■■■■ ■■■ ■7■ 7th Edition ■ B A ■■■

■■
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookstep.com/download/ebook-38382054/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Chrestomathia Historica Vol 1 Diodori Liber IV et major

pars libri V ac Pausaniae Liber IV

https://ebookstep.com/product/chrestomathia-historica-
vol-1-diodori-liber-iv-et-major-pars-libri-v-ac-pausaniae-liber-
iv/

Anadolu da I s letmeye Ac ■lan I lk Demiryolu Hatt■ I

zmir Kasaba Hatt■ ve Uzant■lar■ 1st Edition Arif Kolay

https://ebookstep.com/product/anadolu-da-i-s-letmeye-ac-ilan-i-
lk-demiryolu-hatti-i-zmir-kasaba-hatti-ve-uzantilari-1st-edition-
arif-kolay/

Hieronymus Romanus Studies on Jerome and Rome on the

Occasion of the 1600th Anniversary of His Death 87 Ingo
Schaaf (Editor)

https://ebookstep.com/product/hieronymus-romanus-studies-on-
jerome-and-rome-on-the-occasion-of-the-1600th-anniversary-of-his-
death-87-ingo-schaaf-editor/

Die Staatskonkurs Aufgaben im Jahre Die Aufgaben in den

Jahren 1885 bis 88 für die Rechstpraktikanten in der
Pfalz

https://ebookstep.com/product/die-staatskonkurs-aufgaben-im-
jahre-die-aufgaben-in-den-jahren-1885-bis-88-fur-die-
rechstpraktikanten-in-der-pfalz/
Educación nutricional 7 ed Guía para profesionales de
la nutrición 7th Edition Betsy B Holli Judith A Beto
Holli Betsy B

https://ebookstep.com/product/educacion-nutricional-7-ed-guia-
para-profesionales-de-la-nutricion-7th-edition-betsy-b-holli-
judith-a-beto-holli-betsy-b/

Hokhmat Sopher Melanges Offerts Au Professeur Emile

Puech En l Honneur de Son Quatre Vingtieme Anniversaire
Etudes Bibliques 88 1st Edition M Staszak Editor J S
Rey Editor
https://ebookstep.com/product/hokhmat-sopher-melanges-offerts-au-
professeur-emile-puech-en-l-honneur-de-son-quatre-vingtieme-
anniversaire-etudes-bibliques-88-1st-edition-m-staszak-editor-j-
s-rey-editor/

Notos Say■ 95 1st Edition Kolektif

https://ebookstep.com/product/notos-sayi-95-1st-edition-kolektif/

Sistemas De Banco De Dados 7th Edition Ramez Elmasri

Shamkant B Navathe

https://ebookstep.com/product/sistemas-de-banco-de-dados-7th-
edition-ramez-elmasri-shamkant-b-navathe/

As 95 Teses Nós Devocionais diárias nas 95 Teses de

Martinho Lutero Sample André Bispo

https://ebookstep.com/product/as-95-teses-nos-devocionais-
diarias-nas-95-teses-de-martinho-lutero-sample-andre-bispo/
 “十一五”国家重点图书

俄罗斯数学
教材选译〔

数学分析
（第二卷）（第7版）

□ B. A.卓里奇著
□李植译
 “十一五”国家重点图书

•数学天元基金资助项目

俄罗斯数学

教材选译

数学分析
（第二卷）（第7版）

□ B. A.卓里奇著
□李梢译

故4tf版急・北京
图字：01-2016-9974 ⅛
B.A. 3opwπ Maine-uamimecKuu ancuιιi3 tIacτb II. Ce∕u>Moe n3∕ιaHue, Aonα∏HeHHoe.
MUHMO. Mocκβa, 2015.

Originally published in Russian under the title

Mathematical Analysis by V. A. Zorich (Part IL 7th expanded edition, Moscow 2015)
MCCME (Moscow Center for Continuous Mathematical Education Publ.)
Copyright © V. A. Zorich
All Rights Reserved

数学分析.第二卷 图B在版编H（CIP）数据
Shuxue fenxi
数学分析：第7版.第二卷/ （俄罗斯）B A.电里奇著；
李植译,一新［版.一北京：高等教育出版社，2019.2
ISBN 978-7-04-028756-1
】.①数…II .①B∙∙∙②李…III.①数学分析一高等
学校一教材IV.①017
中国版本图书馆CIP数据核字（2018）第285599号

