CAMPBELL BIOLOGY: CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS,

NINTH EDITION, GLOBAL EDITION

PowerPoint Lectures

Chapter 9
Patterns of Inheritance
TAYLOR
SIMON
DICKEY
HOGAN
REECE

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Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko
 9.2 Experimental genetics began in an
abbey garden
GREGOR MENDEL & HIS STUDIES
Father of Modern Genetics.

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 9.2 The science of genetics began in an
abbey garden
LETS START WITH NEW TERMS

• HEREDITY is the transmission of traits from one

generation to the next.
• GENETICS: The scientific study of the inheritance.

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 GENE:
Sequence of DNA
from which mRNA
can be synthesized
then the protein

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• GENOTYPE: The genetic make up of an organism
• PHENOTYPE: The physical appearance of an
organism

• Notice the similarities in

Facial structure
Eyes
Smile
Ears
Nose
Neck
 • ALLELE GENE: The couple of genes one coming
from the mother with the egg cell and the other one
coming from father with the sperm cell. They have
the same locus and control the same character.

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DOMINANT GENE: The gene that prevents the expression
of the other gene. Always seen in the phenotype. Shown
with capital letter.

RECESSIVE GENE: The gene that can be suppressed by

the dominant gene .Can only be seen in the phenotype if
the organism is homozygote. Shown with small letter.
• INDEPENDENT GENES: Allele genes are located on
different homologous chromosomes
• A a B b

• LINKED GENES: Allele genes are located on the

same homologous chromosomes
• A A
• B b

The linked genes can only be separated by crossing

over
• The probability of segregation increases if the genes
are far away from each other
•A a c C
B b
1 D D
2

Which of the genes have the highest probability of

segregation?
• 2 has the highest probability of segregation
• The rate of crossing over increases with an
increase with the distance between the linked
genes
 Among which genes the
possibilitiy of occuring crossing-
over is least?

A) Hh-Mm B) Dd-Mm C) Aa-Hh

D) Dd-Nn E) Aa-Nn

Answer = A
• HOMOZYGOTE: If the allele genes are the same in
the zygote. Can be dominant (PP) or recessive (aa)
• HETEROZYGOTE: If the allele genes are different in
the zygote (Bb)
• MONOHYBRID: An organism having one heterozygote
character. (Aa)

• DIHYBRID: An organism having two heterozygote

characters. (AaBb)

• TRIHYBRID: An organism having three heterozygote

characters. (AaBbCc)
• During meiosis the allele genes are segregated to
different gametes

• PARENTAL CROSS: Cross of the parents. Showed

as P1.

• FILIAL GENERATION: The offsprings produced as a

result of parental cross. Showed as F1.
 9.2 The science of genetics began in an
abbey garden
• Genetics (the scientific study of heredity) began
with Gregor Mendel’s experiments.
• Mendel crossed pea plants and traced traits from
generation to generation.
• He hypothesized that there are alternative versions
of genes (alleles), the units that determine heritable
traits.

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WHY WAS MENDEL A LUCKY PERSON?
• Produce seeds in a SHORT TIME
• Many traits ARE known.
• ONLY SELF POLLINATION IS SEEN
• Flower structure is suitable for SELF
MEDIATED CROSS FERTILIZATION
• Each character is controlled by
INDEPENDENT GENES
Figure 9.2b

Petal

Carpel
(contains
eggs)

Stamens (release
sperm-containing
pollen)

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 9.2 The science of genetics began in an
abbey garden
• ONLY SELF POLLINATION IS SEEN BUT
MENDEL COULD MAKE CROSS POLLINATION
WHEN NEEDED LIKE IN THIS CASE

• Checkpoint question If true-breeding white and

true-breeding purple peas were crossed, what
terms would be used to describe their offspring?

• LETS TRY TO UNDERSTAND THE CROSS

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Figure 9.2c_1
1 Stamen removed 2 Pollen transfer

Parents
Stamens
(P) Carpel

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Figure 9.2c_2
1 Stamen removed 2 Pollen transfer

Parents
Stamens
(P) Carpel

3 Carpel matures
into pod

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Figure 9.2c_3
1 Stamen removed 2 Pollen transfer

Parents
Stamens
(P) Carpel

3 Carpel matures
into pod

4 Seed from
pod planted
5 Offspring traits
observed
Offspring
(F1)

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 9.2 The science of genetics began in an
abbey garden
• Checkpoint question If true-breeding white and
true-breeding purple peas were crossed, what
terms would be used to describe their offspring?

