy; my; y J

Nrjkile;jpUe;jhy; ,t;tif xg;ge;jk; nry;yhJ (gphpT – 17)
 gphpf; f Kbah xg;g e;j k;
,t;nthg;ge;jj;ijg; nghWj;jtiuapy; xU gFjpg; nghUl;fs; mope;jpUe;jhy; my;yJ

Nrjkile;jpUe;jhy; xg;ge;jk; nry;yhJ.
 tpw;g jw;f hd cld;g hL
,t;nthg;ge;jj;ijg; nghWj;jtiuapy;> thq;FgtH my;yJ tpw;gidahsHfspd;

jtW VJkpd;wp nghUl;fs; Nrjkile;jpUe;jhy;> cld;ghL nry;yhJ.
134
12.8 ruf;fpd; tpiy(Price of Goods)
ruf;F tpw;gidr; rl;lj;jpd; 2(10) MtJ gphpT>”ruf;F tpw;gidf;F gzj;jhyhd

kWgaNd tpiyahFk;>” vd tpiyf;F ,yf;fzk; tFj;Js;sJ.
tpiy epHzak; (Ascertainment of Price)
tpiy epHzak; njhlHghd rl;lr; ruj;Jf;fs; ruf;F tpw;gidr; rl;lj;jpd; 9

kw;Wk; 10MtJ gphpTfspy; jug;gl;Ls;sd. mjd;gb> tpiy gpd;tUk; topfspy;
epHzapf;fg;glyhk;.
 tpiy xg;ge;j egHfshy; epHzapf;fg;glyhk; my;yJ
 Xg;ge;jj;jpy; $wg;gl;bUf;Fk; Kiwg;gb epHzapf;fg;glyhk; my;yJ
 egHfspilNa eltbf;ifapd;NghJ epHzapf;fg;glyhk; my;yJ
 tpiyia epHzapg;gjhf xg;Gf; nfhz;l %d;whk; eguhy; epHzapf;fg;glyhk;

my;yJ
 re;ij tpiyapd;gb epHzapf;fg;glyhk;.
1. tpw;gjw;fhd cld;gbf;if vd;gJ ahJ?
2. tpw;gid xg;ge;jk; vt;thW nra;ag;gLfpwJ?

135
3. tpiy vd;w nrhy;ypd; ,yf;fzk; tiuf.
12.9 njhFg; G iu
1930 tUl “ruf;F tpw;gid rl;lk;) mirAk; nghUl;fis gw;wpaJ. tpw;gtH

gzj;jpw;fhf thq;FgtUf;F nghUl;fis nfhLf;fpwhH. ,jpy; tpw;gid> tpw;gid xg;ge;jk;
,uz;Lk; ntt;NtwhFk;. tpw;gid kw;Wk; tpw;gidf;fhd cld;gbf;if> tpw;gidf;Fk;
tpw;gjw;fhd cld;ghl;bw;Fk; cs;s NtWghLfs;> rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$ba xH tpw;gid
my;yJ tpw;gid kw;Wk; xg;ge;jj;jpd; ,d;wpaikahj $Wfs; gw;wp tpthpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 tpw;gidf;fhd cld;gbf;if: ruf;fpd; chpik khw;wk; vjpHfhyj;jpy; epfo Vw;ghL

nra;Ak; cld;gbf;if
 cl;fpilahd cj;juthjk;: tpw;gid xg;ge;jk; xd;wpy; cs;sjhf rl;lk; czHj;Jk;

cj;juthjk;

1. tpw;gid vd;w nrhy;ypd; ,yf;fzk; tiuf
2. tpw;gjw;fhd cld;gbf;if vd;gJ ahJ
3. ruf;fpd; tpiy vt;thW epHzak; nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
4. ruf;F moptpd; tpisTfs; ahit?
5. tpiy vd;w nrhy;ypd; ,yf;fzk; tiuf> mJ vt;thW epHzapf;fg;gLfpwJ?
6. tpw;gid xg;ge;jk; vt;thW nra;ag;gLfpwJ? mt;tpj xg;ge;jj;jpw;F Njitahd

rl;lr; rlq;Ffis RUf;fkhf Fwpg;gpLf.
7. rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$ba tpw;gid xd;wpd; ,d;wpaikahj $Wfs; ahit?

136
ghlk; -13
epge;j idfSk; cj;j puthjq;fSk;

(Conditions and Warranties)
fw;wypd; Nehf;f w;f s;
,g;ghlj;ij fw;wgpd; ePq;fs;:
 ruf;fpd; ,yf;fzj;ij njhpe;J nfhs;s KbAk;
 epge;jid kw;Wk; cj;juthjk; gw;wp tpsf;f KbAk;
 thq;Fgth; [hf;fpuijf; Nfhl;ghL Fwpj;J tpthjpf;f KbAk;.
ghl mikg;G
13.1 Kd;Diu
13.2 epge;jidfSk; cj;juthjKk;
13.3 ntspg;gilahd kw;W k; cl;fpilahd epge;jidfSk; cj;j uthjq;fSk;
13.4 epge;j idf;Fk; cj;j uthjj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNaAs;s NtWghLfs;.
13.5 thq;Fgth; [hf;fpuijf; Nfhl;g hL
13.6 thq;F gth; [hf;fpuijf; Nfhl;ghl;b w;f hd tpjp tpyf;Ffs;
13.7 njhFg;G iu
13.9 gapw;rp tpdhf;fs;

137
13.1 Kd; D iu
xU xg;ge;jj;jpd; Kf;fpa Nehf;fpw;F mtrpakhd epge;jidaha; ,Ug;gJ fl;lha

epge;jid. mJ Kbe;jhy; xg;ge;jk; nry;YgbahfhJ. thq;FNthh; nghUis thq;Ftjw;Fk;
kWj;jplyhk;. tpw;gid mtUf;Fz;lhd ghpfhuj;ij Njlyhk;. xU xg;ge;jj;jpd; Nehf;fq;fs;
rk;ge;jkhd epge;jid $WtJjhd; cj;jputhj epge;jidahFk;. ,jpy; xg;ge;j KwpT
Vw;gl;lhy; me;j egUf;F e\;l<L fpilf;Fk; eltbf;iffs; mth; kWf;f KbahJ.
xg;ge;jKk; epiwNtw;wg;gLk;.
13.2 epge;jidfSk; cj;jputhjKk; (Conditions and warranties)
 epge;jid (Conditions) : ruf;F xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jpd; gphpT 12 (2) ,d;gb> epge;jid

vd;gJ xg;ge;jj;jpd; Kf;fpa Nehf;fj;jpw;F ,d;wpaikahj Xh; tiuaiwNa
epge;jidahFk;. ,ij kPWk;nghOJ> xg;ge;jk; jpUk;gg; ngwg;gl;ljhff; fUjpf;
nfhs;Sk; chpikia ,J mspf;fpwJ. vdNt ,J xg;ge;jj;jpd; mbj;jskhFk;.
epge;jidia kPwpdhy; mjdhy; ghjpf;fg;gl;l egh;fs; xg;ge;jj;ij nry;yhjjhff;
fUjyhk;.
cjhuzk; xU kzpNeuj;jpw;F 30 fp.kP Ntfj;jpy; XLk; Fjpiu xd;W vdf;F

Ntz;Lk; vd X vd;gth; Y vd;w Fjpiu tpahghhpaplk; $wpdhh;. Y Fwpg;gpl;l xU
Fjpiuiaf; fhl;b ,J cq;fSf;F cfe;jjhf ,Uf;Fk; vd $wpdhh;.X mf;Fjpiuia
thq;fpdhh;. gpd;dh;> mf;Fjpiu xU kzp Neuj;jpw;F 20 fp.kP Ntfj;jpy; kl;LNk Xlf;
$baJ vd;gij X fz;Lgpbj;jhh;. ,q;F tpw;gtuhy; nra;ag;gl;l tiuaiwNa
xg;ge;jj;jpd; mbg;gilahf tpsq;Ftjhy;> epge;jid Kwptile;jjhff; fUjg;gLfpwJ.
 cj;jputhjk; (Warranties) : cj;jputhjk; vd;Dk; nrhy; xg;ge;jj;jpd; Kf;fpa

Nehf;fj;jpw;Fr; rk;ge;jg;gl;lJ. vdNt ,J xU Jiz thf;FWjp kl;LNk MFk;.
cj;jputhjj;ij kPwpdhy; mjdhy; ghjpf;fg;gl;l egh;fs; xg;ge;jj;ij nry;yhjjhff;
fUjKbahJ> Mdhy; mth;fSf;F ,og;gPL NfhUk; chpik kl;Lk; cz;L.
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fPo;f;fhZk; #o;epiyfspy; epge;jid kPWjy; cj;jputhj kPWjyhf kl;LNk fUjg;gLk;
 thq;Fgth; epge;jidia tpl;Lf;nfhLj;jhy; my;yJ.
 thq;Fgth; epge; jid kPWjiy cj;juthj kP Wjyhff; fUjp xg;ge;jj; ij nry;yhjjhff;

fUjhtpl;lhy; my;yJ.
 tpw;gid xg;ge;jk; gphpf;fKbahjjhf ,Ue;J nghUl;fis my;yJ mjd; gFjpia

thq;Fgth; Vw;Wf;nfhz;lhy; my;yJ.
 xg;ge;jk; Fwpg;gpl;l nghUl; fSf;fhf ,Ue; J mjd; chpik thq;FgtUf;F

khw;wg;gl;bUe;jhy;.
cjhuzk; X vd;gth; Y vd;w Fjpiu tpahghhpaplk; nrd;W vdf;F xU rpwe;j

Fjpiu Ntz;Lk; vdf; $wpdhh.; mf;Fjpiu tpahghp Fwpg;gpl;l xU Fjpiuiaf;
fhl;b xU kzp Nej;jpw;F 40 fp.kP Ntfj;jpy; XLk; vd;W $wpdhh;. X mf;Fjpiuia
thq;fpdhh;. gpd;dh;> X mf;Fjpiu xU kzp Neuj;jpw;F 20 fp.kP Ntfj;jpy; kl;LNk
Xlf; $baJ vd;gijf; fz;Lgpbj;jhh;. ,q;F tpw;gtuhy; nra;ag;gl;l tiuaiw
Jiz Mjuthd jhifahy;> cj;jputhjk; Kwpe;jjhfNt fUjg;gLk;.
13.3 ntspg;gilahd kw;W k; cl;f pilahd epge;jidfSk;

cj;juthjq;fSk; (Express and implied conditions and warranties )
epge;jidAk; cj;juthjKk; ntspg;gilahdjhfNth my;yJ kiwKfkhdjhfNth

,Uf;fyhk;. ,it xg;ge;jj;jpy; cWjpahf vOjg;gl;bUe;jhy; ,tw;iw ntspg;gil epge;jid
kw;Wk; cj;juthjk; vdyhk;. ,ij xg;ge;jj;jpy; vOj;J %ykhf ,y;yhky; tpahghu
tof;fj;jpd;gb my;yJ rl;lr; nray;ghl;bd;gb xg;ge;jj;jpy; gpd;gw;wg;gLkhdhy; ,tw;iw
kiwKf my;yJ cl;fpil kw;Wk; cj;juthjk; vdyhk;.
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13.3.1 epge;j idfs;
1. ntspg;gilahd epge;jidfs; (Express Conditions) : tpw;gid xg;ge;jj;jpd;

nghONj> ,uz;L egHfshYk; ntspg;gilahf Vw;Wf; nfhs;sg;gl;l epge;jid
ntspg;gilahd epge;jidahFk;. Xg;ge;j egHfs; jq;fspd; tpUg;gj;jpw;fpzq;f
vj;jid tpjkhd ntspg;gilahd epge;jidfisAk; xg;ge;jj;jpy; NrHj;Jf;
nfhs;syhk; vd;gJ ,q;F Fwpg;gplj;jf;fjhFk;.
2. cl; f pilahd epge; j idfs; ( Implied Conditions) : ,it xg; g e; j j; j py;

vOjg;gLtjpy;iy. ,it rl;lj;jpd; ,af;fk; my;yJ kughy; xg;ge;jj;jpy;
,izf;fg;gLfpd;wd. xt;nthU tpw;gid xg;ge;jj;jpYk;> gpd;tUk; epge;jidfs;
cl;fpilahditfshf cs;sd.
(i) ruf; f pd; chpik njhlHghd epge; j id( Condition as to Title of Goods) :
tpw;gidapy; ruf;Ffis tpw;Fk; chpik tpw;gidahsUf;F ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gJ
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xU kiwKf epge;jid MFk;. tpw;gidf;fhd cld;gbf;ifapd; NghJ> nrhj;J

tpw;gthplkpUe;J thq;FgtUf;F khw;wpaspf;fg;gLk; nghOJjhd;> tpw;gtUf;F ruf;if
tpw;Fk; chpik fpilf;fpwJ. ,e;j epge;jidiaNa ehk; chpik njhlHghd
epge;jid vd;fpNwhk;.
cjhuzk; X vd;gth; Y aplkpUe;J xU fhiu xU Fwpg;gpl;l tpiyf;F thq;fp

rpwpJfhyk; cgNahfg;gLj;jpdH. rpy khjq;fs; fopj;J> me;jf; fhiu jpUl;Lf;fhH
vdf;$wp NghyP];rhH gwpKjy; nra;J tpl;ldH. fhhpd; cz;ikahd nrhe;jf;fhuhplk;
fhiuj; jUk;gb X fl; lhag;gLj;jg;gl;lhH.X, Y- aplkpUe;J fhUila KO tpiyiaAk;
ngw KbAk; vd jPHg;G toq;fg;gl;lJ. ,q;F chpik njhlHghd epge;jid
KwpTw;wjhy; B-f;F mf;fhiu tpw;gjw;F chpikNa ,y;iy.
(ii) tpsf;fTiu njhlHghd epge;jid(Condition as to Description) : tpsf;fTiu

mspg;gjd; %yk; ruf;F tpw;fg;gLk;nghOJ ruf;F tpsf;fTiuia xj;jpUf;Fk;
vd;gJ cl;fpil epge;jidahf cs;sJ.
cjhuzk; “n\g; gHL v.nfa;d; 1821” xU fg;gy; nrk;gpdhy; cWjpahf ,izf;fg; gl;lJ
vd; W $wp tpw;fg;gl; lJ. Mdhy; mf;f g;gy; KOtJkhf nrk;gpdhy;
,izf;fg;gltpy;iy vd;gJ fz;lwpag;gl;lJ. vdNt thq;fpatH fg;giy
jpUk;gf; nfhLj;Jtpl;L ,og;gPL Nfhuyhk; vd jPHg;G toq;fg;gl;lJ.
(iii) khjphp njhlHghd epge;j id(Condition as to Sample) : khjphpapd; %yk;

