INSTITUTE UNIVERSITAIRE LA GRACE

SOCIOLOGY ASSIGNMENT

EESUOLA ADEOLA JOHN

056COM325
100L

LECTURER: DR. VAL

 1. The passage expresses various sociological views on sociology and sociological issues
involving the human behavioral pattern, economic and political structures, health, ecology,
research methodology etc.

The first perspective is a sociological concept introduced by Charles Horton Cooley that
individuals compare themselves to others in order to check themselves against social standards
and remain part of the group as examined in the concept of the looking-glass self (1902). The
term is a metaphorical figure of speech used to describe a concept by comparing the instance
of a mirror reflection to suggest how an individual sees or creates a perception of himself based
on reactions and opinions of others interacted with. According to Cooley, we imagine how we
appear to others in a social situation and create a judgement of ourselves based on this
perception. The interpretation of their reaction to our behavior is how we think of ourselves.

The sociological process can also suggest that our reactions and opinions on other people
have an influence on how they think of themselves. These reactions could be positive or
negative and are proportional to our self-shaped concept. For example, if someone laughs at a
joke we tell, we may feel more confident in our ability to humor others and think of ourselves
as a funny person. However, if someone criticizes our performance at an activity, we may feel
less competent and view ourselves with mediocrity.
An argument against this perspective is that the concept of the looking-glass self emphasizes
the role of our interactions with others in defining our self –concept and highlights the gravity
of our social relationships in our lives, it also suggests that our sense of self is not solely
determined by individual characteristics or traits, but by the social context we live in which
oversimplifies the complex nature of human concept. The looking-glass concept comfortably
ignores other factors that contribute to a person’s sense of self by oversimplifying it to a more
social constructionist perspective than an individualist perspective. An individual may decide to
embrace individualistic traits that suggest that our sense of self is not entirely dependent on
the opinions and perceptions of others but rooted in our own individual experiences,
aspirations, values and beliefs. This perspective does not account for the fact that individuals
may have different perceptions of themselves in different social contexts.
In addition, our present-day world makes it easy to identify people who live in contrast to
the “looking-glass self” concept. For example, members of a stereotyped or stigmatized groups,
such as LGBTQ+, Feminists, racial minorities or people with disabilities. Individuals who fall into
those categories may have experienced trauma and motivated to develop a sense of resilience
and self-reliance that allows them not only to go against the public’s view of them but to also
maintain a strong sense of identity and purpose, even in the face of external challenges. While
this doesn’t nullify the looking-glass self concept, it proves that this perspective is also guilty to
a fault which is mainly the oversimplification of the self-concept.
 The second perspective in the passage is Communism vs Capitalism. Marxist theory suggests
that the class struggle between the capitalist ruling class and the working class will eventually
lead to a revolution in which the workers will overthrow the capitalists and establish a
communist society. The Marxist theory is a sociological perspective developed by Karl Marx, a
19th-century German philosopher, economist, and social theorist. Marx's theory emphasizes
the role of economic and social class in shaping society and human behavior. According to
Marx, Social relations are shaped by the economic structure of a society which he referred to as
the mode of production. He argued that the mode of production in a society determines the
social relations between economic classes and will result in conflict during the struggle for
control over the means of production.
Herbert Spencer (1820 – 1903) on the other hand rejected the theory of class struggle and
supported capitalism. This perspective can be seen as a critique of the Marxist theory which
emphasizes the inherent conflict between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. Herbert
Spencer's capitalist theory emphasizes the importance of individualism and free-market
economics. Spencer believed that individuals should be free to pursue their own interests
without interference from the state or other institutions.

Karl Marx believes that capitalism was a system that prioritizes the needs of one person (the
bourgeoise also known as the capitalist) over others (the working class), giving room for
exploitation and accumulation of power at their expense. The exploitation will eventually drive
a revolution where the proletariat will eventually overthrow the ruling class and set up a
communist society that allows the collective ownership of the means of production.
Spencer's theory emphasized the importance of individualism and self-reliance. He believed
that government intervention in the economy was harmful to society, and that individuals
should be free to pursue their own self-interest without interference from the state. He also
believed that inequality was a natural and necessary aspect of society, as it promoted
competition and innovation.
Marx theory also criticizes the inequality in a capitalist society caused by the state. According to
Marx, the state is an instrument of the class rule serving the interest of the ruling class rather
than the working class by using psychological means such as religion, education and media to
justify their power and maintain status quo. By promoting the ideology that their wealth and
power are natural and well deserved hence maintaining dominance over the society.
Spencer's theory was heavily influenced by Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, but he
applied it to the study of society rather than biology. His work was controversial, as it was seen
by many as promoting a harsh and ruthless form of capitalism that neglected the needs of the
poor and vulnerable. He believed that government intervention in the economy was
unnecessary and even harmful, as it interfered with the natural processes of competition and
selection.
 An argument in support of the Marxist theory is that it provides a critical analysis for
understanding the structural inequalities existing within capitalist societies. The theory
emphasizes the economic class role in shaping social relations and institutions and argues that
they are inherently exploitative. This perspective helps in explaining the power drift in society
today and why it persists despite efforts to address it. However, Spencer's capitalist theory has
been criticized for its emphasis on individualism and its failure to account for the role of social
structures and institutions in shaping society.