• Their offspring would be the F1 GENERATION, and

they would be called HYBRIDS.

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 THE TRAITS SEEN IN PEA PLANTS

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•Mendel studied SEVEN CHARACTERISTICS FOR PEA
PLANTS.

•Later studies have shown that pea plants have seven

pairs of chromosomes, and each of these characteristics
is on a different chromosome.

•This explains why Mendel’s results were not affected by

genetic recombination. WHY HE WAS A LUCKY
PERSON
 9.3 Mendel’s law of segregation describes the
inheritance of a single character
• Mendel developed four hypotheses, described
below using modern terminology.
1. There are alternative versions of genes (called
alleles) that account for variations in inherited
characters.
2. For each character, an organism inherits two
alleles of a gene, one from each parent.
• An organism that has two identical alleles for a gene
is said to be homozygous for that gene.
• An organism that has two different alleles for a gene
is said to be heterozygous for that gene.

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 9.3 Mendel’s law of segregation describes the
inheritance of a single character
3. If the two alleles of an inherited pair differ, then
one determines the organism’s appearance and
is called the dominant allele and the other has
no noticeable effect on the organism’s
appearance and is called the recessive allele.
4. A sperm or egg carries only one allele for each
inherited character because allele pairs separate
(segregate) from each other during the production
of gametes. This statement is called the law of
segregation.

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• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MWkFxWXHTnw

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Figure 9.3a_1
The Experiment
P generation
(true-breeding
×
parents)
Purple flowers White flowers

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Figure 9.3a_2
The Experiment
P generation
(true-breeding
×
parents)
Purple flowers White flowers

F1 generation All plants have

(hybrids) purple flowers

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Figure 9.3a_3
The Experiment
P generation
(true-breeding
×
parents)
Purple flowers White flowers

F1 generation All plants have

(hybrids) purple flowers

Fertilization
among F1 plants
(F1 × F1)
F2 generation

3 1
4of plants 4of plants
have purple flowers have white flowers
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 9.3 Mendel’s law of segregation describes the
inheritance of a single character
• Mendel’s hypotheses also explain the 3:1 ratio
observed in the F2 generation.
• The F1 hybrids all have a Pp genotype.
• A Punnett square shows the four possible
combinations of alleles that could occur when these
gametes combine.
Checkpoint question How can two plants with
different genotypes for a particular inherited
character be identical in phenotype?

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Figure 9.3b_1
The Explanation
P generation Genetic makeup (alleles)
Purple flowers White flowers
PP pp

Gametes All P All p

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Figure 9.3b_2
The Explanation
P generation Genetic makeup (alleles)
Purple flowers White flowers
PP pp

Gametes All P All p

F1 generation All Pp

Alleles
1 segregate 1
Gametes 2 P 2
p

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Figure 9.3b_3
The Explanation
P generation Genetic makeup (alleles)
Purple flowers White flowers
PP pp

Gametes All P All p

F1 generation All Pp

Alleles
1 segregate 1
Gametes 2 P 2
p

F2 generation
Sperm from F1 plant P p
Results:
Phenotypic ratio P PP Pp
3 purple:1 white Eggs
from F1
plant Pp pp
p
Genotypic ratio
1 PP:2 Pp:1 pp Results
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Figure 9.3b_4

F2 generation
Sperm from p
P
Results: F1 plant
Phenotypic ratio P PP Pp
3 purple:1 white Eggs
from F1
plant p Pp pp
Genotypic ratio
1 PP:2 Pp:1 pp
Results

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 9.4 Homologous chromosomes bear the
alleles for each character
• Every diploid cell has pairs of homologous
chromosomes.
• The chromosomes in a homologous pair carry
alleles of the same genes at the same locations.
Checkpoint question An individual is
heterozygous, Bb, for a gene. According to the law
of segregation, each gamete formed by this
individual will have either the B allele or the b
allele. Which step in the process of meiosis is the
physical basis for this segregation of alleles?