策划编辑赵天夫 责任编辑李鹏李华英吴晓丽和静
封面设计王凌波 责任印制刘思涵

出版发行高等教育出版社 开本 787mm× 1092mm 1/16

社址北京市西城区德外大街4号 印张39.75
邮政编码10012。 字数740干字
购书热线010-58581118 版次2019年2月第1版
咨询电话400-810-0598 印次2019年2月第1次印刷
网址 http://www.hep.edu.cn 定价89.00元
http://www.hep.com.cn
网上订购 http://www.hepmall.com.cn 本书如有缺页、倒页、脱页等质量问题,
http://www.hepmall.com 请到所购图书销售部门联系调换
http://www.hepmall.cn 版权所有侵权必究
印刷肥城新华印刷有限公司 ［物料号 28756-00］
内容简介

本书是作者在莫斯科大学力学数学系多遍讲授数学分析课程的基础上写成的 ，
自1981年第1版出版以来，到2()15年已经修订、增补至第7版。作者加强了分析
学、代数学和几何学等现代数学课程之间的联系，重点关注一般数学中最有本质意
义的概念和方法.采用适当接近现代数学文献的语言进行叙述，在保持数学一般理
论叙述严谨性的同时，也尽量体现数学在自然科学中的各种应用。
全书共两卷，第二卷内容包括：连续映射的一般理论、赋范空间中的微分学、
重积分、中的曲面和微分形式、曲线积分与曲面积分、向量分析与场论、微分形
式在流形上的积分、级数和含参变量的函数族的一致收敛性和基本运算、含参变址
的积分、傅里叶级数与傅里叶变换、渐近展开式。
与常见的数学分析教材相比，本卷内容相当新颖，系统地引进了现代数学(包
括泛函分析、拓扑学和现代微分几何等)的基本概念、思想和方法・用微分形式语
言对基本积分公式的叙述特别具有参考价值，有关应用的内容也更加贴近现代自然
科学。
本书观点较高，内容丰富新颖，所选习题极具特色，是教材理论部分的有益补
充。本书可作为综合大学和师范大学数学、物理、力学及相关专业的教师和学生的
教材或主要参考书，也可供工科大学应用数学专业的教师和学生参考使用 •
《俄罗斯数学教材选译》序

从上世纪50年代初起，在当时全面学习苏联的大背景下，国内的高等学校大
量采用了翻译过来的苏联数学教材.这些教材体系严密，论证严谨，有效地帮助了
青年学子打好扎实的数学基础，培养了一大批优秀的数学人才.到了 60年代，国
内开始编纂出版的大学数学教材逐步代替了原先采用的苏联教材，但还在很大程
度上保留着苏联教材的影响，同时，一些苏联教材仍被广大教师和学生作为主要参
考书或课外读物继续发挥着作用.客观地说，从解放初一直到文化大革命前夕，苏
联数学教材在培养我国高级专门人才中发挥了重要的作用，起了不可忽略的影响,
是功不可没的.
改革开放以来，通过接触并引进在体系及风格上各有特色的欧美数学教材，大
家眼界为之一新，并得到了很大的启发和教益.但在很长一段时间中 ，尽管苏联的
数学教学也在进行积极的探索与改革，引进却基本中断，更没有及时地进行跟踪,
能看懂俄文数学教材原著的人也越来越少，事实上已造成了很大的隔膜，不能不
说是一个很大的缺憾.
事情终于出现了一个转折的契机.今年初，在由中国数学会、中国工业与应用
数学学会及国家自然科学基金委员会数学天元基金联合组织的迎春茶话会上，有
数学家提出，莫斯科大学为庆祝成立250周年计划推出一批优秀教材，建议将其中
的一些数学教材组织翻译出版.这一建议在会上得到广泛支持，并得到高等教育出
版社的高度重视.会后高等教育出版社和数学天元基金一起邀请熟悉俄罗斯数学
教材情况的专家座谈讨论，大家一致认为：在当前着力引进俄罗斯的数学教材，有
助「扩大视野"开拓思路，对提高数学教学质量、促进数学教材改革均十分必要.
《俄罗斯数学教材选译》系列正是在这样的情况下，经数学天元基金资助，由高等
教育出版社组织出版的.
• ii・ 《俄罗斯数学教材选译》序

经过认真选题并精心翻译校订，本系列中所列入的教材，以莫斯科大学的教材
为主，也包括俄罗斯其他一些著名大学的教材.有大学基础课程的教材，也有适合
大学高年级学生及研究生使用的教学用书.有些教材虽曾翻译出版,但经多次修订
重版，面目己有较大变化，至今仍广泛采用、深受欢迎，反射出俄罗斯在出版经典
教材方面所作的不懈努力，对我们也是一个有益的借鉴.这一教材系列的出版，将
中俄数学教学之间中断多年的链条重新连接起来，对推动我国数学课程设置和教
学内容的改革，对提高数学素养、培养更多优秀的数学人才，可望发挥积极的作用,
并起着深远的影响，无疑值得庆贺，特为之序.