Vw;gLk; tpw;gid xg;ge;jj;jpYs;s gy;NtW cl;fpilahd epge;jidfs; gpd;tUkhW:
 nfhLf;fg;gLk; nghUl;fs; khjphpia xj;jpUf;fNtz;Lk;
 nkhj;jg;nghUis khjphpg; nghUSld; xg;gpl;Lg; ghHg;gjw;fhf epahakhd tha;g;G

thq;FgtUf;F ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;.
 khjphpia xusT ghHj;jJk; njspthfj; njhpe;Jnfhs;s Kbahj kw;Wk; nghUl;fis

tpw;f Kbahj jhf;fk; FiwghLfs; VJkpd;wp nghUl;fs; ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;.
cjhuzk; “buk;kz;l; md; rd;]; v. thd; ,d;n`d; md; fk;ngdp” ,t;tof;fpy;

khjphpapd;gb mDg;gg;gl;l fk;gspr; rl;ilj;Jzp ntspg;gilahfj; njhpahj
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Fiwghl;bdhy; ijg;gjw;Fg; nghUe;jhJ Nghdjhy; mij thq;FgtH Vw;f

kWf;fyhk; vd;W jPHg;gspf;fg;gl;lJ.
(iv) khjphp& tpsf;fTiu njhlHghd epge;jid(Condition as to Sample as well as

Description) :tpw;gid xg;ge;jk; xd;W khjphp kw;Wk; tpsf;fTiuapd; %yk;
Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; nghOJ> ruf;F khjphp kw;Wk; tpsf;fTiuia xj;jpUf;Fk;
vd;gJ cl;fpilahd epge;jidahFk;. vdNt> toq;fg;gl;l ruf;F khjphpAld;
xj;Jg; NghapUe;J Mdhy; tpsf;fTiuNahL xj;Jg; NghfhkypUe;jhy;;> cl;fpilahd
epge;jid xd;W Kwpe;jjhfNt fUjg;gLk;. mijg;NghyNt mspf;fg;gl;l ruf;F
tpsf;fTiuNahL xj;jpUe;J Mdhy; khjphpNahL xj;jpUf;ftpy;iy. vdpy; cl;fpilahd
epge;jid xd;W Kwpe;jjhfNt fUjpf;nfhz;L ruf;if kWf;f thq;FgtUf;F
chpik cz;L.
cjhuzk; “thyp]; v.g;uhl;” tpijfs; khjphpapd;gb nghJ Mq;fpy tpij tif

vd;W tpw;fg;gl;lJ. Mdhy; nfhLf;fg;gl;l tpijfs; nghpa tif vDk; NtWgl;l
tifia rhHe;jit vd;gJ fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lJ. vdNt thq;fpatH tpijfis
Vw;f kWf;fyhk; vd;W jPHg;gspf;fg;gl;lJ.
(v) juk; njhlHghd epge;jid (Conditions as to Quality) : “thq;FgtH [hf;fpuijahf

,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;” (Caveat Emptor) vd;gJ nghJ tpjpahFk;. vdNt> tpw;gtH
jhd; tpw;Fk; ruf;fpy; cs;s Fw;wq;fis ntspg;gLj;j Ntz;bajpy;iy thq;FgtH
ruf;fpd; juk; kw;Wk; nghUj;jk; Nghd;wtw;wpy; jpUg;jp Vw;gLk;nghOJ kl;LNk
ruf;if thq;f Ntz;Lk;. ruf;F tpw;gid rl;lj;jpd; 16tJ gphptpd;gb> Fwpg;gpl;l
xU Nehf;fj;jpw;fhd juk; njhlHghd cl;fpilahd epge;jid vJTk; ,y;iy.
Mdhy; gpd;tUk; Njitfs; G+Hj;jpaile;jhy; juk; njhlHghd cl;fpil epge;jid
,Uf;Fk;.
 xU Fwpg; g pl; l nghUspy; rhjhuzkhf tpahghuk; nra; J gof; f Ks; s

tpw;gidahsUf;F thq;FgtH jd;Dila Nehf;fj;jij njhptpj;J tpw;gidahshpd;
Kbtpy; ek;gpf;if nfhz;bUj;jy;.
 epahakhd ghHitapy; fz;Lgpbf;f Kbahj FiwghLfs; nghUs;fspypUe;Jk;

mf;FiwghLfis tpw;gidahsH njhptpf;fhky; ,Uj;jy;.
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 tpw;gidahshpd; thHj;ijfis thq;FgtH ek;gpapUj;jy;.
 tpw;gthpd; njhopy; mt;tpjr; ruf;if mspj;jyhf ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
cjhuzk; “ghy;l;hp v. khH\y;”A vd;gtH B vd;gthplkpUe;J Rw;Wyhtpw;Fg;

gad;gLj;Jtjw;fhf xU Nkhl;lhH fhiu thq;fpdhH. tpw;gidahsuhfpa B
,e;Nehf;fj;ij mwpe;jpUe;jhH. fhH me;Nehf; fj; jpw;Fg; nghUe; jhJ NghdJ. ,t;tof;fpy;
thq;fpatuhfpa A xg;ge;jj;ij epuhfhpf;fyhk; vd;W jPHg;gspf;fg;gl;lJ.
(vi) tzpfj; j d; i k njhlHghd epge; j id( Conditions as to Merchantability) :

tpthpj;jypd; %yk; ruf;F tpw;fg;gLk; nghOJ> mg;nghUl;fs; tpsf;fTiuapd;gbAk;
tzpfj; juk; cs;sjhfTk; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lnkd;gJ xU kiwKf epge;jidahFk;.
cjhuzk; “[hf;rd; v.Nuhnlf;]; Nkhl;lhH & irf;fps; fk;ngdp (1910) 2 K.B.937 –

X vd;gtH Y vd;gtUf;F rpy Nkhl;lhH `hud;fis tpw;fTk; ruf;if jtiz
Kiwapy; toq;fTk; cld;gl;lhH> Kjy; jtiz mspf;fg;gl;Ltpl;lJ. Mdhy; 2-
tJ jtizapy; mspf;fg;gl;l ruf;fpd; ngUk;gFjp> nghjpkhdk; rhpahfr;
nra;ag;glhjjhy; NrjKw;wJ. ruf;F tzpfj; jukw;wjhf ,Ug;gjhy;> thq;FgtH
midj;Jj; jtizfisAk; kWj;Jtplyhk; vd jPHg;G toq;fg;gl;lJ.
(vii) cly; eyj;jpw;F Vw;wJ njhlHghd epge;jid (Condition as to Wholesomeness)

: czTg; nghUs; tpw;gidapy;> mit cldb cgNahfj;jpw;F Vw;wjhf
,Uf;fNtz;Lk; vd;gJ xH cl;fpilahd epge;jidahFk;.
cjhuzk; A vd;gtH B-aplkpUe;J nuhl;bia thq;fpdhH. nuhl;bapypUe;j fy;

mtuJ gy; i y cilj;J tpl;l J. vdNt B ,og; g P L juNtz; L k; vd; W
jPHg;gspf;fg;gl;lJ.
13.3.2 cj;j uthjq;fs; (Warranties)
1. ntspg;gilahd cj;juthjq;fs; (Express Warrenties) : t p w ; g i d

xg;ge;jj;jpd; rkak;> ,U egHfspdhYk; ntspg;gilahf cld;gl;l xH cj;juthjk;>
ntspg;gilahd cj;juthjkhFk;. Xg;ge;j egHfs; jq;fspd; tpUg;gj;jpw;fpzq;f
vt;tsT ntspg;gilahd cj;juthjq;fis Ntz;LkhdhYk; jkJ xg;ge;jj;jpy;
NrHj;Jf; nfhs;syhk; vd;gJ ,q;F Kf;fpakhff; Fwpg;gplj;jf;fjhFk;.
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2. cl;fpilahd cj;juthjq;fs; (Implied Warranties) : tpw;gid xg;ge;jk;

xd; w p y; cs; s jh f rl; l k; czHj; J k; cj; j uthjq; f s; cl; f p ilahd
cj;juthjq;fshFk;. ,it xg;ge;jj;jpy; ntspg;gilahf vOj;J tbtpy;
njhptpf; f g; g lkhl; l hJ. Mdhy; ,it xg; g e; j egHfshy; xg; g e; j j; j py;
NrHf;fg;gl;Ls;sjhf rl;lj;jhy; fUjg;gLtdthFk;. Ruf;F tpw;gidr; rl;lj;jpy;
cs;s rpy cl;fpilahd cj;juthjq;fs gpd;tUkhW:
(i) KO chpik njhlHghd cj;juthjk; (Warranty as to Quiet Possession) :

,t;Tj;juthjj;jpd;gb thq;Fgthplk; ruf;fpd; KO chpikAk; cz;L. mtH
mij KOikahf mDgtpf;fyhk;. thq;FgtUila ,t;Thpikfspy; vtNuDk;
Fog;gk; tpistpj;jy;> thq;Fgtuhy; rl;lj;jpd; cjtpahy;> tpw;gthplkpUe;J mjw;Fhpa
,og;gPl;il Nfl;Lg; ngwKbAk;.
(ii) tpy;y q;f q;f spd;i k vd;g J njhlHghd cj;j uthjk; ( Warranty as to free
from Encumbrance) : ,t;Tj;juthjj;jpd;gb> %d;whk; egH vtuhYk; ruf;F
tpy;yq;fk; VJkpy;iy vd;gJ cl;fpilahFk;> ,t;tpj tpy;yq;fspdhy; thq;Fgthpd;
chpik ghjpf;fg;gl;lhy;. ,tH mjw;Fhpa e\;l<l;il tpw;gthplkpUe;J Nfl;L
ngwKbAk;.
(iii) kughy; czHj; j g; g Lk; cj; j uthjk; ” ( Warranties Implied by Customs)

:tzpfj;jpd; kuGfs; xg;ge;jj;jpy; <LgLk; egHfSf;Fj; njhpe;jpUf;Fkhjyhy;
kughy; czHj;jg;gLk; cj;juthjKk; xg;ge;jj;jpy; gpizf;fg;glyhk;.
13.4 epge;jidf;Fk; cj;juthjj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNaAs;s

NtWghLfs; (Difference between Condition and Warranty)
epge; j id cj; j uthjk;
1. ,J xg;ge;jj;jpd; Kjd;ik ,J xg;ge;jj;jpd; Kjd;ik Nehf;fj;jpw;F

Nehf;fj;jpw;F ,d;wpaikahj Jizahjuthd xH tiuaiwahFk;
xH tiuaiwahFk;
2. epge;jid epiwNtw;wg;lhtpl;lhy;> cj;juthjk; epiwNtw;wg;glh tpl;lhYk;>

Kjd;ik xg;ge;jk; epiwTwhJ. Kjd;ik xg;ge;jk; epiwNtw;wg;glyhk;.
144
3 .epge;jid kPwy; cj;juthjj;jpd; cj;juthjj;jpd; kPwy; epge;jidapd;

kPwyhff; fUjg;glyhk;. kPwyhff; fUjg;glyhk;.
4. epge;jid kPwg;gLk;nghOJ> cj;juthjk; kPwg;gLk;nghOJ> thq;FgtH

thq;FgtH xg;ge;jj;jpd; xg;ge;jj;jpd; epiwNtw;wj;ij
epiwNtw;wj;ij kWf;fyhk;. kWf;fKbahJ. ,tH ,og;gPL kl;LNk
Nfhu KbAk;.
5. epge;jid kPwg;gLk;nghOJ> ,q;F thq;FgtH e\;l<L kl;LNk Nfhu

mt;nthg;ge;jk; jpUk;gg; ngwg;gl;lJ KbAk; cj;juthjk; kPwg;gl;lhy; ,tH
vd;W fUJtjw;F gjpyhf xg;ge;jj;ij kWf;fKbahJ.
thq;FgtH e\;l<L NfhUtijf;
$l Vw;fyhk;.
13.5 thq;FgtH [hf;fpuijf; Nfhl;ghL (Doctrine of Caveat Emptor)
thq;FgtH ftdkhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. (Let the buyer beware) mjhtJ thq;FgtH
vjw;fhfg; nghUl;fis thq;FfpwhNuh mjw;F mit Vw;witah vd;gij mtNu
rhpghHj;J jpUg;jp milaNtz;Lk;. nghUl;fspy; cs;s FiwghLfisf; Fwpg;gplNtz;ba
flik tpw;gidahsUf;Fk; fpilahJ. Mdhy; ,t;tpjp fPo;f;fhZk; #o;epiyfspy;
nghUe;jhJ.
 thq;FgtH nghUl;fs; jd;Dila Njitf;F Vw;witah vd;gjpy; tpw;gidahshpd;

KbitAk; jpwikiaAk; ek;gpapUf;Fk; NghJ.
 tpw;gidahsH tpthpj;jypd;%yk; nghUl;fis tpw;Fk; NghJ.
 tpahghu tof;fk; nghUl;fspd; Nehf;fj;ij kiwKf epge;jidahf;Fk; NghJ.
 Nkhrbapd;NghJ tpw;gidahsH thq;Fgthpd; rk;kjj;ijg; ngw;w midj;Jf;

#o;epiyfspYk;.
 jdp chpikr;rhd;wpjo; fPo; my;yJ kw;w tpahghug; ngaHfspd; fPo; Fwpg;gplg;gl;l

nghUl;fs; tpw;fg;gLk; NghJ thq;FgtH [hf;fpuij vdg;gLk;.
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cjhuzk; NehAw;w gd;w pfs; tpw; fg;g l;l hy; mtw; iw thq; f patH gpw
gd;wpfSf;Fk; me;Neha; gutp tpl;lJ. jhk; tpw;w gd;wpfs; Nehahy; ghjpf;fg;gl;lit
vd;gijf; $wNtz;ba flik tpw;wtUf;F ,y;iy vd jPHg;G toq;fg;gl;lJ. thq;FgtH
[hf;fpuijahf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gNj tpjpahFk;(Nfhl;ghL v.‘g;]; 1878>4 App Cas
13).
13.6 thq;FgtH [hf;fpuijf; Nfhl;g hl;b w;f hd tpjptpyf;Ffs;