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Figure 9.4

Gene loci Dominant

allele
P a B

Homologous
chromosomes

P a b
Recessive
allele
Genotype: PP aa Bb
Homozygous Homozygous Heterozygous,
for the for the with one dominant
dominant recessive and one recessive
allele allele allele

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 9.5 The law of independent assortment is
revealed by tracking two characters at once
• A cross between two individuals that are
heterozygous for one character is called a
monohybrid cross.
• A dihybrid cross is a mating of parental varieties
that differ in two characters.
• Mendel’s law of independent assortment states
that the alleles of a pair segregate independently
of other allele pairs during gamete formation.

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HOW TO SOLVE A GENETIC PROBLEM
• Write the symbols for alleles
• Determine the parents’ GENOTYPES
• Determine the kinds of GAMETES
• Look at all possible combinations of gametes:
PUNNETT SQUARE
• Determine the possible offspring PHENOTYPES
• Find the phenotypic ratio
• Determine the possible offspring GENOTYPES
• Find the genotypic ratio
 Punnett Squares are an organized way to
show these same results in chart form

Itis easier to see the

Genotypes (allele
combinations) and
Phenotypes
(appearances)
 IN ORDER TO UNDERSTAND
MONO AND DIHYBRID CROSS
LETS START WITH …

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HOW TO FIND THE KINDS OF GAMETES
• 1-HOMOZYGOTE
• A-FOR ONE CHARACTER

AA

MEIOSIS

A
A A A A

ONLY ONE TYPE OF GAMETE FORMS

• 1-HOMOZYGOTE
• B-FOR TWO OR MORE CHARACTERS
• LINKED GENES

A A
B B

MEIOSIS

A A A A
B B B B
• 1-HOMOZYGOTE
• B-FOR TWO OR MORE CHARACTERS

INDEPENDENT GENES

A A B B

MEIOSIS

A B A B A B A B

IN HOMOZYGOTE TRAITS THE KIND OF GAMETE IS ALWAYS FOUND

WITH THE FOLLOWING FORMULA
2n WHERE n IS THE NUMBER OF HETEROZYGOUS TRAITS
20 =1
• 2-HETEROZYGOTE

 A-FOR ONE CHARACTER

Aa

MEIOSIS

A A a a

TWO TYPES OF GAMETE FORMS 21=2

 • 2-HETEROZYGOTE
• B-FOR TWO OR MORE CHARACTERS

• LINKED GENES

A a
B b

MEIOSIS

A A a a

B B b b

THEY ARE LINKED SO GO TOGETHER TO GAMETES.

THE NUMBER OF HETEROZYGOUS TRAIT IS
21 =2
2-HETEROZYGOTE
B-FOR TWO OR MORE CHARACTERS
• INDEPENDENT GENES

A
A Aa B
B B
b

MEIOSIS

A B A b a B a b

IN HETEROZYGOTE TRAITS THE KIND OF GAMETE IS

2n WHERE n IS THE NUMBER OF HETEROZYGOUS TRAITS
22 =4
 LET’S SOLVE SOME QUESTIONS
ABOUT LİNKED AND UNLİNKED GENES
• IF MIXED OF LINKED AND INDEPENDENT GENES
EXAMPLE 1:
• FIND THE DIFFERENT NUMBER OF GAMETES IN THE
FOLLOWING CHROMOSOME COMBINATION OF OOGONIUM
CELL AFTER MEIOSIS

A a C c
B b D D
 • IF MIXED OF LINKED AND INDEPENDENT GENES
ANSWER 1:
For linked genes (AaBb) Cc and DD are unlinked
The genes on these genes, for gamete type use
chromosomes (AB) and (ab) 2n formula. There is one
are not same, so 2 type of heterozygote (Cc).So 21 = 2
gametes will form from these
linked genes.