Marxist theory also provides a framework for understanding historical development and the
implications on society over the course of human history. According to him, History is marked
by a series of class struggles with the dominant class in each society exerting control over the
means of production. Furthermore, the theory highlights the importance of collectivism as a
means of bringing about social change and addressing social inequalities. Marx proposed a
solution that tackles the “evil of capitalism” by suggesting communism. In a communist system,
everyone is supposed to be equal, with no one person or group holding more power or wealth
over another. Another is shared resources which means that everyone has access to resources
they need to live. Social justice, elimination of exploitation, and collective effort are also major
features of communism. Additionally, Spencer's emphasis on individualism overlooks the fact
that individuals are shaped by their social context and may not always be able to pursue their
own interests freely.
An argument in support of Spencer’s capitalist theory and against the Marxist theory is that
it oversimplifies the complexity of social relations and institutions. The theory emphasizes on
the roles of the economic class in shaping the society but does not recognize the importance of
individual choice and freedom and does not account for other factors affecting social
inequalities such as race, gender, and cultural background. Marxist theory suggests that
individuals are merely the product of their class and ignores the fact that individuals make their
own choices and can actively shape their own destiny.
Another criticism of Marxist theory is that it assumes that all members of a class share the
same interest and values, which is accumulating power and wealth by the capitalist with any
viable means and regardless of the effect on the working class, and the working class revolting
against the economic system to form a communist state. In reality, people with the same
economic class may have different opinions and share different priorities and may not work
hand in hand with one another. This could result into conflict in the process of collectively
challenging the existing power structures.

Spencer's theory emphasizes the importance of competition in the marketplace. By allowing

individuals and businesses to compete freely, Spencer believed that the most efficient and
effective products and services would rise to the top, leading to increased quality and
affordability for consumers. Additionally, competition can drive innovation and encourage
businesses to constantly improve their products and services in order to stay ahead of their
competitors.
 Finally, the Marxist theory fails to account for the positive aspects of capitalism, such as the
ability to generate wealth and promote innovations. It fails to recognize the fact that some
people may be more hardworking or talented than others, and that these differences can lead
to inequalities in income and wealth. In a communist system, there is no motivation to enhance
people’s innovation and creativity, and to put more effort in working together as a society in
achieving common goal, since everyone is rewarded equally regardless of their effort or
contributions. In summary, the Marxist theory neglects the importance of individual choice and
freedom, can lead to inefficiencies in the economy. While the Marxist theory highlights the
exploitative nature of capitalism, it does not provide a clear alternative or vision for how a
socialist or communist society will function in practice. Spencer's theory has been influential in
shaping many aspects of modern economics and political theory, particularly in the areas of
classical liberalism and libertarianism.