(Exceptions to the Doctrine of Caveat Emptor)
thq;FgtH [hf;fpuijf; Nfhl;ghL gpd;tUk; tpjp tpyf;FfSf;F cl;gl;ljhFk;.
1. juk; kw;W k; nghUj;j k; njhlHghd cl; f pilahd epge;j id : ruf; if

thq;FgtH> jhk; mr;ruf;if thq;Ftjw;fhd Fwpg;gpl;l Nehf;fj;ij tpw;gtUf;Fj;
njhptpj;J ,Ue;J mj;juk; tpw;gthpd; Mw;wy; kw;Wk; jPHg;ig ek;gpapUf;Fk;
nghOJ> thq;FgtH vd;d Nehf;fj;jpw;fhf mr;ruf;if thq;FfpwhNuh mjd;
Njitia ruf;F G+Hj;jp nra;Ak; vd;gJ cl;fpilahd epge;jidahFk;. ruf;F
tzpf ngahpd; fPo; my;yJ jdp chpikr; rhd;wpd;fPo; tpw;fg;gLk;nghOJ> ruf;fpd;
juk; my;yJ nghUj;jk; Fwpj;J cl;fpilahd epge;jidfs; vJTk; ,Uf;fhJ.
2. tpsf;fTiuapd; %yk; ruf;F tpw;gid : tpw;gidahsH xUthplkpUe;J ruf;F

tpsf;fTiuapd; %yk; thq;fg;gLk;nghOJ> mr;ruf;F tzpfj; jd;ikAk; juKk;
cilajhfNt ,Uf;Fk; vd;gJ cl;fpilahd cj;juthjkhFk;.
3. tzpfg;gof;f k; : tzpfg; gof;fk; my;yJ kuG$l> Fwpg;gpl;l xU Nehf;fk;

njhlHghd ruf;fpd; juk; my;yJ nghUj;jk; gw;wpa xH cl;fpilahd epge;jidia
cUthf;fyhk;.
4. Nkhrbf; f hd xg; G jy; : tpw; g tuhy; ruf; i f thq; F tjw; f hd xg; G jy;
thq;FgthplkpUe;J Nkhrbahfg; ngwg;gl;lhy;> mq;F mf;Nfhl;ghL nghUe;jhJ.
mjhtJ Nkhrbahfg; nghUl; f is tpw; g id nra; A k; tpw; g idahsUf; F
,f;Nfhl;ghl;bd; fPo;r; ve;jg; ghJfhg;Gk; fpilf;fhJ.
146
1. cj;juthjk; vd;why; vd;d?
2. epge;jid vd;gjd; ,yf;fzk; tiuf
3. thq;FgtH [hf;fpuijf; Nfhl;ghl;il tpsf;fp mjd; tpjptpyf;Ffis Fwpg;gpLf.
13.7 njhFg;G iu
ruf;F tpw;gid rl;lk; 1930-y; ,aw;wg;gl;lJ. ,r;rl;lk; ,aw;wg;gLtjw;F Kd;>

ruf;F tpw;gid rl;lk; mirAk; nghUl;fis gw;wpaJ. tpw;gtH gzj;jpw;fhf thq;FgtUf;F
nghUl;fis nfhLf;fpwhH. ruf;F tpw;gid xg;ge;jj;jpw;F ,d;wpaikahj xH tiuaiuNa
epge;jidahFk;. ,ij kPWk;NghJ xg;ge;jk; jpUk;g ngwg;gl;ljhff; fUjpf; nfhs;Sk;
chpik mspf;fpwJ. mNj Nghd;W xg;ge;jj;jpd; Kjd;ik Nehf;fj;jpw;F Jizahjuthdjhf
,Ug;gNj cj;juthjkhFk;. epge;jidfs; kw;Wk; cj;juthjq;fs; Fwpj;J cjhuzq;fSld;
tpsf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,g;ghlj;jpd; ,Wjpf;fl;lkhf thq;FgtH [hf;fpuijf; Nfhl;ghL
Fwpj;J tpsf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
147
 cl;fpilahd cj;juthjk; : tpw;gid xg;ge;jk; xd;wpy; cs;sjhf rl;lk;

czHj;Jk; cj;juthjk;
 tpw;gidf;fhd cld;gbf;if: ruf;fpd; chpik khw;wk; vjpHfhyj;jpy; epfo Vw;ghL

nra;Ak; cld;gbf;if
1. epge;jid vd;gjd; ,yf;fzk; tiuf.
2. cj;juthjk; vd;why; vd;d?
3. epge;jidfs; kw;Wk; cj;juthjq;fs; Mfpa nrhw;fspd; ,yf;fzk; tiuf?
4. thq;FgtH [hf;fpuijf; Nfhl;ghl;il tpsf;fp mjd; tpjptpyf;Ffis Fwpg;gpLf.
5. epge;jidfSf;Fk; cj;juthjq;fSf;Fk; ,ilNaAs;s NtWghl;ilj; jUf?

148
ghlk; - 14
chpik khw;wk;
(Transfer of Property (or) Goods)
ghlj;ij fw;wgpd; ePq;fs;
 chpik khw;wj;jpw;fhd tpjpfis tpsf;f KbAk;
 chpik khw;wj;jpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij tpsf;f KbAk;
 chpik ,y;yhjtHfshy; nra;ag;gLk; chpik khw;wk; fz;L mwpa KbAk;.
 gfpuq;fkhd re;ijapy; tpw;gid gw;wp mwpa KbAk;.
ghl mikg;G
14.1 Kd; D iu
14.2 chpik khw;w j;jpw;fhd tpjpfs;
14.3 chpik khw;wj;j pd; Kf;fpaj;J tk;
14.4 chpik ,y;y hjtHfshy; nra;ag;g Lk; chpik khw;wk;
14.5 chpik khw;w k;
14.6 gfpuq;f khd re;i japy; tpw;g id
14.7 njhFg; G iu

149
14.1 Kd; D iu
tpw;gidapd; Kf;fpa Nehf;fk; nghUl;fspd; chpikia tpw;gidahshplk; ,Ue;J

thq;FgtUf;F khw;WtJ MFk;. vg;nghOJ tpw;gidahshplkpUe;J thq;FgtUf;F
chpik khWfpwJ vd;gij mwpe;J nfhs;tJ Kf;fpakhFk;.
 ,lh;ghLk; chpikAld; khWfpwJ vd;gJ tpjp nghUl;fs; tpgj;jpdhy; mope;JNghdhy;

el;lk; chpikahsiuNa rhUk;.
 Kd;whk; egHfs; nghUl;fisr; Nrjg;gLj;jpdhy; chpikahsH kl;LNk eltbf;if

vLf;fyhk;.
 tpw;gidahsH my;yJ thq;FgtH jpthy; Mdhy; jpthyhdtH chpikahsuh

,y;iyah vd;gijg; nghWj;Nj nghUl;fis fldhsp nrhj;jjpfhuk; vLj;Jf;
nfhs;syhkh $lhjh vd;gJ KbT nra;ag;gLk;.
14.2 chpik khw;wj;jpw;f hd tpjpfs;
1. nfhLf;f f;$ba epiyapy; ,Uf;F k; Fwpg;gplg;g l;l nghUl;fs;
,g;nghUl;fisg; nghWj;j tiuapy; xg;ge;jk; Vw;gLk; NghJ chpik khw;wk; Vw;gLfpwJ.
2. nfhLf;f Kbahj epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; Fwpg;g plg;g l;l nghUl;f s;
,g; nghUl; fisg; nghWj; jtiuapy; tpw;gidahsH ,tw;iwf; nfhLf; ff;$ba epiyf;Ff;
nfhz;Lte;J mjid thq;Fgtiu mwpar; nra;jTld; chpik khw;wk; Vw;gLfpwJ.
3. epiy epHzapf;f Ntz;b a nghUl;fs;
rpy Fwpg;gplg;gl;l nghUl;fs; nfhLf;ff;$ba epiyapy; ,Ue;J mtw;iw tpw;gidahsH

vil Nghl;L tpiyepHzapf;f Ntz;b ,Uf;fyhk;. ,tw;iwg; nghWj;jtiuapy;
mt;thW nra;J mij thq;FgtH mwpe;jgpwNf chpik khw;wk; epfo;fpwJ.
4. fz;l wpag;g lhj nghUl;f s;
,g;nghUl;fs; tpthpj;jypd;gb tpw;fg;gl;bUe;jhy; ,tw;iw tpw;gidahsH my;yJ

thq;FgtH kw;wthpd; rk;kjj;Jld; epge;jidapd;wpg; gphpj;njLj;Jf; nfhLf;ff;$ba
150
epiyapy; itf;fNtz;Lk;. mg;nghOJjhd; ,tw;iwg; nghWj;j tiuapy; chpik

khw;wk; epfOk;. tpw;gidahsH thq;Fgthplk; my;yJ kw;w xg;ghspaplk; thq;FgtUf;F
mDg; G tjhf nghUl; f is xg; g ilj; j hy; mg; n ghUl; f s; epge; j idapd; w p
gphpf;fg;gl;ljhff; fUjg;gLk;. Mdhy; ,jpy; tpw;gidahsh; nghUl;fis tpw;Fk;
chpik vijAk; jf;f itj;Jf; nfhs;sf; $lhJ.
cjhuzk; (My;l;hpl;]; v.[hd;rd;) A rpy ld;fs; NfhJikia nkhj;jj;jpy; ,Ue;J

thq;fp mtw;iw vLj;J tUtjw;fhf jd;Dila Ml;fis rhf;Fg; igfSld;
mDg;gpdH. NfhJikia tpw;gidahsH rhf;Fg;igfspy; epug;gpdhH. mt;thW
rhf;Fg;igfspy; NfhJik epug;gg;gl;lNghJ chpik thq;FgtUf;F khwpajhf
ePjpkd;wk; jPHg;gspj;jJ.
5. mq;f Pf huk; my;y J tpw;gid my;yJ jpUg;g Kiwapy; nghUl;f s;
,ijg;nghUj;j tiuapy; chpik khw;wk; epfo Ntz;Lnkd;why; (m) thq;FgtH

jd;Dila mq;fPfhuj;ijj; njhptpf;f Ntz;Lk;. (M) nghUl;fis kWg;gjw;Fhpa
fhyf;nfLtpw;Fg; gpwFk; kWg;G mwptpg;G nfhLf;fhky; thq;FgtH nghUl;fis
itj;jpUf;fNtz;Lk;.
14.3 chpik khw;wj;jpd; Kf;f paj;J tk;
 ,lH chpikahsiu njhlHfpwJ vg;NghJ thq;fg;gl;L tpl;lNjh> thq;fg;gl;L nghUs;

tpw;gidahshplkpUe;jhYk; nghUs; ehrk; nfl;Lg;Nghjy; ,Ue;jhy; mJ thq;fpatiu
rhUk;.
 %d;whk; eguhy; nghUs; ehrg;gLk; jg;gl;lhy; ahH chpikahsNuh mtHjhd;

eltbf;if vLf;f KbAk;.
 tpw;gtH tpiyf;fhf (Vw;fdNt jPHkhdpf;fhtpby;) rl;l cjtpia ehlyhk;. vg;NghJ

nghUl;fs;> thq;Fgthpd; nrhj;jhfp tpl;lNjh mg;NghJjhd;.
 jpthy; - tpw;gtNuh thq;FgtNuh jpthyhfptpl;lhy; muR eLepiyahsH ahiu

jPHkhdpf;fpwhNjh mtHjhd; nrhj;Jf;F mjpfhhp.
151
14.4 chpik ,y;yhjtHfshy; nra;ag;gLk; chpik khw;wk; (Transfer

of Title By Non- Owners)
ahUf;Fg; nghUs; kPJ chpik cs;sNjh mtH kl;LNk nghUl;fis tpw;fyhk;

vd;gJ nghJ tpjp. “jd;dplk; ,y;yhjij xUtd; nfhLf;f KbahJ” vd;w Nfhl;ghl;bd;
mbg;gilapy; jhd; ,t;tpjp mike;Js;sJ. Mdhy; ,t;tpjpf;F fPo;f;fhz;git
tpjptpyf;Ffs;.
1) ntspg;gilahd re;ijapy; tpw;gid (Sale in Market)
ntspg;gilahd re;ij vd;gJ tpahghuj;jpw;fhf vy;NyhuhYk; mq;fPfhpf;fg;gl;l

,lj;ijAk;> fhyj;ijAk; Fwpf;Fk;. ,j;jifa re;ijapy; xUtH nghUs; thq;fpdhy;
nghUl;fspd; Nky; mtUf;F ey;y chpik fpilf;Fk;. mg;nghUl;fis tpw;wtUf;F
mtw;wpd;kPJ vt;tpj chpik ,y;iynad;whYk; guthapy;iy.
2) tzpf KftH xUthpd; %yk; tpw;gid (Sale by a Mercantile Agent)
tzpf KftH nghUSf;F chpatH ,y;iynad;whYk; nghUis tpw;f mtUf;F

mjpfhuk; cz;L. mthplkpUe;J nghUis thq;FgtH fPo;f;fz;l epge;jidfSf;F
cl;gl;L ey;chpikiag; ngWfpd;whH.
 tpw;gtH tzpf Kftuhf ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
 mtH nghUis my;yJ nghUs; kPjhd chpik Mtzj;ij jk;kplk; itj;jpUj;jy;

Ntz;Lk;.
 chpikahshpd; ,irTld; nghUisj; jd;trk; itj;jpUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
 tzpf Kftuhf tpahghu eilKiwapd; ,ay;Gf;F Vw;g nghUis tpw;wpUf;f

Ntz;Lk;.
cjhuzk; X vd;gtH jkJ yhhp> Y vd;w tzpf Kfthplk; je;J mij &.5>000/
-f;F Fiwahky; tpw;FkhW gzpj;jhH. X yhhpia &.4>000/-f;F z vd;gtUf;F
tpw;Wtpl;L gzj;ijf; ifahly; nra;J kiwe;jhH. yhhp z aplkpUe;J jpUk;gg; ngw
X tof;F njhlh;e;jhh;. X yhhpia Z aplkpUe;J jpUk;gg; ngw KbahJ.
152
Vnddpy; mt;tz;bapd; tpw;gid rpwe;j chpikia itj;jpUe;j tzpf Kftuhy;

Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;L rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$ba chpik Z-f;F khw;wpj; jug;gl;Ls;sJ.
3) $l;L chpikahsH %yk; tpw;gid (Sale By a Co-owner)
$l;L chpikahsH xUthplkpUe;J nghUis thq;FgtH fPo;f;fz;l #o;epiyfspy;

nghUspd; kPJ rpwe;j chpikia ngWfpd;whH.
m) nghUl;fis Kw;wpYk; mtH trk; ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
M) kw;w $l;L chpikahsHfspd; ,irNthL mtH jd;trk; nghUl;fis itj; jpUj; jy;
Ntz;Lk;.
,) tpw;gtUf;F chpikapy;iy vd thq;FgtH mwpe;jpUj;jy; $lhJ
<) thq;FgtH ey;nyz;zj;Jld; nghUSf;Fhpa gzj;ijr; nr Yj;jp g; ngh U is

thq;fpapUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
cjhuzk; X, Y vd;w ,UtUk; thndhypg; ngl;b xd;wpd; $l;L chpikahsHfs; x-

apd; ,irNthL y mt;thndhypg; ngl;bia jd; trk; itj;jpUe;jhH. x mij
,ufrpakhf vLj;J te;J Z vd;gtUf;F tpw;W tpl;lhH. X vd;gtH $l;L
chpikahsuhf ,Ue;jhYk; mf;fUtpia ,tH kw;nwhU $l;L chpikahsuhd Y-
apd; rk;kjkpd;wp ,ufrpakhf vLj;J te;J tpw;wjhy;> mt;thndhypg; ngl;bf;Fhpa
chpikia Z-ahy; ngwKbahJ.
4. jtpHf;fj;jf;f xg;ge;jj;jpd; fPo; cilikAilatH %yk; tpw;g id