李大潜
2005年10月
中文版序言

我很高兴这本数学分析教材有了新的中文版.我希望读者至少浏览一下本书
的第1版序言摘录和后续各版序言，以便了解本书的结构和特点，以及我针对其使
用方法向学生和教师提出的一些建议.呈献给广大读者的这个中文版是全新的 ，不
仅文字经过重新翻译，版面也经过重新设计.
—为了不影响正文，在每一卷最后补充了一系列附录.
本书内容有显著增加—
在第一卷中补充了六个附录（面向一年级学生的数学分析引言，初论方程的数
值解法，初论勒让德变换，初论黎曼-斯蒂尔切斯积分、5函数和广义函数，欧拉-麦
克劳林公式，再论隐函数定理），在第二卷中也补充了六个附录（初论级数工具，多
重积分中的变量代换，高维几何学与自变量极多的函数，多元函数与微分形式及其
热力学解释，曲线坐标系中的场论算子，现代牛顿-莱布尼茨公式与数学的统一）.
这些附录对（数学专业和物理学专业的）学生和教师各有帮助.最后一个附录
可以视为全书的总结，其中包括整个教材在观念上最重要的成就—
—建立了数学
分析与数学其他分支之间的联系.

B.A.卓里奇
莫斯科，2016年
再版序言

我刚刚为这本教材最新的英文版写了序言，其中同样适用于俄文第7版的内
容，我认为可以在这里重复一下.
本教材此前各版出版后，科学并没有停滞不前.例如，费马大定理和庞加莱猜
想得到了证明，找到了希格斯玻色子，等等.诸多成就，不胜枚举.这些发展虽然可
能与经典数学分析教材没有直接关系，但是其间接表现是，本教材的作者在这段时
间里也学习、思考、理解了一些东西，扩展了自己的知识储备"而这些扩展的知识
甚至在讨论似乎完全无关的其他事物时也是有用的①.
除了俄文原版，本教材还有英文版、德文版和中文版.细心的各国读者在书中
找到了很多错误.幸好，这都是一些局部的错误，主要是印刷错误.当然，这些错误
在新版中已经得到修正.
俄文第7版与第6版的主要区别是在正文之后补充了新的附录.在第一卷中
补充了一个附录（欧拉-麦克劳林公式），在第二卷中补充了三个附录（多元函数与
微分形式及其热力学解释，曲线坐标系中的场论算子，现代牛顿—莱布尼茨公式与
数学的统一）.这些附录对（数学专业和物理学专业的）学生和教师各有帮助.最后
—建立了数
一个附录可以视为总结，其中包括整个教程在观念上最重要的成就—
学分析与数学其他分支之间的联系.
让我感到欣慰的是，本书在某种程度上不仅可供数学和物理学专业师生参考,
而且对高等工科院校工科专业师生深入学习数学也有帮助.这激励我写出与热力
学有关的一个附录，让数学与内容基础但内涵相当丰富的热力学密切联系起来.

①与阿达马一样，爱尔迪希也是一位长寿的数学家 ，卜面的趣闻正是关于他的.某一位记者在采访年
事已高的爱尔迪希时，最后问他有多少岁.爱尔迪希稍微思考后回答：“我记得，当我很年轻时，科学证实地
球存在了 20亿年.而现在，科学表明地球已经存在45亿年.因此，我大概有25亿岁
 再版序言

我高兴地看到，新一代已经站在老一代的肩膀上成长起来，他们的思考更广
泛，理解更深刻，本领也更高强.

B. A.卓里奇
莫斯科，2015年

居住在不同国家的很多人利用各种机会向出版社或者我本人提供了在本书的
俄、英、德或中文版中发现的各种错误（印刷错误、谬误、遗漏），我以自己和未来
读者的名义向他们全体表示感谢.在本书的俄文第 6版中，我考虑了这些意见并
进行了相应修订.
现在己经清楚，本书也适用于物理专业师生，我对此非常欣慰.无论如何，我
确实尽量把常规理论与它在数学内外的丰富应用实例结合起来.
第6版包括一系列附录，它们可能对学生和教师有所帮助.这首先是某些实际
课堂材料（例如第一和第三学期作为引*的头一次课的笔记），其次是一些数学知
识（有些是当前正在研究的问题，例如高维几何学与概率论的联系），它们是本书基
本内容的延伸.