The third perspective in the passage is a theory on sociological methods by Emile Durkheim
(1858-1917). It focuses on the importance of social facts, which are the shared beliefs, values,
and norms that shape social behavior and institutions. Durkheim believed that societies over
time transformed from a primitive state to a more complex and specialized social organization.
In his view, people rise to their proper levels in society based on merit and this is what helps in
maintaining the social order. He also believed that understanding social facts was essential for
understanding healthy or pathological societies, and that sociologists could use this
understanding to promote social reform and improve people’s lives.
In his book "The Division of Labor in Society", Durkheim used the example of Catholic and
Protestant communities to illustrate the importance of socio-religious forces in shaping social
order. Durkheim believed that the differences between these two communities could be
attributed to the different social functions that religion played in each society, rather than to
individual or psychological causes. Specifically, he believed that Protestantism emphasized
individualism and rationalism, which led to greater social differentiation and specialization,
while Catholicism emphasized community and tradition, which led to greater social cohesion
and solidarity. Overall, Durkheim's theory emphasized the importance of social facts and
objective scientific study in understanding society.
An argument in favor of Durkheim's theory is that it emphasizes the importance of social
facts and objective scientific study in understanding society. By focusing on shared beliefs,
values, and norms, Durkheim's theory allows sociologists to identify patterns and trends in
social behavior and institutions. This can help to explain why certain social structures and
institutions persist over time, even in the face of social change and technological innovation. By
recognizing the importance of collective consciousness, he reminds us that our actions and
beliefs are not simply a result of our individual will but are shaped by the broader social context
in which we live.
 Furthermore, Durkheim's focus on the importance of social cohesion and solidarity is
particularly relevant in modern society, where rapid technological change and globalization
have eroded traditional social bonds. Durkheim argues that societies can promote social
integration and reduce the risk of social conflict and disorder. This perspective can be useful in
understanding why certain societies are more stable and successful than others, and how social
reform efforts can be designed to promote greater social cohesion and solidarity.
Finally, Durkheim's analysis of the differences between Catholic and Protestant communities
provides valuable insights into the ways in which religion and other social institutions shape
individuals and communities. By recognizing the complex interaction between social, economic,
and cultural forces, Durkheim's theory helps us to better understand the complex and diverse
nature of society.

The fourth sociological perspective is generally considered to be that of Max Weber. He

wrote on many topics related to sociology, including political change in Russia and social forces
that affect factory workers. However, he is perhaps best known for his 1904 book, "The
Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism," in which he explores the relationship between
religion and economic behavior.
Weber's sociological perspective emphasized the importance of understanding social action
and the subjective meanings that people attach to their behavior. He argued that social
behavior is shaped not only by objective social structures and institutions, but also by the
subjective meanings that individuals attach to their actions. This perspective is often referred to
as interpretive sociology or verstehen, and it emphasizes the importance of understanding
social phenomena from the perspective of the individuals who are involved in them.
Weber believed that social reality was complex and multilayered, and that it could only be
fully understood by examining the meanings that individuals attach to their actions and
interactions within a given social context. He also recognized the influence of historical and
cultural factors on social phenomena and sought to analyze them in a comprehensive and
systematic way. Weber's approach to sociology was highly influential and has been used as a
basis for various sociological theories and research methods.
An argument in support of Weber's approach is that it emphasizes the importance of
understanding social action and the subjective meanings that people attach to their behavior.
By focusing on the subjective experiences and interpretations of individuals, Weber's approach
allows sociologists to gain a deeper understanding of how social phenomena are shaped and
experienced by different groups of people.
Weber's approach recognizes the complexity and diversity of social structures and
institutions. He emphasized the importance of analyzing the multiple factors that contribute to
social inequality, such as class, status, and power. This recognition of the multi-dimensional
nature of social structures is crucial for developing a more comprehensive understanding of
social inequality and its impact on individuals and societies.
Weber's approach has been influential in shaping many aspects of modern sociology,
particularly in the areas of social theory, political economy, and religion. His emphasis on the
importance of subjective meanings and context has helped to broaden our understanding of
social phenomena and to challenge traditional assumptions about human behavior and social
structures.

Overall, Weber's approach provides a valuable perspective on the complex interplay

between subjective meanings, objective social structures, and broader social forces in shaping
social behavior and institutions. It highlights the importance of understanding social
phenomena from multiple perspectives and in their broader historical and cultural contexts.

The fifth sociological perspective in the passage is that of W.E.B Du Bois. A Pan-Africanist
who focused his work on studying the experiences and challenges faced by black Americans. His
sociological perspective emphasized the importance of race and racism in shaping social
behavior and institutions. Du Bois believed that racism was a fundamental problem in American
society, and that it had profound effects on the lives of African Americans.
He conducted extensive fieldwork, including interviews and surveys, in order to document
the conditions of black communities and challenge prevailing ideas of racial inferiority. Du Bois'
sociological perspective also emphasized the importance of understanding social phenomena
from the perspective of marginalized groups. He argued that African Americans had a unique
perspective on American society, and that their experiences could provide valuable insights into
the workings of social structures and institutions. His publication "The Philadelphia Negro" in
1899 provided a detailed study of the social and economic conditions of black residents in
Philadelphia, and it challenged racist beliefs about black people being inherently inferior or
biologically determined to be less intelligent or capable than whites.
One argument in support of W.E.B. Du Bois' sociological perspective is that it emphasizes the
importance of race and racism in shaping social behavior and institutions. By focusing on the
experiences of marginalized groups, such as African Americans, Du Bois' perspective allows
sociologists to gain a deeper understanding of the ways in which social structures and
institutions are shaped by broader social forces such as race, ethnicity, and class
Du Bois' sociological perspective emphasizes the importance of empirical research and data
analysis in understanding social phenomena. He believed that sociology should be a scientific
discipline, and that sociologists should use rigorous methods to study social behavior and
institutions. His sociological perspective provides a valuable perspective on the importance of
race and racism in shaping social behavior and institutions. His emphasis on empirical research,
marginalized perspectives, and social reform has helped to shape modern sociology and has
had a profound impact on the study of race, inequality, and social justice.
Du Bois' sociological perspective emphasizes the importance of social reform and activism in
addressing social problems. By using their knowledge to promote social change and to
challenge existing power structures, sociologists can help to create a more just and equitable
society. This perspective recognizes that sociology has a practical and ethical dimension, and
that sociologists have a responsibility to use their knowledge to promote social justice and to
improve people's lives. His work has been influential in shaping many aspects of modern
sociology, particularly in the areas of race, inequality, and social justice.