(Sale By a person in Possession under a Voidable Contract)
xUtH xU nghUis Nkhrb nra;Njh> ngha; $wpNah> tYf;fl;lhag; gLj;jpNah

ngw;wpUf;fyhk;. mt;tpjk; mtH ngw;w chpik jtwhd chpikahapDk; mtH
mg;nghUis ey;nyz;zj;Jld; tpiy nfhLj;J thq;FgtUf;F mspf;Fk;NghJ>
thq;FgtH rpwe;j chpikiag; ngWfpwhH.
cjhuzk; X vd;gtH jfhj nry;thf;fpdhy; kpff; Fiwe;j xH tpiyf;F Y

vd;gthplkpUe;J xU fhiu thq;fp mij Z vd;gthplk; tpw;W tpl;lhH. mij Z
153
ey;nyz;zj;Jld; tpiy nfhLj;J thq;fpdhH. MfNt mjd;kPJ Z-f;F chpik

cs;sJ. vdNt mt;nthg;ge;jk; gpd;dH xJf;fp itf;fg;gl;lhYk; $l y me;j
fhiu kPl;f KbahJ.
5) tpw;g idahsH jk; cilikapy; cs;s nghUl;f is tpw;w y; ( Sale by

the Seller in possession of Goods after Sale)
tpw;gid Kbe;j gpd;Dk; nghUs; tpw;gthplNk ,Ue;J mtH mij kWgbAk;

,d;ndhUtUf;F tpw;W tpLthNu Mdhy; Gjpjhf thq;fpatH Ke;jpa tpw;gidiag;
gw;wp mwpahJ jd;dk;gpf;ifAld; nghUSf;fhd tpiyia nfhLj;J
thq;fpapUf;Fk;NghJ mtNu mg;nghUSf;F chpatuhfpd;whH.
6) thq;FgtH jk; cilikapy; cs;s nghUl;fis tpw;wy; (Dale By the

Buyer in Possession of Goods)
nghUl;fis thq;fpatH my;yJ thq;f cld;gl;l xU egH> tpw;gthpd; mDkjpAld;

mg;nghUl;fspd; cilikiaNah my;yJ mtw;wpd; chpik Mtzq;fisNah
ngWfpwhH. mt;tpj eguhNyh my;yJ mtUila tzpf KftuhNyh nra;ag;gLk;
mg; n ghUl; f spd; tpw; g id> mlF my; y J mjd; Mtzq; f spd; khw; w k;
nry; y f; $ baJk; Mw; w y; k pf; f Jk; MFk; . Mdhy; mtw; i w thq; f patH
jd;dk;gpf;ifAld; tpw;gidahsUf;F gw;Whpik VJkpUg;gpd; mijg; gw;wp mwpahky;
nrayhw;wp ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. mg;nghOJjhd; mtUf;F mg;nghUspd; kPJ rpwe;j
chpik fpilf;Fk;.
cjhuzk; X vd;gtH y vd;gtUf;F 100 khT %l;ilfis &.50>000/-f;F tpw;whH.

x mtw;iw ,uapy; %yk; mDg;gp> mjd; tpiyiag; ngwhkNyNa mjd;
,uapy;Nt urPij y-f;F ruf;Ffis tpw;Fk; chpikia ve;j tpjj;jpYk;
tiuaiw nra;ahky; mDg;gptpl;lhH. cldbahf y me;j urPij Z
vd;gtUf;F chpa kWgaNdhL y-f;F Fwpg;gpl;L mDg;gp khT %l;ilfis
tpw;W tpl;lhH. nghUl;fs; mtUila ,lj;ij te;jilAk; Kd;dH Y jpthyhfp
tpl;lhH. X nghUl;fs; y-iar; nrd;wilAk; Kd;Ng mtw;iw Nkw;nfhz;L
Nghftplhky; epWj;jp tpl;lhh;. Z mtw;wpd;kPJ chpikiaf; nfhz;bUg;gjhy; x
mg;nghUl;fis epWj;j KbahJ vd jPHg;G toq;fg;gl;lJ.
154
7) tpiyngwhj tpw;g idahshpd; kWtpw;g id chpik ( Unpaid S e l le r ’ s

Right of Resale)
tpiyngwhj tpw;gidahsH> jdJ gw;Whpik mjpfhuj;ijg; gad;gLj;jp my;yJ

nghUs; nry;ifapy; epWj;jp (Stoppage in Transit) mg;nghUl;fis ngw;Wg; gpd;
kWtpw;gid nra;jhy;> mtw;iw thq;fpatUf;F rpwg;G chpik fpilf;fpwJ.
8) gpw rl;lq;f Sila ruj;Jf;fspd;kPJ tpw;g id(Sale Under the provision

of Other Acts)
mlF itg;gtH jk;Kila nghUl;fis kPl;fj; jtWk;nghOJ mlF ngWgtH

mtw;iw tpw;fyhk;. mt;tpw;gidapd; %yk; nghUl;fis thq;fpatH mtw;wpd;kPJ
rpwe;j chpikiag; ngWthH. (,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jpd; gphpT 176) fhzhky;
Nghd nghUl;fis fz;nlLj;jhH rpy #o;epiyfspy; jhd; fz;nlLj;j nghUl;fis
rl;lg;gb tpw;Fk; chpikiag; ngWfpwhH. mr;#o;epiyapy; mthplk; ,Ue;J
nghUl;fis thq;FgtUf;F mtw;wpd;kPJ rpwe;j chpik fpilahJ (,e;jpa xg;ge;jr;
rl;lk; 169)
14.5 chpik khw;wk; (gphpT 18-21)
 cWjpg;gLj;jg;glhj nghUl;fspd; tpw;gidapd; Nghjhd chpik khw;wk; Unascertained

(
Goods)
 Fwpg;gpl;l ruf;Fila tpw;gidapd; Nghjhd chpik khw;wk;: (Specific Goods)
 tpw;gid my;yJ jpUg;gp mDg;Gjypd; mbg;gilapd; Nghjhd chpik khw;wk;

(Transfer of Ownership in Case of sale or Return Basis or sale on approval)
1. cWjpg;g Lj;j g;g lhj nghUl;f spd; tpw;gidapd; Nghjhd chpik khw;w k;
cWjpg;gLj;jg;glhj nghUl;fis nghWj;jkl;by; nghUl;fs; milahsk; fhzg;gl;L

toq;fg;gLk; nghUl;L jdpahf itf;fg;gl;l gpwF mtw;wpd; chpik thq;Fgthplk;
khw;wpaspf;fg;gLfpwJ. cWjpg;gLj;jg; glhj nghUl;fspd; chpik gpd;tUk; ,uz;L
epge;jidfSk; G+h;j;jp nra;ag;gl;lhy; jhd; thq;Fgthplk; khw;wpj; jug;gLk;.
155
m) nghUl;f is cWjpg;g Lj;J jy;
toq;fg;glNtz;ba nghUl;fis milahsk; fhl;b mtw;iwj; jdpNa gphpj;J

itf;Fk; eilKiwNa cWjpg;gLj;Jjy; MFk;. nghUl;fs; cWjpg;gLj;jg;gl;l
gpd;> mit xg;ge;jj;jpw;F vd xJf;fPL nra;ag;gLjy; Ntz;Lk;.
M ) nghUl;fis xg;ge;jj;jpw;F vd xJf;fPL nra;jy;
xg;ge;jj;jpd; fPo;> toq;fg;gl Ntz;ba nghUl;fis tpw;gtH kw;Wk; thq;Fgthpd;

gu];gu xg;Gjypd; %yk; cWjpg;gLj;Jk; eilKiwiaNa ehk; xJf;fPL nra;jy;
vd;fpNwhk;.
2. Fwpg;gpl;l ruf;F ila tpw;g idapd; Nghjhd chpik khw;wk;
xU Fwpg;gpl;l nghUl;fSf;fhd tpw;gidahapUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;> mjhtJ tpw;gid

xg; g e;j k; nra; a g;g Lk; NghJ ruf;F milahsk; fhl;l g; gl; L cld; g hLk;
Vw;gl;bUf;fNtz;Lk;.
m) xg;ge;jk; nra;Ak; rkak; chpik khw;wg;gLfpwJ
ruf;F tpw;gidr; rl;lj;jpd; 20tJ gphptpd; gb Fwpg;gpl;l nghUl;fspd; tpw;gidapd;

nghOJ> gpd;tUk; epge;jidfs; G+h;j;jp nra;ag;gl;lhy; chpik xg;ge;jk; nra;ag;gLk;
nghONj khw;wpj; jug;gLfpd;wJ.
 Fwpg;gpl;l nghUl;fs;
 toq;fj;jf;f epiy
 epge;jidaw;w tpw;gid xg;ge;jk;
Nkw;$wg;gl;Ls;s %d;W epge;jidfSk; G+Hj;jp nra;ag;gl;lTld; ruf;fpd; chpik

tpw;gthplkpUe;J thq;FgtUf;F khw;wpj; jug;gLfpwJ.
cjhuzk; xUtH itf;Nfhy; tpahghhpaplkpUe;J itf;Nfhy; fl; Lfs; thq;FfpwhH.

fl;Lfs; nfhLf;fg;gLk; epiyapy; (xg;gilg;G epiy) jahuhf ,Ue;Jk; thq;fpdtH gpwF
vLj;Jf; nfhs;syhk; vd ,Ue;Jtpl;lhH Nguk; Kbe;j tpl;bUe;jJ. jpBnud itf;Nfhy;
156
jPg;gw;wp vhpe;J tpl;lJ. ePjpkd;wk; ,jw;F nghWg;ghsp thq;fpatNu Vnddpy; thq;fpa

md;Nw chpik khwptpl;;lJ. thq;FKd; nra;ag;gl fhhpaq;fs; ,Ue;jhy; chpik
khw;wj;Jf;F Kd; vy;yhf; fhhpaq;fSk; Kbatpy;iyahdhy; chpik khwhJ.
3. tpw;g id my;y J jpUg;gp mDg;Gjypd; mbg;gilapd; Nghjhd

chpik khw;w k;
tpw;gid my;yJ jpUg;gp mDg;Gjypd; mbg;gilapy;> nghUs; thq;Fgthpd;

Nehf;fj;ij G+Hj;jp nra;ahtpby;> mtH mg;nghUis epahakhd xH fhyj;jpw;Fs;
jpUg;gp mDg;gp tplyhk;. ,t;tpw;gidapy; thq;FgtH nghUl;fis Vw;Fk;nghOJjhd;>
chpik thq;Fgthplk; khw;wpj; jug;gLfpwJ. nghUl;fs; epahakhd xH fhyj;jpw;Fs;
jpUg;gp mspf;fg;glhtpl;lhy;> tpw;gtH mtw;wpd; tpiyia ngw KbAk;. Mdhy; nghUl;fis
jpUg;gpf; Nfl;f KbahJ. ,q;F gpd;tUk; VNjDk; xU topapy; chpik thq;FgtUf;F
khw;wpj; jug;gLfpwJ.
 nghUlfis Vw;gjd; %yk;
 eltbf;ifia Vw;gjd; %yk;
 nghUl;fis jpUg;gp mDg;gj; jtWtjd; %yk;
,it tpw;gid my;yJ jpUg;gp mDg;Gjypd; mbg;gilapd; Nghjhd chpik khw;wk;

vdg;gLk;.
14.6 gfpuq;fkhd re;ijapy; tpw;gid (Sale in a Market Overt)
Mq;fpyf; rl;lj;jpy; tpw;gid gfpuq;fkhd re;ijapy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; nghOJ

tpw;gthpd; chpik vg;gb ,Ue;jhYk; thq;FgtUf;F rpwe;j chpik fpilf;fpwJ.
Mdhy; ,jw;F gpd;tUk; ,uz;L epge;jidfs; G+Hj;jp nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk;.
 thq;FgtH ek;gpf;ifapd; mbg;gilapy; nrayhw;wpapUe;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
 re;ijapd; kugpw;F Vw;g nghUl;fis tpw;fg;gl;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;. gfpuq;fkhd

re;ij vd;gjw;F ntspg;gilahf nghJthf kw;Wk; rl;l hPjpahd mikf;fg;gl re;ij
vd;gJ nghUshFk;. ,q;F Fwpj;j rkaj;jpy; nra;ag;gLk; tpw;gid thq;FgtUf;F
157
rpwe;j chpikia nfhLf;Fk; ,e;jpahtpy; ,t;tpw;gid mq;fPfhpf;fg; gltpy;iy Vnddpy;

,J jpUl;il Cf;Ftpf;f ty;yjhFk;. NkYk; ,t;tpw;gid Kiwia tpw;f
ty;yjhFk;. NkYk; ,t;tpw;gid Kiwia ,e;jpahtpy; ve;j ,lq;fspy; mDkjp
vd;gij KbT nra;tJk; rpukkhd fhhpakhFk;.
fhzhky; Nghdg; nghUl;fis fz;nlLj;jthpd; tpw;gid (Sale By finder of

lost goods) rpy #o;epiyfspy; fhzhky; Nghd nghUis fz;nlLj;jtH mij tpw;why;
mij thq;fpatUf;F rpwe;j chpik cz;L. (,e;jpa xg;ge;jr;rl;lk; gphpT 169).
mlkhdk; ngw;wthpd; tpw;gid (Sale By a Pawnee or Pledgee) ,e;jpa xg;ge;jr;

rl;lk; (gphpT 176) mlF itj;jtH gzk; nrYj;j jtwpaNghJ mlF ngw;wtH
mg;nghUl;fis tpw;why;> mij thq;fpatUf;F rpwe;j chpik cz;L.
1. nrhj;Jhpik khw;wk; vd;why; vd;d?
2. chpik khw;wk; vd;gjd; nghUs; ahJ?
3. gfpuq;fkhd re;ijapy; tpw;gid vd;gJ ahJ?