A a C c
B b D D
So, at the end

2 x 2 = 4 type of
gametes form from this
genotype.
• EXAMPLE 2:
• Find the different number of gametes in the spermatogonium
cell after meiosis for the following chromosome combination
• Aa Bb Cc DD Ee

ANSWER 2:

There are 4 heterozygous characters (Aa,Bb,Cc,Ee) in this

genotype.
So, 24= 16 type of gametes form.
 • EXAMPLE 3:
• Find the different number of gametes in the
oogonium cell after meiosis for the following
chromosome combination then find the possible
genotypes of the gametes.
• Aa Bb Cc
ANSWER 3:

There are 3 heterozygous The possible genotypes of

characters (Aa,Bb,Cc) in these gametes; ABC , ABc,
this genotype. AbC, Abc, aBC, aBc, abC, abc
So, 23= 8 type of gametes
form
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IF CROSSING OVER HAPPENS IN
LİNKED GENES, gamete types may
increase.
In this case, we can use 2ⁿ formula to
find the gamete type.

n = heterozygous character number

• An organism that has AaBbddTt genotype
undergoes meiosis. How many gamete types
form? (A,B,d and T genes are linked)
(crossing-over occurs).

ANSWER:
The linked genes are shown on
A a chromosomes next. If crossing over
B b occurs between linked genes, use 2n
formula for finding gamete type. So n=3
d d
( heterozygous genes)
T t Gamete type is 23= 8
• How many types of gametes can an organism
that has AABbCcDdEeXY genotype create?

The organism has 5 heterozygous characteristics (Bb,

Cc, Dd, Ee, XY).
So; it can create;

2ⁿ = 25 = 32 type of gametes

XX = homozygous
XY = heterozygous
 If a cell contains the following genotype,

a-What is the diploid number of

chromosomes in this cell?

2n = 4 chromosomes

b- Find the number of different gametes that can be

formed after meiosis? (cross-over happens)

If cross-over happens between the linked genes (DdRr), you

can use 2n formula for all genotype. n=3 (Dd,Rr and Ee are
heterozygous). So 23= 8 type of gametes form.

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 If a cell contains the following genotype,

c- Find the number of different

gametes that can be formed after
meiosis? (no crossing over)

If cross-over doesn’t happen between the linked genes,

D d E e
R r
For unlinked genes use 2ⁿ = 21 = 2 type of gametes
n=heterozygous character
These 2 choromosomes have different So, in total 2 x 2 = 4 type of
genes (DR ad dr). So there will come 2
type of gametes from the linked genes.
gametes
 What is the rate of gamete formation that is
aBcDe genotype from the individual that has
AaBBCcDdee genotype?

Solution 1: From this AaBBCcDdee genotype

aBcDe gamete

1.1.1. 1.1 = 1 It will happen with a probability

2 2 2 8 of 1/8
 What is the rate of gamete formation that is
aBcDe genotype from the individual that has
AaBBCcDdee genotype?

Solution 2:

From this AaBBCcDdee genotype, in total there can be

2ⁿ = 23 = 8 type of gametes. Because there are 3
heterozygous character (Aa,Cc,Dd) so n=3.

From these 8 type of different gametes, aBcDe will be one

of them. So the probability of this gamete is 1/8.
 • What is the possibility of gamete formation that
is kZcAE genotype from the individual that has
KkZZCcAaee genotype?

Solution : From this KkZZCcAaee genotype

K Z c A E gamete

1. 1. 1. 1. 0 = 0
2 2 2
There can’t be E gene in this
gamete .So probability of this
gamete is 0.
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 An organism that has AaGgddHh genotype
undergoes meiosis. How many gamete types
form? (A,G,d and H genes are linked)
(crossing-over occurs).

The linked genes are shown on

A a
chromosomes next.
G g
If crossing over occurs between linked
d d
genes, use 2n formula for finding gamete
H h
type. So n=3 (Aa,Gg,Hh are
heterozygous genes)

Gamete type is 23= 8

 An organism that has AaGgddHh genotype
undergoes meiosis. How many gamete
types form? (A,G, H genes are linked)
(crossing-over occurs).

A a d d
G g
H h For this unlinked genes , there isn’t any
heterozygous character so 2ⁿ = 20 = 1 type of
gamete
If cross-over doesn’t happen between the
linked genes,
So, in total 2 x 1 = 2
These 2 chromosomes have different genes
(AGH and agh). So there will come 2 type of type of gametes form
gametes from the linked genes.