B. A.卓里奇
莫斯科，2011年

本书第2版与第1版的区别，除订正了在第1版中发现的印刷错误外，主要
是：重新撰写了（希望是改进了）个别专题的某些章节（例如与傅里叶级数和傅里
叶变换有关的章节）；给出了个别重要定理（例如一般的有限增量定理）的更清晰的
证明；补充了与相应章节的理论相衔接的一些新的应用实例和内容丰富的习题，它
们有时显著推广了理论；列出了考试大纲和单元测试题；增加了补充文献.
在后附第1版序言中进一步介绍了本书第二卷的内容和某些特点.

BA.卓里奇
莫斯科，1998年
第1版序言

我在本书第一卷的序言中已经足够详细地介绍了全书的特点，所以在这里只
给出关于第二卷内容的一些说明.
构成这一卷基本内容的材料，一方面是重积分、曲线积分和曲面积分，乃至一
般的斯托克斯公式及其应用实例，另一方面是级数和含参变量的积分 ，包括傅里叶
级数、傅里叶变换，以及渐近展开式的概念.
因此，第二卷基本对应着大学数学系二年级的教学大纲.
为了不使上述两大专题的先后顺序按照学期完全固定下来，我实际上独立地
叙述了各自的内容.
第九章和第十章，即本卷的前两章，在本质上用紧凑的一般形式重新叙述了第
一卷中关于连续函数和可微函数的几乎全部最重要的内容.虽然用星号标记的这
两章是为补充第一卷而写的，但其中许多概念现在已经成为写给数学系学生的任
何数学分析教材的固定内容.它们使第二卷在形式上几乎独立于第一卷，但前提是
读者已经受到充分训练，即使没有大量的例题、启发和铺垫也能够顺利阅读这两
章，而在提出这里的体系之前，这些材料都包含在第一卷中.
本卷关于多元函数积分学的新内容主要始自第十一章.其实，在本教程第一卷
之后可以从这一章开始阅读第二卷，而不会影响理解的连贯性.
在介绍曲线积分和曲面积分理论时阐述并使用了微分形式的语言.首先基于
初等材料引入全部基本的几何概念和解析结构，然后由它们构成一系列抽象定义,
从而得到一般的斯托克斯公式.
第十五章也这样总结了流形上的微分形式积分理论.我认为，这是对必学的第
十一章至第十四章中的理论叙述和实际应用的非常恰当的系统性补充.
 第1版序言 -VII .

关于级数和含参变量的积分的章节既包含传统材料，也包含关于积分的渐近
级数和渐近式的初步知识（第十九章），因为这无疑是大有用处的高效的分析工具.
为了便于查阅，用星号标记出了补充材料，即在初次阅读时可以略过的章节.
本卷各章和插图的序号延续了已经出版的第一卷中的相应序号 .
这里只给出了在第一卷中没有提及的学者的生平简介.
为了阅读方便和行文简洁，与第一卷一样，分别用符号V和A表示证明的开
始和结束，而在合适的时候用专门的记号：=或=：（按照定义相等）引入定义，其中
冒号与被定义的对象位于同一边.
本卷保持了第一卷的风格，既关注数学结构本身的简洁性和逻辑性，也关注理
论在自然科学中的丰富应用的展示.

B.A.卓里奇
莫斯科，1982年
目录

《俄罗斯数学教材选译》序................................................ i

中文版序言................................................................ iii

再版序言.................................................................. iv

第1版序言................................................................ vi

*第九章连续映射（一般理论）......................................... 1
§1.度量空间.............................................................. 1
L定义和实例（1） 2.度量空间的开子集和闭子集（4） 3.度量空间的子空间（6）
度量空间的直积 （7）习题（7）
4.
§2.拓扑空间.............................................................. 8
基本定义 （8） 2.拓扑空间的子空间（11） 3.拓扑空间的直积（11）习题（12）
1.
§3.紧集................................................................. 13
紧集的定义和一般性质 （13） 2.度量紧集（14）习题（16）
1.
§4.连通的拓扑空间...................................................... 16
习题（17）
§5.完备度量空间........................................................18
基本定义和实例 （18） 2.度量空间的完备化（21）习题（24）
1.
§6.拓扑空间的连续映射................................................. 24
1.映射的极限（24） 2.连续映射（26）习题（29）
• ii ∙ 目录

§7.压缩映射原理....................................................... 29
习题(34)