158
14.7 njhFg; G iu
nghUl;fs; nrhj;Jhpik khWjy; ruf;F tpw;gid rl;lj;jpd; Kf;fpa mk;rk; ,J

,Ujug;gpdHfspd; fUj;Jf;fs; nghUl;fspd; tif> xg;ge;jtif> nghUl;fs; Njit
,ij nghWj;jJ Kjypait tpthpf;fg;gLfpwJ. nghUl;fspd; Nky; mjpfhukpy;yhNjhH
nra;Ak; tpw;gid gw;wp Fwpg;gplg;gl;bUf;fpwJ.
 nrhj;Jhpik khw;wk; - tpw;gid xg;ge;j egHfspd; tpUg;gj;ij nghWj;Js;sJ.
 chpikapy;yhjhH nra;Ak; tpw;gid: $l;L chpikahsH kw;Wk; tpiyiag;

ngw;Wf; nfhs;shj tpw;gidahsH
1. chpik khw;wk; vd;gjd; nghUs; ahJ?
2. chpik khw;wk; njhlHghd nghJ tpjp ahJ?
3. gfpuq;fkhd re;ijapy; tpw;gid vd;gJ ahJ?
4. nghUl;fspd; tpw;gid xg;ge;jk; xd;wpd; tpw;gthplk; ,Ue;J thq;FgtUf;F

chpik khw;wk; nra;jy; njhlHghd tpjpfis Muha;f.
5. jd;dplk; cs;sij tplr; rpwe;j xH chpikia xUtH nfhLf;f KbahJ

,t;tpjpapd; fPo; cs;s tpyf;Ffis Muha;f.
159
ghlk; - 15
nghUl;fspd; tpw;gid xg;ge;jj;jpd; nray;jpwd;

|(Performance of Contract of Sale of Goods)
 ruf;Ffis xg;gilj;jy; gw;wp tpsf;f KbAk;
 xg;gilj;jypd; Vw;ig gw;wp tpsf;f KbAk;
 ruf;fpd; xg;gilj;jy; njhlHghd tpjpfis tpsf;f KbAk;
 thq;Fgthpd; chpikfs; kw;Wk; flikfs; gw;wp mwpa KbAk;.
ghl mikg;G
15.1 Kd;Diu
15.2 ruf;F fis xg;g ilj;jy;
15.3 xg;g ilj;j ypd; Vw;G
15.4 ruf;f pd; xg;g ilj;jy; njhlHghd tpjpfs;
15.5 thq;F gthpd; chpikfs;
15.6 thq;F gthpd; flikfs;
15.7 njhFg;G iu
15.8 Kf;f par;n rhw;f s;
15.9 gapw;r p tpdhf;fs;

160
15.1 Kd; D iu
tpw;gid xg;ge;jj;jpd; epiwNtw;wk; vd;gJ tpw;gid xg;ge;jj;jpd; cUthf;fj;jpw;Fg;

gpwF tpw;gtUk; thq;FgtUk; mtutHfspd; flikfis epiwNtw;wf; flikg;gl;ltHfsha;
cs;sdH. Xg;ge;jj;jpd; $Wfspd;gb nghUl;fis thq;Fgthplk; toq;FtJ
tpw;gthpd; flikahfTk;> nghUl;fis Vw;W mjw;Fhpa tpiyia tpw;gtUf;F mspg;gJ
thq;Fgthpd; flikahfTk; cs;sJ. MfNt> tpw;gid xg;ge;jj;jpd; epiwNtw;wk;
,uz;L gFjpfisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. mit(1) tpw;gtuhy; nghUl;fs; toq;fg;gLjy; (2)
thq;Fgtuhy; nghUl;fs; Vw;fg;gl;L mjw;Fhpa tpiy nrYj;jg;gLjy;.
nghUl;fis toq;FjYk; mtw;wpw;fhd tpiy nrYj;jg;gLjYk; xNu rkaj;jpy;

epiwNtw;wg;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;gij ,q;F ehk; Fwpg;gpl Ntz;Lk;.
15.2 ruf;Ffis xg;gilj;jy; (Delivery of Goods)
xUtH jhdhf Kd;te;J nghUl;fis itj;jpUf;Fk; chpikia kw;wtUf;F khw;WtJ

xg;gilj;jy; my;yJ nfhLj;jy; MFk;. ruf;F tpw;gidr; rl;lj;jpd; gphpT 2(2) ,d;gb
toq;Fjy; vd;why; xUthplkpUe;J kw;nwhUtUf;F jd;dpr;irahf nghUl; fspd; cilikia
khw;wpj; jUtjhFk;.
xg;gilj;jypd; tiffs; (Kinds of Delivery of Goods)
ruf;Ffis toq;Fjy; %d;W tifg;gLk; mit
(i) cz;ikahd xg;gilj;jy; (Actual Delivery) : ngh Ul ; f is tp w; g ida hsH

thq;fpathplk; nfhLj;jhy; mjw;F cz;ikahd xg;gilj;;jy; vd;W ngaH. ,q;F
nghUl;fs; thq;Fgthpd; iffspNyNa mspf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
(ii) milahs xg;gilj;jy; (Symbolic Delivery) : ng h U l ; fi s ng W t jw ; f h d

topia xg; g ilj; j hy; rpy milahsr; rpd; d q; f is mspg; g jd; %yk;
epiwNtw;wg;gLfpwJ cjhuzkhf nghUl;fs; Nrkpj;J itf;fg;gl;ls;s ruf;ffj;jpd;
rhtpia xg;gilj;jy; Nghd;wd.
(iii) Mf;fr; rhHGs;s xg;gilj;jy; (Constructive Delivery) : nghUl;fis jw;NghJ

itj;jpUg;gtH mtw;iw thq;fpathpd; xg;ghsp vd;w jFjpapy; itj;jpUg;gjhfj;
161
njhptpj;jhy;> mg;NghJ Mf;fr; rhHGs;s xg;gilj;jy; Vw;gLk; ,t;tpj xg;gilj;jy;

gpd;tUk; %d;W topfspy; Vw;glyhk;.
 tpw;gthpd; xg;gilT ngWgtuhf (Sellers Bailee) nghUl;fspd; cilikiaj; jd;trk;

itj;jpUf;Fk; thq;FgtH> tpw;gidf;F gpwFk; mg;nghUl;fis jkJ nrhe;jg;
nghUshf itj;jpUe;jhH.
 nghUl;fspd; cilikia nfhz;Ls;s tpw;gtH> tpw;gidf;Fg; gpwFk; mtw;iw

xg;gilT ngWgtuhfj; jd;trk; itj;jpUf;fpwhH.
 tpw;gthpd; xg;gilt ngWgtuhf nghUl;fspd; cilikia nfhz;lLs;s

ruf;Nfw;WgtH (Carrier) Nghd;w %d;whtJ egH mtw;iw thq;FgtUf;fhfTk;
itj;Jf; nfhs;s cld;gLfpwhH kw;Wk; Vw;fpwhH.
15.3 xg;gilj;jypd; Vw;G (gphpT 42) (Acceptance of Delivery Sec 42)
xg;gilf;fg;gl;l nghUl;fis Vw;Wf; nfhz;l tpl;ljhf thq;fpatH jUk; ,Wjp

xg;GjNy xg;gilj;jypd; Vw;G vdg;gLfpwJ.
xg;ge;jj;jpd; epge;jidfspd;gb> tpw;gtH nghUl;fis toq;Fk;NghJ mij Vw;W

mjw;Fhpa tpiyiaf; nfhLg;gJ thq;Fgthpd; flikahFk;. nghUl;fs; Vw;W nfhs;sg;gl;L
tpiy mspf;fg;gl;lTld; xg;ge;jk; KbTf;F tUfpwJ.
gpd;tUk; #o;epiyfspy; thq;FgtH nghUl;fis Vw;Wf; nfhz;ljhff; fUjg;gLfpwJ.
 thq;fpatH nghUl;fis Vw;Wf; nfhz;ljhf tpw;gthplk; njhptpf;Fk;nghOJ.
 thq; F gthpd; chpikf;F Kuz;g hlhd tpjj; j py;> nghUl; f is VNjDk;

nra;Ak;nghOJ> cjhuzkhf nghUl;fis kWtpw;gid nra;jy; my;yJ mlF
itj;jy; Nghd;wd.
 epahakhd xH fhyk; KbTw;w gpwF> nghUl;fs; jd;dhy; kWf;fg;gl;Ls;sd vd;w

tp\aj;ij tpw;wtUf;Fj; njhptpf;fhky; jd;dplNK nghUl;fis itj;jpUf;Fk;
nghOJ.
162
15.4 r uf ;f pd ; x g ;g i l j ;j y ; n j hl Hg hd t pj pf s ; ( Rules Regarding

delivery of Goods)
ruf;fpd; xg;gilj;jy; njhlHghd tpjpfis ,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jpd; 33 Kjy;

39 kw;Wk; 41 MtJ gphpTfs; ifahSfpd;wd. mit gpd;tUkhW
1) ruf;if xg;gilj;jy; Kiw (gphpT 33)(Methods of Delivery of Goods sec 33) :

ruf;if cz;ikahd xg;gilj;jy;> milahskhd xg;gilj;jy; kw;Wk; Mf;fr;
rhHGs;s xg;gilj;jy; Mfpa KiwfSs; VNjDk; xU Kiwapy; toq;fyhk;. ,jd;
%yk; thq;FgtH mr;ruf;fpd;kPJ jkJ fl;Lg;ghl;ilr; nrYj;Jk; epiyapy; ,Uj;jy;
Ntz;Lk;. ,t;tpjk; ruf;fpd; xg;gilj;jy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;glNtz;Lk;.
cjhuzk; X vd;gtH 100khT %l;ilfis y vd;gtUf;F tpw;W mtw;iw Yaplk;

toq;Fk; nghUl;L mtw;iw xU yhhpg; Nghf;Ftuj;Jf; fk;ngdpaplk; toq;fpdH. X
yhhp ,urPij Y-d; ngahpNyNa vLj;J ruf;F mtH ,lj;ij te;J NrHe;jTld;
mtw;iwg; ngw;Wf; nfhs;Sk; tifapy; me;j urPijAk; mtUf;Nf mDg;gptpl;lhH.
,q;F nghUs; thq;Fgthplk; cz;ikapNyNa toq;fg;gl;ljhff; fUjg;gLk;.
2) xU gFjp xg;g ilj;j y; gphpT 34( Part Delivry sec 34) : nghUl;fspd; xU
gFjpia toq;FtJ KOtJk; toq;fg;gl;ljhfNt fUjg;gLk;. Mdhy; nghUl;fspd;
xg;gilj;jy; nghUl;fisg; gphpf;Fk; vz;zj;NjhL ,Ue;jhy;> mJ KOikahf
toq;fyhfhJ.
cjhuzk; fg;gy; Nkilapy; itf;fg;gl;Ls;s Fwpg;gpl;l nghUl;fs; $WNghl;L

tpw;fg;gl;ld. thq;FgtH tpw;gidj; njhifia mspj;j gpd;dH mthplk; nghUl;fis
toq;fp tpLkhW tpw;gtH mjpfhhpaplk; $wpdhH. thq;FgtH mj;njhifia mspj;J
tpl; L mjpy; xU gFjpia kl; L k; vLj; J r; nrd; w hH. ,q; F KO ruf; F
toq;fg;gl;ljhfNt fUjg;gLk; vd jPHg;G toq;fg;gl;lJ. (`hk;kz;L v. Md;lHrd;
1803 1 B & P.N.S.69)
3) xg;gilg;gjw;fhd Nfhhpf;if (gphpTfs; 35 & 36) (Demand for de l i v e r y

sec 35 & 36) : ntspg;gilahd xg;ge;jk; VJkpUg;gpDk;> thq;FgtH jhk; thq;fpa
nghUl;fisj; jUkhW Nfl;Fk;tiu tpw;gtUf;F mtw;iw toq;f Ntz;ba nghWg;G
163
Vw;glhJ (gphpT 35) NkYk; xg;gilj;jYf;fhd Nfhhpf;if epahakhd xU Neuj;jpy;

nra;ag;gl Ntz; Lk;. gphpT 36(4) tpw;gtUf; F tpw;gid xg;ge;jk; xd;wpd; fPo; nghUl;fis
mij thq;Fgthplk; mDg;gNtz;ba flik ,Ue;J Mdhy; mtw;iw mDg;Gtjw;fhd
Neuk; epHzapf;fg;gltpy;iy vdpy;> tpw;gtH mtw;iw mDg;Gtjw;fhd Neuk;
eph;izf;fg;gltpy;iy vdpy;> tpw;gth; mtw;iw epahakhd xH fhyj;jpw;f;Fs;
mDg;gf; flikg;gl;ltuhtH gphpT 36(2).
4) xg;gilj;j Yf;fhFk; nryTfs; gphpT 36(5)(Expenses of Delivery Sec 36(5) :

khWgl;l cld;gbf;if VJkpy;iynadpy; nghUl;fis toq;Ftjw;F MFk;
midj;Jr; nryTfisAk; tpw;gtNu Vw;ghH.
5) xg;gilj;jy; ,lk; gphpT 36(1) kw;Wk; 40 (Place of Delivery Sec 36(1) and
40) : nghUl;fis toq;f Ntz;ba ,lk; xg;ge;jj;jpy; Fwpg;gpl;bUe;jhy; nghUl;fs;
mt;tplj;jpNyNa gzp ehsd;W tzpf Neuj;jpy; toq;fg;glNtz;Lk;. Mdhy;
xg;ge;jj;jpy; nghUl;fis toq;f Ntz;ba ,lk; Fwpg;gplgltpy;iy. vdpy; mit
tpw;fg;gLk;nghOJ vq;fpUe;jdNth mq;NfNa toq;fg;glNtz;Lk;. gphpT 36(13)
tpw;Fk; Neuj;jpy; ,Ue;J ,lj;ij tpl;L NtW ,lj;jpy; nghUl;fis thq;FgtUf;F
toq;f> tpw;gtH cld;gl;lhy;> gazj;jpd; nghOJ nghUl;fSf;F Vw;glf;$ba
moptpw;Fhpa nghWg;ig thq;FgtNu Vw;f Ntz;Lk; (gphpT 40).
6) %d;whtJ egH xUthpd; iffspy; cs;s nghUl;fs; (Goods in the Hands of

a 3rd party) : nghUl;fs; %d;whtJ egH xUthpd; iffspy; ,Ug;gpd;> me;j
%d;whk; egH jhd; nghUl;fis itj;jpUg;gjhf thq;FgtUf;F xg;Gjy; mspj;jhy;
jhd; toq;fy; Vw;gLk;.
7) jtwhd msT xg;gilj;jy; (Delivery of Wrong Quantity) t o q ; f g ; g L k ;

nghUl;fspd; msT xg;ge;jj;jpy; Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sij tplf; Fiwthdjhf ,Ue;jhy;>
thq;FgtH mijg; ngw kWf;fyhk;. Mdhy; mt;thW toq;fg;gl;l nghUl;fis
thq;FgtH Vw;why; mtH xg;ge;j tPjj;jpy; mjw;Fhpa gzj;ijr; nrYj;j Ntz;Lk;.
mijg;Nghy xg;ge;jj;jpy; Fwpg;gpl;l msit kl;Lk; Vw;w kPjKs;stw;iw kWf;fyhk;.
my;yJ mtH nkhj;jj;ijANk kWj;Jtplyhk;. toq;fg;gl;l midj;ijAk; Vw;why;>
thq;FgtH mtw;wpw;Fhpa njhifia xg;ge;jjjpy; epHzapf;fg;gll tPjj;jpy;
mspf;fNtz;Lk;.
164
8) jtiz Kiwapy; xg;gilj;jy; (gphpT 38) (Instalment of Deliveries

sec 38) : jtiz Kiwapy; xg;gilj;jw;fhd cld;ghL VJkpUe;jhy; kl;LNk>
mij Vw;f thq;FgtH fl;Lg;gl;ltuhfpwhH. jtiz Kiwapy; thq;Ftjhf xg;ge;jk;
,Ue;jhy;> xg;ge;jj;jpy; Fwpg;gpl;lgbNa toq;fy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;glNtz;Lk;. nghJthf
jtizg; nghUl;fis toq;fj; jtwpdhy; my;yJ jtizg; gzj;ijr;
nrYj;jj; jtwpdhy; xg;ge;jk; Kwpe;J tpLk;. mk;Kwptpdhy; KO Xg;ge;jk; jpUk;gg;
ngwg;gLkh my;yJ e\;l<l;bw;F toptFf;Fkh vd;gJ me;je;j #o;epiyfisiaAk;
xg;ge;jj;jpd; epge;jidfisAk; nghWj;J mikfpwJ.
9) ruf;N fw;W gtH my;y J fg;g y; J iw chpikahshplk; xg;g ilj;j y; gphpT -