The sociologist in question who worked closely with a school of thought that places great
importance on environment in which relationships and behaviors develop, and whose research
informed child labor, immigration, healthcare, and other areas of public policy, is Jane Addams.
She owns the sixth perspective in the passage.
Her sociological perspective was grounded in the belief that social problems, such as
poverty, crime, and inequality, were the result of societal structures and institutions rather than
individual failings. She emphasized the importance of the social environment in shaping human
behavior and relationships, arguing that a healthy society was one that provided its members
with access to education, healthcare, and other essential services. She believed that social and
environmental factors played a critical role in shaping human behavior and development, and
that interventions aimed at improving social and environmental conditions could have a
positive impact on human outcomes.
Addams's research on child labor, immigration, healthcare, and other areas of public policy
was informed by her sociological perspective. She believed that social reform efforts should be
grounded in a deep understanding of the social and environmental factors that shape human
behavior, and that interventions should be designed to address these underlying causes rather
than just the symptoms. Addams believed that by working together, individuals could create a
more just and equitable society.

An argument in support of Jane Addams' perspective is that her approach emphasizes the
importance of understanding social issues from a holistic perspective. Addams recognized that
social problems were not isolated issues but rather interconnected and influenced by a range of
factors, including economic, political, and cultural.
Addams emphasized the importance of social and environmental factors in shaping human
behavior, she also recognized the role of individual choices and actions in shaping human
outcomes. This perspective emphasizes the importance of understanding the social and
environmental context in which individual choices and actions occur. By recognizing the
broader social and environmental factors that shape individual behavior. This perspective was
particularly valuable in understanding the challenges faced by marginalized communities such
as immigrants, women, and children, who often lived in oppressive environments.
One instance that supports Jane Addams's perspective on the importance of social and
environmental factors in shaping human behavior and development is the success of the Head
Start program in the United States. The Head Start program is a federal program that provides
comprehensive early childhood education, health, nutrition, and parent involvement services to
low-income children and their families.

Research has shown that children who participate in the Head Start program have better
educational and health outcomes than children who do not participate. This success can be
attributed to the comprehensive services provided by the program, which address the social
and environmental factors that can impact a child's development, such as poverty, inadequate
nutrition, and lack of access to healthcare.
In conclusion, Jane Addams' sociological perspective was groundbreaking in its holistic and
practical approach to understanding social issues. By emphasizing the importance of the
environment in shaping human behavior, her work has helped to bring attention to the
structural factors that contribute to inequality and social injustice. Her advocacy for social
reforms has also had a lasting impact on society and continues to inspire generations of social
justice advocates.

Park's perspective is the seventh can be described as ecological, as he believed that social
systems and institutions should be studied in their specific environmental contexts. He believed
that the urban environment had a significant impact on individuals and communities, shaping
their behaviors, attitudes, and opportunities. Park was interested in understanding the
interactions between people and their environment and how they shaped social relations and
community dynamics.
Park's sociological perspective also emphasized the importance of understanding the
complex interplay between individuals and their social and environmental contexts. He argued
that social behavior could not be understood in isolation from the broader social, cultural, and
historical context in which it occurs.
One argument against Park's perspective is that it overlooks the agency of individuals in
shaping their environment. Park's emphasis on the environment and social structure as
determinants of behavior risks ignoring the ways in which individuals actively shape and
transform their surroundings. For example, consider the Civil Rights Movement in the United
States. Park's perspective might suggest that African Americans were only able to mobilize and
achieve social change once the broader environment of American society had shifted. However,
this overlooks the agency of individual activists and their ability to organize, protest, and push
for change despite the obstacles they faced.
 In the case of the Montgomery Bus Boycott, for instance, African American activists refused
to ride segregated buses, despite the risks and consequences. They organized and mobilized
within their community, using their own agency to challenge and change the environment
around them. This demonstrates that individuals can actively shape and transform their
surroundings, rather than being solely determined by them as Park's perspective suggests.