*第十章更一般观点下的微分学(一般理论)......................... 35

§1.线性赋范空间....................................................... 35
1.数学分析中线性空间的实例(35) 2.线性空间中的范数(36) 3.向量空间中
的标量积(38)习题(41)
§2.线性算子和多重线性算子............................................. 42
1.定义和实例(42) 2.算子的范数(45) 3.连续算子空间(48)习题(52)
§3.映射的微分.......................................................... 53
1.在一点可微的映射(53) 2. 一般的微分法则(54) 3.某些实例(55) 4.映射
的偏导数(60)习题(61)
§4.有限增量定理及其应用实例........................................ 63
1.有限增量定理(63) 2.有限增量定理的应用实例(65)习题(68)
§5.高阶导映射.......................................................... 68
1.71阶微分的定义(68) 2.沿向量的导数和71阶微分的计算(69) 3.高阶微分
的对称性(71) 4.附注(72)习题(73)
§6.泰勒公式和极值研究................................................. 74
1.映射的泰勒公式(74) 2.内部极值研究(74) 3.实例(76)习题(80)
§7. 一般的隐函数定理................................................... 82
习题(89)

第--- 章重积分........................................................ 91

§1. n维区间上的黎曼积分.............................................. 91
L积分的定义(91) 2.黎曼可积函数的勒贝格准则(93) 3.达布准则(96)习
题(98)
§2.集合上的积分....................................................... 99
1.容许集(99) 2.集合上的积分(100) 3.容许集的测度(体积)(101)习题(102)
§3.积分的一般性质................................................... 103
1.积分是线性泛函(103) 2.积分的可加性(103) 3.积分的估计(104)习题
(106)
§4.重积分化为累次积分................................................ 107
1.富比尼定理(107) 2.一些推论(109)习题(112)
§5.重积分中的变量代换................................................ 113
1.问题的提出和变量代换公式的启发式推导(113) 2.可测集和光滑映射(115)
一维情况 (116) 4.
3. 中最简微分同胚的情况(118) 5.映射的复合与变量代
 目录 ・in ∙

换公式(119) 6.积分的可加性和积分中变量代换公式的最终证明(120) 7.重

积分中变量代换公式的一些推论和推广(121)习题(124)
§6.反常重积分......................................................... 126
基本定义 (126) 2.反常积分收敛性的比较检验法(128) 3.反常积分中的变
1.
量代换(131)习题(133)

第十二章ET中的曲面和微分形式.................................... 136

§1. Rrι中的曲面........................................................ 136

习题(143)
§2.曲面的定向......................................................... 144
习题(148)
§3.曲面的边界及边界的定向............................................ 149
带边曲面 (149) 2.曲面定向与边界定向的相容性(151)习题(154)
1.
§4.欧氏空间中曲面的面积..............................................154
习题(159)
§5.微分形式的初步知识................................................ 162
1.微分形式的定义和实例(162) 2.微分形式的坐标记法(165) 3.外微分形式
(167) 4.向量和微分形式在映射下的转移(170) 5.曲面上的微分形式(173)习
题(173)

第十三章曲线积分与曲面积分....................................... 176

§1.微分形式的积分..................................................... 176
1.原始问题、启发性思考和实例(176) 2.微分形式在定向曲面上的积分的定义
(181)习题(184)
§2.体形式，第一类积分与第二类积分 ................................... 188
L物质面的质量(188) 2.曲面面积是微分形式的积分(188) 3.体形式(189) 4.
体形式在笛卡儿坐标下的表达式(191) 5.第一类积分与第二类积分(192)习
题(194)
§3.数学分析的基本积分公式............................................ 196
格林公式 (196) 2.高斯-奥斯特洛格拉德斯基公式(200) 3. JR’中的斯托克
1.
斯公式(203) 4. 一般的斯托克斯公式(204)习题(207)

第十四章 向量分析与场论初步....................................... 211

§1.向量分析的微分运算................................................ 211
1.标量场与向量场(211) 2. R3中的向量场与各种形式(211) 3.微分算子grad,
5. 曲线坐标下的向量
rot, div和V (213) 4.向量分析的一些微分公式(217) *
运算(218)习题(226)
 IV 目录

§2.场论的积分公式.....................................................227
1.用向量表示的经典积分公式(227) 2. div, rot, grad的物理解释(230) 3.后
续的某些积分公式(233)习题(235)
§3.势场................................................................ 237
1.向量场的势(237) 2.势场的必要条件(238) 3.向量场是势场的准则(239)
4.区域的拓扑结构与势(241) 5.向量势，恰当微分形式与闭微分形式(243)习
题(246)
§4.应用实例............................................................ 249
1.热传导方程(249) 2.连续性方程(251) 3.连续介质动力学基本方程(252)
4.波动方程(253)习题(255)