39(Delivery to the Carrier or wharfinger sec 39) : thq;FgtUf;F nghUl;fis
mDg; Gk; nghUl; L mtw;iw ruf; Nfw;W gthplk; toq;F jy; > thq;f patUf;F
toq;fpajhfNt fUjg;g Lk;. mijg;N ghyNt fg;gy; Jiw chpikahshplk;
ghJfhg;gpw;fhf xg;gilj;jYk; thq;fpatUf;F toq;fg;gl;ljhfNt fUjg;gLk;.
10 ) nghUl;fis Ma;T nra;jy; gphpT 41 (Examining the Goods Sec 41 ) :

nghUl; f s; xg; g e; j j; j py; $wg; g l; L s; s J NghyNt cs; s d vd; g ij
cWjpg; g Lj;J tjw; F j; Njitahd epahakhd xH tha; g ; G thq; F gtUf; F
mspf;fg;glhtpl;lhy; mg;nghUl;fis mtH Vw;wjhff; fUjg;glkhl;lhJ. Xg;ge;j
egHfs; ,UtUk; cld;gl;lhy; ,t;Thpik nfhLf;fg;glyhk;.
15.5 thq;Fgthpd; chpikfs; (Rights of the Buyers)
m) xg;ge;jg;gb ruf;fpd; xg;g ilj;jiyg; ngWk; chpik (To have delivery as

per Contract) : xg;ge;jg;gb ruf;fpd; toq;fiyg; ngWk; chpik thq;FgtUf;F
cz;L. mit xg;ge;jg;gb ,y;iynad;why;> mtw;iw kWf;Fk; chpikAk; ,tUf;F
cz;L.
M) xg;ge;jj;ij kWf;Fk; chpik (To Repudiate the Contract) : jtiz Kiwapy;

toq;fiy Vw;f cld;glhj rkak; nghUl;fs; jtiz Kiwapy; toq;fg;gl;lhy;
mt;toq;fiy kWf;Fk; chpik thq;FgtUf;F cz;L.
,) fhg;gPl;L mwptpg;Gg; ngWk; chpik (To Notice of Insurance) tpw; w tuhy;

nghUl;fs; fly; topahf mDg;gg;gLk; nghOJ> mjw;Fhpa mwptpg;ig ngWk;
165
chpik thq;FgtUf;F cz;L mg;nghOJjhd; thq;Fgtuhy; mg;nghUl;fis

fhg;gPL nra;a KbAk;
<) nghUl;fis Ma;T nra;Ak; chpik (To Examine the Goods) : nghUl;fis
Vw;gjw;F Kd;G> mtw;iw Ma;T nra;Ak; chpik thq;FgtUf;F cz;L.
c) xg;ge;j Kwptpw;fhf tof;Fj; njhLf;Fk; chpik (Rights to Sue for Breach of

Contract) : nghUl;fs; toq;fg;lhj jw;fhf e\;l<L Nfl;L tpw;gtH kPJ tof;Fj;
njhLf;Fk; chpik thq;FgtUf;F cz;L. xg;ge;jj;jpd; Fwpg;gpl;l epiwNtw;wj;jpw;fhf
tpw;gth; kPJ tof;F njhLf;Fk; chpik thq;FgtUf;F cz;L. cj;juthjk; kPwg;gLk;
nghOJ e\;l<L Nfl;L tpw;gidahsH kPJ tof;Fj; njhLf;Fk; chpik cz;L.
15.6 thq;Fgthpd; flikfs;(Duties of the Buyer)
thq;Fgthpd; nghUl;fis xg;gilf;FkhW Nfhu Ntz;Lk;. ,tH nghUl;fis

Vw;W> tpiyiar; nrYj;j Ntz;Lk; ,tH thq;f Nfl;fhj nghUl;fisg; ngw kWf;f
Ntz;Lk;.
m) xg;g ilf;fg;g l;l ruf;i f Vw;W mjw;Fhpa tpiyia nfhLf;F k; flik
xg;ge;jj;jpd; epge;jidfspd;gb> nghUisg; ngw;Wf; nfhz;L mjw;Fhpa tpiyia

nrYj;j Ntz;baJ thq;FgtuJ flikahFk;.
M ) xg;g ilj;jYf;F Nfhhpf;i f tpLf;F k; flik
jhk; thq;fpa nghUis jkf;F mspf;FkhW NfhUtJ thq;Fgthpd; flikahFk;.
,) epahakhd xH Neuj;jpy; xg;gilj;jy; NfhUk; flik
epahakhd xH Neuj;jpy; nghUl;fis toq;FkhW NfhUtJk; thq;Fgthpd; flikahf

cs;sJ.
<) jtiz Kiw xg;gilj;jiy Vw;W mjw;Fhpa gzj;ijr; nrYj; J jy;
jtizKiw xg;gilj;jiy Vw;W mjw;Fhpa gzj;ij toq;FtJ thq;Fgthpd;

kw;nwhU flikahFk;.
166
c) nghUl;fis moptjhy; Njhd;Wk; ,liu Vw;Fk; flik
tpw;Fk; Neuj;jpy; ,Ue;j ,lj;ij tpl;L NtW ,lj;jpy; nghUl;fis thq;FgtUf;F

toq;f> tpw;gtH cld;gl;lhy;> gazj;jpd;NghJ nghUl;fSf;F Vw;glf;$ba
moptpw;Fhpa nghWg;ig thq;FgtNu Vw;f Ntz;Lk;.
C ) nghUl;fis e\;l<L mspf;Fk; flik
nghUl;fs; mspf;fg;gLk; rkak; mtw;iw thq;FgtH xJf;Fk; my;yJ mtw;wpd;

toq;f iy Vw; f kWf; F k; nghOJ tpw; g tUf; F ,tH e\; l <L mspf; f f;
flikg;gl;ltuhtH.
v) nghUl;f is kWf;F k; nghOJ tpw;gtUf;F mwptpf;F k; flik
nghUl;fis Vw;f kWf;Fk; nghOJ> mij tpw;gtUf;F mwptpg;gJ thq;FgtUila

flikahFk;.

1. ruf;Ffis xg;gilj;jy; vd;why; vd;d?
2. thq;Fgthpd; chpikfis jUf.
3. xg;gilj;jy; vd;why; vd;d?

167
15.7 njhFg;G iu
,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lj;jpd;gb ruf;fpd; toq;fy; njhlHghd tpjpfisAk;> ruf;Ffis

xg;gilj;jiyAk;> xg;gilj;jypd; Vw;G gw;wpAk;> thq;Fgthpd; chpikfSk;> flikfSk;
gw;wp tphpthf tpsf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. tpw;gtuhy; nghUl;fs; toq;fg;gLjy; kw;Wk;
thq;Fgtuhy; nghUl;fs; Vw;fg;gl;L mjw;Fhpa tpiy nrYj;jg;gLjy; MFk;.
15.8 Kf;f par;nrhw;f s;
 xg;gilj;jy; - xUthplkpUe; J kw; n whUtUf; F jd; d pr; i rahf nghUl; f spd;

cilikia khw;wpj; jUtjhFk;.
 xg;gilj;jypd; Vw;G:- thq;fpatH nghUl;fis Vw;Wf; nfhz;ljhf tpw;gthplk;

njhptpf;Fk;nghOJ
1. nghUl;fspd; xg;gilj;jYf;F eP czUk; nghUs; ahJ?
2. thq;Fgthpd; chpikfis jUf?
3. thq;Fgthpd; flikfs; ahit?
4. nghUl;fspd; toq;fy; njhlHghd tpjpfs; ahit?
5. ruf;Ffis xg;gilj;jy; vd;why; vd;d? mjd; tiffis tpsf;Ff/

168
ghlk; - 16
tpiy ngwhj tpw;gthpd; chpikfs;

(Rights of an Unpaid Seller)
 ruf;fpid toq;FjYk;> gytpj topfSk; tpsf;f KbAk;
 ruf;F tpw;gid rl;lg;gphptpd;gb toq;Fjypd; epakq;fis tpsf;fKbAk;.
 Vw;Wf; nfhs;Sk; toq;Fjy; gw;wp mwpa KbAk;
 ngw;Wf; nfhs;Sjy;> ntspg;gilahdJ> cl;fpilahdJ gw;wp tpsf;f KbAk;
 tpw;gidahshpd; flikfs; gw;wp mwpa KbAk;
ghl mikg;G
16.1 Kd; D iu
16.2 tpiy ngwhj tpw;g thpd; chpikfs;
16.2.1 nghUl;f Sf;F vjpuhd chpikfs;
16.2.2 thq;F gtUf;F vjpuhd jdpg;g l;l chpikfs;
16.3 tpw;g id xg;g e;jj;jpd; Kwptpw;f hd jPHTfs;
16.4 xg;g ilj;j Yf;f hd tpjpfs;
16.5 Vy tpw;g id
16.6 njhFg; G iu

169
16.1 Kd; D iu
ruf;F tpw;gidr; rl;lj;jpd; 45tJ gphpT “tpiy ngwhj tpw;gtH” vd;w nrhw;$w;wpw;F
gpd;tUkhW ,yf;fzk; tiufpwJ.
 tpw;fg;gl;l ruf;FfSf;fhd tpiy KOtJk; nrYj;jg;glhj nghONjh my;yJ

xg;ge;jg; Gs;spf;F Vw;g mspf;fg;glhjnghONjh
 tpw;wtUf;F khw;W cz;baNyh my;yJ gpw khw;WKiw Mtzk; VNjDNkh

mspf;fg;gl;L mt;thtzk; mtkjpf;fg;gl;l nghONjh> mg;nghUl;fis tpw;wtH
,r;rl;lj;jpd; gb tpiy ngwhj tpw;gtuhff; fUjg;gLthH.
 tpw;w nghUl;fSf;fhd tpiy KOtJNkh my;yJ mjpy; xU gFjpNah

nrYj;jg;glhtpl;lhy;.
 tpw;wtUf;F epge;jidAld; $ba nrYj;jyhf khw;W cz;baNyh my;yJ NtW

VNjDk; khw; WKiw Mtzq;fNsh mspf;fg;gl;L mit mtkjpf;fg; gl;lhy;> mt; tpw; gtH
tpiy ngwhj tpw;gtH vdg;gLtH.
cjhuzk; X vd;gtH Y vd;gUf;F &.10>000/-f;F njhiyf; fhl;rpg;ngl;b xd;iw

tpw;W mjw;F &.5>000/-f;F kl;Lk; ngw;whH.kPjpj; njhifia Y mspf;fj; jtwptpl;lhH.
,q;F X xU tpiyngwhj tpw;gtuhtH.
16.2 tpiy ngwhj tpw;gthpd; chpikfs; (Rights of an Unpaid Seller)
fPo;fhZk; #o;epiyfspy;> tpw;gidahsH nrYj;jg;glhj tpw;gidahsuhf fUjg;gLtH.
 KOtpiyAk; nrYj;jg;glhjnghOJ
 khw;WjYf;Fhpa cz;bay; %yk; tpiy nrYj;jg;gLk; mg;gj;jpuq;fs; gzkhfhky;

kWf;fg;gLk;nghOJ
I nghUl;f Sf;F vjpuhd chpikfs;
1) nghUl;fspd; chpik khw;wpaspf;fg;gl;l epiyapy;
(m) gw;Whpik
170
(M) nry;Yk;NghJ epWj;Jk; chpik
(,) kWtpw;gid chpik
2) nghUl;fspd; chpik khw;wpaspf;fg;glhj epiy
II thq;F gtUf;F vjpuhd jdpg;g l;l chpikfs;
1. tpiyia ngWtjw;fhd tof;F
2. ,og;gPL ngWtjw;fhf tof;F
3. tl;bf;fhf tof;F
4. xg;ge;jj;ij ePf;Ftjw;fhf tof;F
16.2.1 nghUl;f Sf;F vjpuhd chpikfs;
nghUl;fis tpw;w gpwFk; mtw;wpd; cilik tpw;gthplNk ,Uf;Fk;nghOJ>

tpiy ngwhj tpw;gtUf;F nghUl;fSf;F vjpuhf Fwpg;gpl;l rpy chpikfs; cs;sd.
,tw;iw ehk; ,U jiyg;Gfspd; fPo; Muhayhk;.
1. nghUl;f spd; chpik khw;w paikf;f g;g l;l epiyapy;
(m) gw;Whpik (Rights of Lien) : ruf;F tpw;gidr; rl;lj;jpd; 47(1) MtJ gphptpd; gb>
mjw;Fhpa tpiy nrYj;jg;gLk; tiu> jhk; tpw;w nghUl;fspd; cilikiaj; jf;f
itj;Jf; nfhs;Sk; chpikNa gw;Whpik MFk;. tpiy ngwhj tpw;gidahsH
jhk; tpw;w nghUl;fspd; kPJ gw;Whpikia nray;gLj;jyhk;.
 fld; gw;wp VJk; Fwpg;gplhky; nghUl;fs; tpw;fg;gl;bUj;jy;.
 flDf;fhd fhyf;nfL Kbe;jgpwFk; tpiy nrYj;jg;glhjpUj;jy;.
 thq;fpatH jpthyhjy;
tpw;fg;gl;l nghUl;fspd; cz;ikahd cilik jd;dplNkh my;yJ jd;Dila

KfthplNkh ,Uf;Fk; tiuapy;jhd;> tpiy ngwhj tpw;gtuhy; gw;Whpikia nray;gLj;j
171
KbAk;. tpw;w nghUl;fspd; tpiyf;F kl;LNk ,tH ,t;Thpikiag; gad;gLj;j KbANk

jtpu> gz;lfr; fhg;G fl;lzk; Nghd;w Vida njhifiag; ngWtjw;F ,t;Thpikiag;
gad;gLj;j KbahJ. gw;Whpikf;fhd chpik gphpf;f KbahjJ vdNt> thq;FgtH
nghUl;fspd; xU gFjpf;Fhpa tpiyia kl;Lk; nfhLj;J tpl;L mg;nghUl;fis kl;Lk;
toq;FkhW Nfl;f KbahJ.
gw;W hpikf;fhd tpjpfs; (Rules Regarding Liens)
(i) nghUl;f is itj;j pUj;j y;
gw; W hpikia gad; g Lj; J tNjhL tpw; g idahsH nghUl; f is jd; trk;
itj;jpUf;fNtz;Lk;. mtH thq;fpathpd; gjpths; my;yJ xg;ghsp vd;w jFjpapy;$l
nghUl;fis itj;jpUf;fyhk;.
(ii) nghUl;f spd; chpik
,g;gw;Whpikia nghUl;fspd; chpik khw;wg;gl;bUe;jhYk; $l gad;gLj;jyhk;.