2. Five scholars whose work is featured in the passage and the year of publication for each
work are as follows:
• Max Weber - The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism in (1904).
• Charles Horton Cooley – Human Nature and the Social Order (1902).

• W.E.B Du Bois – The Philadelphia Negro (1899).

• Emile Durkheim – Division of Labour in Society (1893).
•Herbert Spencer – The study of sociology (1873).

3. Robert Merton was an American sociologist who lived from 1910 to 2003. He is best known
for his work on social processes, which are the ways in which social structures and institutions
shape human behavior and development. One of his most influential concepts is the idea of
social structure and anomie, which he developed in his seminal work "Social Theory and Social
Structure" (1957).
Merton's social processes framework emphasizes the importance of understanding how
social structures and institutions influence individual behavior and outcomes. He argued that
social structures and institutions can have both intended and unintended consequences for
individuals and society as a whole.
Robert Merton's Strain Theory is a sociological theory that suggests that people may engage
in deviant behavior when they are unable to achieve their goals through legitimate means.
According to Merton, society places a strong emphasis on achieving success and material
wealth, which can create pressure for individuals to strive for these goals. However, not
everyone has equal access to the means of achieving success, such as education, job
opportunities, or financial resources. This can create a strain or tension between the goals that
society encourages individuals to achieve and the means available to them to achieve those
goals. When individuals are unable to achieve their goals through legitimate means, they may
turn to illegitimate means, such as crime, in order to achieve success. Merton's theory
highlights the importance of examining the social and structural factors that contribute to
deviant behavior.
One key concept in Merton's social processes framework is the idea of manifest and latent
functions. Manifest functions are the intended consequences of social structures and
institutions, while latent functions are unintended consequences. For example, the manifest
function of the education system is to provide students with knowledge and skills, while a
latent function may be to perpetuate social inequality by reinforcing existing power structures.

Another key concept in Merton's social processes framework is the idea of anomie, which is
a state of normlessness or lack of moral guidance that can occur when social structures and
institutions fail to provide clear guidelines for behavior. Merton argued that anomie can lead to
deviant behavior, such as crime or substance abuse, as individuals seek to find their place in
society.
Merton's theory of social process emphasizes the ways in which social structures influence
individual behavior. He argued that individuals are not simply passive recipients of social norms
and values, but actively negotiate and adapt to the social environment around them. Merton
identified five modes of adaptation to social strain: conformity, innovation, ritualism,
retreatism, and rebellion.
The first way is called "conformity." This means that they accept both the goals that society sets
for them and the normal ways of achieving those goals.
The second way is called "innovation." This means that they accept the goals that society sets
for them, but they find new and sometimes illegal ways to achieve those goals.
The third way is called "ritualism." This means that they give up on achieving the big goals that
society sets for them, but they still follow the normal ways of doing things, even if they don't
really care about the end result.

The fourth way is called "retreatism." This means that they give up on both the goals that
society sets for them and the normal ways of achieving those goals. They might just withdraw
from society altogether.
The fifth response identified by Merton is called "rebellion." This means that an individual
rejects both the goals of society and the means to achieve them. But instead of just giving up,
they actively try to replace these goals and means with new ones. For example, they might
engage in activism or social movements to try to create a new way of thinking or living.
Rebellion is a more proactive and radical response to societal norms and structures, and it can
be seen as a way to challenge the status quo and create change.

Merton's theory draws on the work of Émile Durkheim and his concept of anomie, or
normlessness, which occurs when social norms are weakened or disrupted. Merton argues that
social structures create norms and values that guide behavior, but when these structures are
disrupted or not in line with individuals' goals, they experience anomie.
Merton's theory has been influential in the field of sociology and has been used to explain a
wide range of social phenomena, including crime, drug use, and political radicalism. It has also
been critiqued for its focus on individual adaptation rather than structural change.
References:
Merton, R. K. (1938). Social structure and anomie. American Sociological Review, 3(5), 672-682.

Clinard, M. B., & Meier, R. F. (2011). Sociology of dev.