*第十五章微分形式在流形上的积分................................ 257

§1.线性代数回顾...................................................... 257
1.
形式代数 (257) 2.斜对称形式代数(258) 3.线性空间的线性映射和对偶空
间的对偶映射(261)习题(262)
§2.流形................................................................ 263
1.流形的定义(263) 2.光滑流形与光滑映射(267) 3.流形及其边界的定向
(269) 4.单位分解和流形在底”中的曲面形式(272)习题(275)
§3.微分形式及其在流形上的积分...................................... 277
流形在一个点的切空间 (277) 2.流形上的微分形式(280) 3.外微分(282)
1.
4.微分形式在流形上的积分(282) 5.斯托克斯公式(284)习题(286)
§4.流形上的闭微分形式和恰当微分形式................................ 290
1.庞加莱定理(290) 2.同调与上同调(293)习题(297)

第十六章一致收敛性、函数项级数与函数族的基本运算..........299

§1.逐点收敛性与一致收敛性............................................ 299
逐点收敛性 (299) 2.基本问题的提法(300) 3.依赖于参数的函数族的收敛
1.
性和一致收敛性(302) 4.一致收敛性的柯西准则(304)习题(305)
§2.函数项级数的一致收敛性............................................ 306
1.级数一致收敛性的基本定义和判别准则(306) 2.级数一致收敛性的魏尔斯
特拉斯检验法(308) 3.阿贝尔-狄利克雷检验法(309)习题(313)
§3.极限函数的函数性质................................................ 313
1.问题的具体提法(313) 2.两个极限运算可交换的条件(314) 3.连续性与极
限运算(315) 4.积分运算与极限运算(318) 5.微分运算与极限运算(320)习
题(324)
*§4.连续函数空间的紧子集和稠密子集.................................. 327
1.
阿尔泽拉-阿斯柯利定理 (327) 2.度量空间C(K, Y) (329) 3.斯通定理
 目录

(330)习题(332)

第十七章含参变量的积分............................................ 335
§1.含参变量的常义积分................................................ 335
1.含参变量的积分的概念(335) 2.含参变量的积分的连续性(336) 3.含参变
量的积分的微分运算(337) 4.含参变量的积分的积分运算(340)习题(340)
§2.含参变量的反常积分................................................ 341
1.反常积分对参变量的-致收敛性(341) 2.反常积分中的极限运算与含参变
量的反常积分的连续性(347) 3.含参变量的反常积分的微分运算(350) 4.含
参变量的反常积分的积分运算(352)习题(356)
§3.欧拉积分............................................................ 358
1. β函数(358) 2. Γ函数(359) 3. β函数与Γ函数之间的联系(362) 4.实例
(362)习题(364)
§4.函数的卷积和广义函数的初步知识.................................. 367
1.物理问题中的卷积(启发式讨论 )(367) 2.卷积的一些一般性质(369) 3. 5型
4 .分布的初步概念(376)习题(385)
函数族与魏尔斯特拉斯逼近定理(371) *
§5.含参变量的重积分.................................................. 39()
含参变量的常义重积分 (390) 2.含参变量的反常重积分(390) 3.具有变奇
1.
异性的反常积分(391) *4 .高维情形下的卷积、广义函数和基本解(395)习题
(404)

第十八章傅里叶级数与傅里叶变换.................................. 409

§1.与傅里叶级数有关的一些主要的一般概念............................409
正交函数系 (409) 2.傅里叶系数和傅里叶级数(415) *
1. 3 .数学分析中的正交
函数系的一个重要来源(423)习题(427)
§2.傅里叶三角级数.....................................................432
1.经典傅里叶级数收敛性的基本形式(432) 2.傅里叶三角级数逐点收敛性的
研究(435) 3.函数的光滑性和傅里叶系数的下降速度(443) 4.三角函数系的
完备性(447)习题(453)
§3.傅里叶变换......................................................... 459
1.函数的傅里叶积分表达式(459) 2.函数的微分性质和渐近性质与它的傅里
叶变换之间的相互关系(469) 3.傅里叶变换的最重要的运算性质(472) 4.应
用实例(476)习题(480)

第十九章渐近展开式................................................. 487

§1.渐近公式和渐近级数................................................ 489
基本定义 (489) 2.渐近级数的一般知识(493) 3.渐近慕级数(497)习题
1.
(499)
. vi ■ 目录

§2.积分的渐近法(拉普拉斯方法)...................................... 502
1.拉普拉斯方法的思路(502) 2.拉普拉斯积分的局部化原理(505) 3. 一些典
5. 拉普拉
型积分和它们的渐近式(506) 4.拉普拉斯积分的渐近式主项(509) *
斯积分的渐近展开式(511)习题(521)