Mdhy; itj;jpUf;Fk; chpik kl;Lk; khw;wg; gl;bUf;ff;$lhJ.
(iii) tpiyf;f hfg; gw;W hpik
nrYj;jg;glhj tpw;gidahsH tpiyf;fhf kl;LNk gw;Whpik nfhz;lhlyhk;. gpw

fl;lzq;fSf;fhf my;y.
(iv) gFjpg; gw;W hpik
xU gFjpg;nghUl;fs; xg;gilf;fg;gl;L tpl;lhy; kWgFjpg; nghUl;fs; kPJ

tpw;gidahsH gw;Whpik nfhz;lhlyhk;.
(v) ntspg;g ilahd epge; j id $lhJ
nghUl;fis tpw;gidahsH itj;jpUf;fyhk;. Mdhy; gw;Whpik fpilahJ vd;w

epge;jid ,Uf;ff;$lhJ.
172
gw;Whpikapd; KbT (Termination of Lien)
gpd;tUk; %d;W #o;epiyfspy;> tpiy ngwhj tpw;gtH jk;Kila gw;Whpik

chpikia ,og;ghH.
 nghUl;fis tpw;Wj; jPHf;Fk; chpikia jdf;nfd xJf;fp itf;fhky;> nghUl;fis

thq;fpathplk; mspf;Fk; nghUl;L> mtw;iw ruf;Nfw;WgtH my;yJ gpw xg;gilT
ngWgthplk; tpw;gtH nfhLf;Fk;nghOJ.
 thq;FgtNuh my;yJ mtuJ KftNuh nghUl;fspd; cilikia rl;lG+Htkhfg;

ngWk; nghOJ
 tpw;gtH ntspg;gilahfNth my;yJ cl;fpilahfNth> jk;Kila gw;Whpik

chpikia tpl;Lf; nfhLf;Fk; nghOJ
(m) nry;Yk;NghJ epWj;Jk; chpik (gphpTfs; 50 Kjy; 52 tiu) ( Rights to

Stoppage in Transit)
nghUl;fs; gazj;jpypUf;Fk; nghOJ Nkw;nfhz;L nry;tij epWj;Jk; chpikNa

nry;Yk;nghOJ epWj;Jk; chpik vdg;gLfpwJ. mt;thW epwj;jg;gLk; nghUl;fs;>
mtw;wpd; tpiy mspf;fg;gLk; tiu> tpw;gtH trNk ,Uf;Fk;. gpd;fz;l epge;jidfs;
G+Hj;jpaile;jhy; kl;LNk ,t;Thpikiag; gad;gLj;j KbAk;.
 thq;FgtUf;F mDg;gg;gl;L nghUl;fs; mtiur; nrd;wilahky; eLtopapy; ,Uj;jy;

Ntz;Lk;.
 nghUl;fs; tpw;gthpd; cilikiaNah my;yJ thq;Fgthpd; cilikapNyh

,Uj;jy; $lhJ.
 nghUl;fis thq;fpatH nehbj;Jg; NghapUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
 ruf;Nfw;WgtUf;F nghUl;fspd; toq;fiyj; jLj;J epWj;JkhW mwptpg;G xd;iw>

tpw;gtH nra;jpUj;jy; Ntz;Lk; my;yJ mg;nghUl;fspd; clikia ngw;wpUj;jy;
Ntz;Lk;.
173
 tpw;gtH ,uapy;Nt ,urPij jd; ngahpy; vLj;J> mtw;iw mspf;Fk; chpikiaAk;

jd;dplNk jf;f itj;Jf; nfhz;bUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
( M ) nry;Y ifapy; epWj;Jk; chpikiag; gad;gLj;J k; Kiwfs; ( Modes Of

Exercising The Stoppage In Transit)
tpiy ngwhj tpw;gtH jd;Dila ,t;Thpikia gpd;tUk; topfspy; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
 nghUl;fspd; cz;ikahd cilikia vLj;Jf; nfhs;Sjy;
 ruf;Nfw;Wgthplk; nghUl;fis epWj;JkhWk; gpd; mtw;iwj; jd;dplNkh my;yJ

jd;Dila fl;liafspd; gbNah jpUk;gTk; toq;FkhWk; mwptpg;G xd;iwf;
nfhLj;jy;.
,) kW tpw;gid chpik (gphpT 54) (Right of Resale See-54)
nghUl;fspd; cilikia nfhz;Ls;s tpiy ngwhj tpw;gtH mtw;iwg; gpd;tUk;

#o;epiyfspy; kWtpw;gid nra;ayhk;.
a) nghUl;f spd; mopTWk; epiy
nghUl;fs; mopTWk; epiyapypUe;J thq;fpatUk; epahakhd xH fhyj;jpw;Fs;

mjw;Fhpa tpiyiaj; juj; jtwptpl;lhH. tpw;wtH mtw;iw epahakhd xH fhyj;jpw; Fs;
kw;nwhUthplk; kWtpw;gid nra;ayhk;.
b) tpiy ngwhj tpw;gtH jd;Dila kWtpw;gid nra;Ak; Nehf;if mwptpf;Fk;

nghO J
tpiyngwhj tpw;gtH jd;Dila gw;Whpik chpikia my;yJ nry;Yk;NghJ

epWj;Jk; chpikiag; gad;gLj;jp nghUl;fs; thq;fpatiu milahj tz;zk;
jLj;J gpwF epahakhd xH fhyj;jpw;Fs; mjw;Fhpa tpiy jug;glhtpby;
mg;nghUl;fis kWtpw;gid nra;JtpLNtd; vd;W $Wk; xH mwptpg;ig thq;FgtUf;Fr;
nra;jy; Ntz;Lk;. mt;twptpg;gpw;Fg; gpd;Gk; thq;fpatH tpiyiaj; juj; jtwpdhy;>
tpw;wtH mtw;iw epahakhd xH fhyj;jpw;Fs; tpw;Wtpl Ntz;Lk;. xg;ge;j
Kwptpdhy; Vw;gl;l el;lj;ijAk; thq;fpathplkpUe;J ngWk; chpik tpiy
ngwhj tpw;gtUf;F cz;L.
174
c) kWtpw;gid chpikia ntspg;gilahf tpw;gtH jdf;nfd xJf;fp itf;Fk;

nghO J
tpw;gtH> kWtpw;gid chpikia ntspg;gilahf jdf;nfd xJf;fp itf;Fk;

rkak;> thq;FgtH tpiyiaj; juj; jtwpdhy; tpw;gtH mg;nghUl;fis kWtpw;gid
nra;ayhk;. ,r;rkaj;jpy; thq;FgtUf;F ve;j mwptpg;Gk; nra;ag;gl Ntz;bajpy;iy.
%y Kjy; tpw;gid xg;ge;jk; mj;Jld; ePf;fg;gl;L tpLk;. Mdhy; mjdhy;
tpw;gtUf;F Vw;gl;l e\;lj;jpw;Fhpa <l;il mtH thq;Fgthplk; ,Ue;J ngw
KbAk;.
2) nghUl;f spd; chpik khw;w paspf;f g;g lhj epiy (gphpT 46(2))
nghUl;fspd; chpik thq;FgtUf;F khw;wpaspf;fg;glhj nghOJ> tpiy ngwhj

thq;Fgtuhy; gw;hpik chpikiag; gad;gLj;j KbahJ. Mdhy; nghUl;fspd;
toq;fiyj; jLj;J epWj;Jk; chpik cz;L. ,t;ThpikAk; gw;Whpikia xj;j xH
chpikNaahFk;.
16.2.2 thq;FgtUf;F vjpuhd jdpg;gl;l chpikfs; (Rights Against the

Buyer Personally)
tpiy ngwhj tpw;gtUf;F> thq;FgtUf;F vjpuhfTk; rpy chpikfs; cs;sd.

,t;Thpikfis ehk; fPo;f;fz;l jiyg;Gfspd; fPo; Muhayhk;.
(i) tpiyf;fhf tof;Fj; njhlUjy; (Suit for price)
thq;FNthH nghUis mile;j gpd;dUk; gzk; jukWj;jy; nghUSf;fhd tpiy

Nfhhp mtHkPJ tof;F njhlu tpw;gidahsUf;F chpikAz;L.
(ii) ,og;gPl;bw;fhd tof;Fj; njhlUjy; (Suit for Damage)
nghUs; Vw;f kWj;jikf;fhf ,og;gPL Ntz;b thq;FNthH kPJ tof;fpLk; chpik

tpw;NghUf;F cz;L. thq;fpatH nghUl;fis Vw;W mtw;wpw;fhf gzk; nrYj;j
kWj;jhYk; tpw;gidahsH ,og;gPL Nfhhp tof;Fj; njhluyhk;.
175
(iii) tl;bf;fhf tof;Fj; njhlHjy; (Suit for Interest)
nrYj;jg;glhj tpiyf;F tl;b my;yJ rpwg;G ,og;gPL VNjDk; nrYj;jg;glNtz;Lk;

vd;w xg;ge;jk; ,Ue;jhy; tpw;gtUf;F mtw;iw t#y; nra;a thq;fpatH kPJ
tof;Fj; njhlu chpik cz;L.
(iv) vjpHghHj;j xg;ge;j KwpT (Suit for Repudiation of Contract)
nghUl;fis xg;gilf;fNtz;ba Njjpf;F Kd;dhy; thq;fpatH xg;ge;jj;ij Vw;f

kWj;jy; tpw;gidahsH ,jw;Fhpa tpjpfis mKy;gLj;jyhk;. mt;nthg;ge;jk;
ePf;fg;gl;ljhff; fUjpf; nfhz;L Kwptpw;fhd ,og;gPl;ilg; ngWk; tifapy; tof;Fj;
njhLf;fyhk;.
16.3 tpw;g id xg; g e; jj;j pd; Kwptpw; f hd jPH Tfs; (Remedies for
Breach of Contract of Sale)
ruf;F tpw;gidr; rl; lj;jpd;gb> tpw;gid xg;ge;jk; xd; wpd; Kwptpd; nghOJ> tpw;gtUf; Fk;
thq;FgtUf;Fk; fpilf;Fk; jPHTfs; gpd;tUkhW
tpw;gtUf;Fhpa jPHTfs; (Sellers Remedies)
 tpiyiag; ngWtjw;fhf tof;Fj; njhLj;jy;
 nghUl;fs; Vw;fg;glhjjhy; ,og;gPL Nfl;L tof;Fj; njhLj;jy;
 tl;b Nfl;L tof;Fj; njhLj;jy;
 nfL ehSf;F Kd;Ng thq;fpatuhy; xg;ge;jk; tpyf;fp itf;fg;gl;ljhy; ,og;gPL

Nfl;L tof;Fj; njhLj;jy;.
thq;FgtUf;Fhpa jPHTfs; (Buyers Remedies)
 nghUl;fs; toq;fg;glhjjhy; ,og;gPL Nfl;L tof;Fj; njhLj;jy;
 Fwpg;gpl;l epiwNtw;Wj;ijg; ngWtjw;fhf tof;Fj; njhLj;jy;
 cj;juthjk; Kwpe;jjw;fhf tof;Fj; njhLj;jy;

176
 nfL ehSf;F Kd;Ng tpw;gtuhy; xg;ge;jk; xJf;fp itf;fg;gl;ljhy; ,og;gPL Nfl;L

tof;Fj; njhLj;jy;
 tl;bf;fhf tof;Fj; njhLj;jy;
Nkw;$wg;gl;Ls;s jPHTfspy; tpw;gtUf;Fs;s midj;Jk; jPHTfSk; thq;FgtUf;Fs;s

filrp ,uz;L jPHTfSk; “tpiyg; ngwhj tpw;gthpd; chpikfs;” vd;w jiyg;gpd; fPo;
Muhag; gl;Ltpl;ld. vdNt thq;FgUf;Fs;s Kjy; %d;W jPHTfis kl;Lk; ,g;nghOJ
Muhayhk;.
m) nghUl;fs; toq;f g;glhjjhy; ,og;gPL Nfl;L tof;F j; njhLj;j y; ( Suit for

damages for Non-delivery)
tpw;gtH KiwNflhf nghUl;fis thq;fpatUf;F mspf;f kWf;Fk;nghoJ>

tpw;gtHkPJ thq;fpatH tof;Fj; njhLf;fyhk;.
M ) Fwpg;gpl;l epiwNtw;wj;ijg; ngWk; nghUl;L tof;Fj; njhLj;jy; (Suit for

Specific performance)
tpw;gtH nghUl;fis mspf; f kWf;Fk;nghOJ> thq;FgtH mt;nthg;ge;jj;jpd; Fwpg;gpl;l

epiwNtw;wj;jpw;F ePjpkd;wj;jpd; Miziag; ngwyhk;. ,t;tpjp> Fwpg;gpl;l my;yJ
cWjpg; gLj;jg;gl;l nghUl;fSf;F kl;LNk nghUe;Jk;. MapDk; gz tbtpyhd
,og;gPL> thq;fpatUf;F NghJkhd jPHit mspf;fhtpl;lhNyh my;yJ cz;ikahd
,og;gPl;il eph;zapg;gJ kpfTk; fbdkhd Xh; gzpahf ,Uf;Fk; nghONjh jhd;
Fwpg;gpl;l epiwNtw;wk; ePjpkd;wj;jhy; typAWj;jg;gLfpwJ.
,) cj;juthjk; Kwptpw;f tof;Fj; njhLj;jy; (Suit For Breach Of Warranty)
tpw;gtuhy; cj;juthjk; Kwpf;fg;gLk;nghOJ> thq;FgtUf;Ff; fpilf;ff; $ba

jPh;Tfs; gpd;tUkhW:
 tpw;gtiu nghUSf;Fhpa tpiyiaf; Fiwf;f itf;fyhk;.
 tpw;gthplkpUe;J ,og;gPL Nfl;L tof;Fj; njhLf;fyhk;.