单元测试题.............................................................. 527

考试大纲................................................................. 530

期末考试试题............................................................ 533

期中测试题.............................................................. 534

附录一初论级数工具.................................................. 535

附录二多重积分中的变量代换(公式推导和初步讨论)............. 541

附录三 高维几何学与自变量极多的函数(测度聚集与大数定律)...547

附录四 多元函数与微分形式及其热力学解释....................... 554

附录五 曲线坐标系中的场论算子..................................... 563

附录六 现代牛顿-莱布尼茨公式与数学的统一(总结).............. 573

参考文献................................................................. 581

基本符号...................................... 588

名词索引..................................... 592

人名译名对照表......................................................... 611

译后记.................................................................... 614
*第九章连续映射(一般理论)

我们在前面研究了连续的数值函数和形如/ : Rm → Kn的映射的性质，在这
一章中将以统一的观点推广并叙述这些性质，同时引入一系列虽然简单但非常重
要的、在数学中广泛使用的概念.

§1.度量空间

1.定义和实例

定义1.我们说，集合X具有度量或度量空间的结构，即X是度量空间，如果
指定的函数
d： X x X τ& (1)
满足条件：
a) d(xι^ x^) = 0 o 孙=X21
b) d(x-[, z2) = d{x2∙i £1)(对称性)，
c) d(x1, W3) ≤ d(rrι, x2) + d{x2, X3)(三角形不等式)，
其中Z1, X2, £3是X的任意元素.这时，函数⑴称为X中的度量或距离.

因此，度量空间是由集合X和在该集合上给定的度量组成的对象(X, d)∙按
照几何术语，集合X的元素经常称为点.
我们指出，如果在三角形不等式c)中取心=外，则利用度量的公理a)和b)
得到
0 ≤ d(x1, x2),

即满足公理a), b), c)的距离是非负的.

• 2 ∙ *第九章连续映射(一般理论)

考虑一些实例.

例1.对于实数X-1, £2,我们在前面总是取d(xu x2)=而-吻实数集K于

是成为度量空间.

例2.在K上还可以引入许多其他的度量.例如 ，如果规定任何两个不同的点
之间的距离都等于1,我们就得到一个平凡的离散度量.
联上的以下度量的内涵则要丰富得多.设X→ f(x)是定义于a? ≥ 0的非负函
数，并且仅当x = 0时等于。.如果这个函数严格上凸，则对于z1,叼∈叽只要取

d3ι,q) = f(∖xi -吻|), ⑵

就得到IR上的度量.
公理a), b)这时显然成立，并且容易验证严格单调，而当。<a<b时满足
不等式
fS + b) - f(b) < ∕(α) — /(0) = f(a),

由此可以得到三角形不等式.
特别地，可以取d(xγ.吻)=√∣^1-^2∣或d(xu x2) =对于后者,
V l-∖-∖Xγ - X-2∖
数轴上任何两个点之间的距离都小于1.

例3.在政1中，除了点£]=(功，好，…，理)，吻=(破，咪，…，成)之间的通
常的距离

d3ι, xι) =、£ W —时IQ ⑶

∖ i=l

还可以引入距离

其中p≥l.从闵可夫斯基不等式(见第五章§4第2小节)可知，三角形不等式对
于函数(4)成立.

例4,如果在印刷的文件中遇到带有变形字母的单词，则只要难以分辨的字母
不太多，我们就能轻而易举地修改错误并恢复词意.但是，修改错误并恢复词意并
不总是唯一确定的操作，所以在其他条件相同的情况下，应当优先采用修改量较小
的解读.因此，在编码理论中，在由0和1组成的长度为72的所有序列的集合上,
采用p=l时的度量(4).
这些序列的集合在几何上可以解释为由 IT中的单位立方体

Z = {x ∈ " | 0 ≤ a;2 ≤ 1, i = 1, 2, • • ■, n}
 §1.度量空间 • 3 •

的顶点组成的集合.两个顶点之间的距离是为了从一个顶点的坐标得到另一个顶
点的坐标所必需的0, 1的转换数，而每一次这样的转换是沿立方体的一条棱进行
的.因此，上述距离是立方体顶点之间沿立方体的棱的最短道路长度.

例5.当p = 2时的度量(4)是在比较n次同类测量的两组结果时最常用的
度量.这时，两点之间的距离通常称为它们的均方差.

例6.如果在(4)中取p→÷∞时的极限，则容易看出，可以得到JR”中的以下
度量：

d(x-[1 也)= max ∖x∖ — x^∖- (5)

l≤i≤n

例7.对于闭区间上的连续函数集合C[α, b]中的函数/, g,如果取

d(∕, 9)= max I/W - 9(亿)|, (6)

α≤x≤t>

该集合就成为度量空间.