177
16.4 xg; g ilj;jYf; f hd tpjpfs;
vjph;g ;g jkhd cld;ghL ,y;yhjnghOJ> fPo ;f ;fhZk; tpjpfs; nghUe;Jk;
 nghUl;fs; xg;gilf;ff;$ba epiyapy; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
 tpiy nrYj;JjYk;> nghUl;fs; xg;gilj;jYk; xd;whf eilngw Ntz;Lk;.
 xg;gilj;jy; cz;ikahd> milahs my;yJ Mf;fr;rhh;Gs;sjhf ,Uf;fyhk;.
 thq;Fgth;jhd; xg;gilj;jiyf; Nfhu Ntz;Lk;.
 tpw;gidapd; nghOJ nghUl;fs; ,Uf;Fkplk;jhd; xg;gilj;jYf;fhd ,lkhFk;.
 xg;gilj;jYf;fhd fhyk; epahakhdjhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
 nghUl;fis nfhLg;gjw;fhd nryit tpw;gidahsUk; ngWtjw;fhd nryiy

thq;FgtUk; Vw;Wf;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.
 xg;gilf;fg;gl;l nghUl;fspd; msT xg;ge;jg;gb ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
 jtwhd msT xg;gilf;fg;gl;lhy; thq;fpath; nghUl;fis kWf;fyhk;.
 xg;ge;jk; KOtJkhf epiwNtw;wg;gl Ntz;Lkhifahy; tpw;gidahsh; xg;ge;jj;ij

gphpf;fKbahJ.
 tz;bf;fhuh; my;yJ nghUs; vLj;Jr;nry;gth; trk; xg;gilj;jy; thq;fpathplk;

xg;gilj;jjhfNt fUjg;glNtz;Lk;.
16.5 Vy tpw;gid (gphpT 64) Auction Sales (Sec 64)
Vy tpw;gid vd;gJ nghJ tpw;gid MFk;. ,jpy; nrhj;Jf;fis thq;f tpiyia

Kd;dNu $wpg; nghJkf;fs; Nghl;bapLtH. ,jpy; VykpLgtH nghUl;fis mjpf
tpiyf;Ff; Nfl;gtUf;F tpw;fpd;whH. ruf;F tpw;gidr; rl;lj;jpy; $wg;gl;Ls;s Vy
tpw;gidapd; Kf;fpa tpjpfshtd.
178
Vy tpw;gidapd; tpjpfs;
 Vy tpw;gidahsH NtW VNjDk; xU tof;fkhd topapy; Vyk; Kbe;jij

mwptpj;jhy; > tpw;gid KbTWk;.
 xJf;fg;gl;l my;yJ epiyikia jiyfPohf;Fk; tpiyf;F tpw;gid fl;Lg;gLk;

vd;W mwptpf;fg;gl;bUe;jhy; mt;tpiyf;Ff;fPo; tpw;f Vy tpw;gidahsH kWf;fyhk;.
my;yJ thq;Fk; tpUg;gj;ij jdf;Nf xJf;fpf; nfhs;syhk;.
 Kd;dH Vyk; Nfl;gtH jhd; Nfl;l tpiyia nrYj;jj; jtwpdhy; tpw;gidahsH

NtNwhUtUf;F kW tpw;gid nra;ayhk;
(i) Vyk; Nfl;fhky; xJq;fp ,Uj;jy; (Knock out)
Vyk; Nfl;gtHfs; xd;W NrHe;J tpiyiaf; Fiwg;gjw;fhf xUtUf;F vjpuhf

kw;nwhUtH Vyk; Nfl;fhky; ,Ug;gJ rl;l tpNuhjkhdjy;y.
(ii) Cf;fk; nfLjy; (Damping)
kf;fis Vyk; Nfl;ftplhky; mtHfSila ftdj;ij jpirjpUg;Gk; rl;ltpNuhjkhd

fiyf;F Cf;fk; nfhLj;jy; vd;W ngaH.
(iii) njhFjpfshf tpw;wy; (Sale in Lots)
ruf;Ffs; njhFjpfshf tpw;fg;gl;lhy;> xt;nthU njhFjpAk; mjdjDila tpw;gid

xg;ge;jj;jpd; fUg;nghUshff; fUjg;gLk;.
(iv) Vy tpw;gid KbTWjy; (Completion of Auction Sale)
VykpLgtH fj;jpahy; jl;b my;yJ kzp mbj;J my;yJ gpw tzpf tof;fg;gb
mwptpf;Fk; NghJ tpw;gid KbTWfpwJ.
(v) tpw;gth; tpiy Nfl;ly; (Right to Bid)
tpiy Nfl;Lk; chpikia tpw;gtNuh my;yJ mtuJ rhh;gpy; xUtNuh xJf;F

itj;Jf;nfhs;syhk;. ntspg;gilahf xJf;F itf;fg;gLtJ
Fwpg;gplg;gl;bUe;jhy;> tpw;gtNuh my;yJ mtuJ egNuh Vyk; Nfl;fyhk;.
179
(vi) Nkhrbahf Vyk; Nfl;ly; (Fraudulent Bid)
tpw;gtUf;F tpiy Nfl;Lk; chpik xJf;F itf;fg;glhj epiyapy; mth; Vy

tpw;gidapy; fye;J nfhz;lhy;> mJ Nkhrbahf ,Uf;Fk;.
(vii) tpw;gidahsh; Ntz;Lnkd;Nw Nfl;ly; (Seller Pretended Bid)

tpw;gidahsh; tpiyia cah;j;Jtjw;fhf Ntz;Lnkd;Nw Vyk; Nfl;lhy;> mt;tpw;gid
nry;yj;jf;fjy;y.
(viii) xJf;fg;gl;l tpiy my;yJ jiyfPohf;Fk; tpiyf;F (Reserve Price or

Upset Price)
xJf;fg;gl;l tpiy my;yJ jiyfPohf;Fk; tpiyf;F tpw;gid fl;Lg;gl;lJ vd

mwptpf;fg;glyhk;. mt;thwpUe;jhy;> mjw; F f; f P o hd Xh; tpiyf; F VykpLgth; >
nghUl;fis tpw;f khl;lhh;.
1. “gw;Whpik chpikapd; tphpthf;fNk nry;ifapy; epWj;Jk;c h p ik a h Fk ; ” cdJ

fUj;J ahJ.
2. tpiy ngwhj tpw;gthpd; gy;NtW chpikfisAk; Fwpg;gpLf.

180
3. Vy tpw;gid vd;w nrhy;ypd; ,yf;fzk; tiuf.
16.6 njhFg; G iu
tpiy ngwhj tpw;gidahsh; my;yJ nfhQ;rk; tpiy khj;jpuk; ngw;wth;> thq;Fgth;kPJ

rl;lg;gb eltbf;if vLf;fyhk;. Ruf;F Efh;tpd; NghJ epWj;jyhk; kWtpw;gidf;F
Vw;ghL nra;ayhk;. mtUf;F nrhj;jpd; kPJ chpik cz;L gzk; ngwhky; ruf;F
thq;Fgth; iff;F Ngha; tpl;lhy; rl;lg;gb> tpiy> e\;l<L> tl;b Fwpg;gpl;lgb elj;jpf;
nfhUj;jy;> xg;ge;j kPwy; Mfpait $Wfshf eltbf;if vLf;fyhk;.
 kWtpw;gid - Vy tpw;gid
 tpiy ngwhj - xg;ge;jg; Gs;spf;F Vw;G mspf;fg;glhj nghONjh.
1. Vy tpw;gid vd;w nrhy;ypd; ,yf;fzk; tiuf.
2. tpiy ngwhj tpw;gthpd; gy;NtW chpikfisAk; Fwpg;gpLf.
3. Vy tpw;gid njhlh;ghd rl;l tpjpfisf; Fwpg;gpLf.
4. tpiy ngwhj tpw;gth; ahh;?
5. “gw;Whpik chpikapd; tphpthf;fNk nry;ifapy; epWj;Jk; chpikahFk; ” cdJ

fUj;J ahJ.
6. nry;Yifapy; epWj;Jk; chpik vd;gjw;F eP czUk; nghUs; ahJ?

181
khÂç édh¤jhŸ
Ã.fh«. t§» nkyh©ik
Ïu©lhkh©L - _‹wh« gUt«
tâf¢ r£l«
Time : 3 hrs Maximum 75 marks
Section A (10 x 2 = 20 marks)

VNjDk; gj;J tpdhf;f Sf;F tpilaspf;f Tk;
1. rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$ba xg;ge;jj;jpd; ,d;wpaikahj $Wfs; ahit?
2. kWgadpd; gy;NtW tiffisAk; Fwpg;gpLf.
3. rl;lj;Jf;F khwhd xg;ge;jq;fs; ahit?
4. “kWgad; ,y;iynadpy; xg;ge;jKkpy;iy”. tpsf;Ff.
5. Kidtpd; ,yf;fzk; tiuf.
6. ikdUld; nra;ag;gLk; xg;ge;jq;fs; njhlh;ghd rl;lr;ruj;Jf;fis fye;jha;T

nra;f.
7. gFjpasthd xg;ge;jq;fs; ahit?
8. tpw;gidf;Fk; tpw;gid cld;ghl;bw;Fk; ,ilapyhd NtWghLfs; ahit?
9. nghJthf ruf;Nfw;Wgth; (Common Carrier) vd;gjw;F eP czUk; nghUs; ahJ?
10. nghUl;fspd; tpw;gidapy; cs;s thq;Fgth; [hf;fpuijf; Nfhl;ghl;ilf; Fwpg;gpLf.
11. tYf;fl;lhak; vd;gJ ahJ?
12. jphpj;Jf; $wYf;F eP mwpAk; nghUs; ahJ?

182
Section B (5 x 5 =25 marks)

VNjDk; Ie;J tpdhf;f Sf;F tpilaspf;f Tk;
13. rl;lg;gb nry;yf;$ba> nry;yhj kw;Wk; jtph;f;ff;$ba xg;ge;jq;fis NtWgLj;Jf.
14. kdepiy rhpapy;yhik vd;gjd; nghUs; ahJ? kdepiy rhpapy;yhj egh;fshy;

Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; cld;ghLfspd; tpisTfs; ahit?
15. gFjpasthd xg;ge;jk; vd;gJ ahJ? cjhuzq;fs; jUf.
16. “kWgad; ,y;yh xg;ge;jk; nrhy;yhJ” tpsf;Ff.
17. tpw;gidiaAk; tpw;gid cld;ghl;ilAk; NtWgLj;Jf.
18. Vy tpw;gid vd;gjd; nghUs; ahJ? mjd; tpjpfs; ahit?
19. xg;ge;j tpLg;gpw;fhd gy;NtW topfisAk; tpsf;Ff.
Section C (3 x 10 = 30 marks)
VNjDk; %d;W tpdhf;f Sf;F tpilaspf;f Tk;
20. Kfth; xUth; mtuJ chpikia ve;j mstpw;F xg;gilg;G nra;ayhk; vd;gij
tphpthf;fTk;. mt;tpj xg;gilg;gpd; gpd;tpisTfs; ahit?
21. “midj;J xg; ge;j q;f Sk; cld; ghLfNs> Mdhy; midj;J cld;g hLfSk;
xg;ge;jq;fs; my;y”. tpsf;Ff.
22. kWgad; vd;why; vd;d? mJ njhlh;ghd rl;lr; ruj;Jf;fis tphpthf fye;jha;T

nra;f.
23. tpiyngwh tpw; g th; vd miof; f g; g Lgth; ahh; ? ,th; vd; d chpikfis
nray;gLj;jyhk;.
24. gw;Whpik vd;gjw;F eP czUk; nghUs; ahJ? Fwpg;gpl;l gw;Whpikf;Fk; nghJg;

gw;Whpikf;Fk; ,ilapyhd NtWghl;ilj; jUf.

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bjhiyöu¡ fšÉ ÃWtd«

Kidt® uh. Rä¤uh

Kidt® g. nAkhtÂ Kidt® R. ghŠrhy‹

© UNIVERSITY OF MADRAS, CHENNAI 600 005.

Formation of Contract : Indian Contract Act - Formation - Nature and Elements of

Contract - Classification of Contracts - Contract Vs Agreement.

Offer, Acceptance and Consideration : Offer - Definition - Forms of Offer - Re-

quirements of a Valid Offer. Acceptance - Meaning - Legal rules as to a Valid Acceptance.

Consideration - Definition - Types - Essentials.

Other Elements of Valid Contract : Capacity of Parties - Definition - Persons Com-

petent to contract. Free consent - Coercion - Undue Influence - Fraud - Misrepresentation

- Mistake. Legality of object - Void agreements - Unlawful Agreements.

Performance of Contract : Performance of Contracts - Actual Performance -

Attempted Performance - Tender. Quasi Contract - Definition and Essentials. Discharge

and Seller of Goods - Unpaid Seller - Definition - Rights of an Unpaid Seller.

1. Kapoor, N.D. Business Laws, Sultan Chand and Sons.

2. Sreenivasan, M.R. Business Laws, Margam Publications.

3. Dhandapani, M.V. Business Laws, Sultan Chand and Sons.

4. Badre Alam, S. & Saravanavel, P. Mercantile Law

6. Ramaswamy, K.N., Business Law, S Chand & Co, Delhi

7. Shukla, M.C, Business Law, S. Chand & Co.

ghl v© jiy¥ò g¡f«

1. ,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk;> 1872-Njhw;Wtha; 001

2. xg;ge;jj;jpd; gphpTfs; 010

3. KidT kw;Wk; Vw;G 019

5. xg;ge;jj; jFjp 041

6. jd;dpr;irahd; ,irT 050

7. rl;lhPjpahd Nehf;fk; kw;Wk; nry;yhj cld;gbf;if 065

8. xg;ge;jg; Nghy;T kw;Wk; tpNr\ xg;ge;jk; 079

9. xg;ge;jq;fspd; epiwNtw;wk; 091

10. xg;ge;j tpLg;G 104

11. xg;ge;j Kwptpw;fhd jPHTfs; 117

12. ruf;F tpw;gid rl;lk;> 1930 126

13. epge;jidfSk; cj;jputhjq;fSk; 136

14. chpik khw;wk; 148

15. nghUl;fspd; tpw;gid xg;ge;jj;jpd; nray;jpwd; 159

16. tpiy ngwhj tpw;gthpd; chpikfs; 168

,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk;> 1872-Njhw;Wtha;

fw;wypd; Nehf;f q;fs;

,g;ghlj;ij fw;wgpd;> cq;fshy; fPo;tUtdtw;iwr; nra;a ,aYk;:-

 xg;ge;jf; fhuh;fspd; flikfs; gw;wpatpguk;

 rl;lg;gb nry;yj;jf;f xg;ge;jj;jpd; tpguk;

 nry;yhj xg;ge;jj;jpw;Fk; jtph;f;ff; $ba xg;ge;jj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNaAs;s xw;Wik

1.2. ,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk;> 1872 –mjd; jd;ik

1.3. xg;g e;j j;j pd; ,yf;f zKk;> nghUSk;

1.4. xg;g e;j j;j pw;F Njitahd ,d;w paikahj $Wfs;

1.5. xg;ge;jj;j pd; $Wfs;

1.7. Kf;f par; nrhw;f s;

1.8. gapw;r p tpdhf;f s;

1.1. Kd;Diu (Introduction )

tzpf eltbf;iffspdhy; vOk; chpikfisAk; rl;lf; flikfisAk; ifahSk;

xg;ge;jr; rl;lk; tzpfk; my;yJ tpahghuj;ij Nkw;nfhs;s ,d;wpaikahjjhFk;.

cjhuzk; Gj;jfk; thq;Fjy;> rpdpkh ghh;j;jy; nkf;fhdpf;fplk; fhiu rhpnra;Ak;

cjhuzk; A vd;gth; B vd;gthplk; 10>000 kjpg;Gs;skUe;Jg; nghUis tpiyf;F

1.2. ,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk;> 1872 –mjd; jd;ik

,e;jpahtpy; Vw;gLj;jg;gLk; xg;ge;jq;fs; njhlh;ghd rl;l tpjpfs; ,e;jpa xg;ge;jr;

,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk; kpfg; goikahd rl;lkhFk;. ,J ,e;jpahtpy; tzpf

1.3. xg;ge;jj;jpd; ,yf;fzk; (Definition of Contract)

,e;jpa xg;ge;jr; rl;lk;> xg;ge;jk; vd;gJ rl;lj;jhy; eilKiwg; gLj;jg;gLk;

 Xh; cld;ghL ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;.

 me;jcld;ghlhdJrl;lj;jhy; eilKiwg; gLj;jf; $bajhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

 cld;ghl;il rl;lj;jhy; eilKiwg; gLj;Jtjw;F rl;lG+h;tkhd flik ,Uf;f

rhy;k z;b d; ,yf;f zk; (Definition of almond) “egh;fSf;fpilNa flikfis