度量的公理a), b)显然成立，而三角形不等式得自

∣f (时-h(x)∖ ≤ ∣∕(x) - g{x)∖ + ∣g(%) — h{x)∖ ≤ d(£ g) ÷ d(g, h),

即
d(h h) = max |/(3：) - h(x)∖ ≤ d(∕, g) + d(g, h).
α≤^≤b

度量(6)称为C[α, b]中的一致度量或一致收敛性度量，也称为切比雪夫度量.
当我们希望用一个函数代替另一个函数，例如用多项式代替给定函数，以便通过
前者以所需精度计算后者在任何点 rr ∈ [a, b]的值时，就会用到度量(6),因为量
d(£ g)恰好刻画了该近似计算的精度.
C[a1 δ]中的度量(6)很像3T中的度量(5).

例8,类似于度量(4),当1时可以在C[a, b]中引入度量

(⅛(∕, g)=(∕ ∣f - g∣P(c)⅛r) • ⑺

这在〃次1时确实是度量，因为我们有闵可夫斯基积分不等式，而该不等式之
所以成立，是因为可以对相应积分和写出闵可夫斯基不等式并取极限.
度量(7)的重要特例是:p = 1,积分度量;p = 2,均方差度量；p = ÷∞, 一致
度量.
经常用符号Cp[a, b]表示具有度量⑺的空间C[a, b],可以验证，Coo[a,δ]是
具有度量(6)的空间C[a, b].
• 4 ∙ *第九章连续映射(一般理论)

例9.度量⑺ 似乎也可以用于区间［a, b］ ±的黎曼可积函数集7^［a, b］.不过,

即使两个函数不恒等，它们之差的模的积分也可以等于零，所以公理a)这时不成
立.然而我们知道，非负函数φ ∈ U［a, b］的积分等于零的充要条件是 心 =0在
闭区间［a, b］上几乎处处成立.
因此，如果把U∖a. b］划分为等价函数类，并且认为，只要πμ, h］中的两个函
数至多在一个零测度集上不相等，这两个函数就是等价的，则在由这样的等价函数
类组成的集合1l［a, b］上，关系式⑺确实给出了度量.具有该度量的集合b］
记为Kp［a, δ］,有时也简写为Kp［a, b］.

例10.在定义于［们b］并且在该区间上有前k阶连续导数的函数集C<fc)［a, b］
中可以定义以下度量：
d(£ g) = max(Λ∕0, ∙ ■ ∙, Mk｝, (8)

其中
Mi = max g ⑴(时，i = 0, 1, ■ ∙ ∙,虹
α≤x≤b '

因为(6)是度量，所以容易验证，(8)也是度量.
例如，假设f是一个运动的点的坐标，它是时间的函数.如果限定该点在时间
间隔［a, b］内所能到达的区域和最大速度，此外还希望达到一定的舒适性，即加速
度不应超过一个确定的级别，则对于函数feC⑵RM］自然考虑一组特征

｛乎呼 ∣∕(z)∣, max ∣f(^)h 挡专 ∣∕”(时｝,

αζ≈¾o aζixζzb αξx¾0
并且当量(8)很小时，认为运动L g就这些特征而言是相近的.

上述实例表明，在同一个集合上可以用不同方法引入度量.具体引入何种度
量，通常取决于问题的提法本身.现在，我们关注一切度量空间所共同具有的最一
般的•些性质.

2.度量空间的开子集和闭子集.设(X, d)是度量空间.类似于第七章 §1中

x = πrι的情形，在一般情形下也可以引入以给定点为中心的球、开集、闭集、点
的邻域、集合的极限点等概念.
我们来回忆这些概念，它们是今后讨论的基础.

定义 2.当 δ>0, aex 时，集合 B(a. δ) = ｛x e X ∖ d(a. x) < 3｝称为以 α ∈ X

为中心、以δ为半径的球，或点q的d邻域.

在一般度量空间的情形下，引入这样的术语是方便的，但不应把它等同于我们
在R3中已经习惯的传统几何对象.

例11.在C［a, b］中，以在［a, b］上恒等于零的函数为中心的单位球 ，由在［a, b］

上连续并且模小于1的函数组成.
 §1.度量空间 • 5 •

例12,设X是R2中的单位正方形，而该正方形中两点之间的距离由这两点
在 仃中的距离来定义.于是，χ是度量空间，并且可以认为具有这种度量的正方
形X本身是以其中心为中心、以任何p ≥ √2∕2为半径的球.

显然，这样可以构造出奇形怪状的球，所以不应完全从字面上理解术语吁求”.

定义3.集合GcX称为度量空间（X, d）中的开集，如果对于任何点^∈G,
满足B｛x, δ）cG的球B｛x. δ）存在.

从这个定义显然可知，X本身是（X, d）中的开集，空集0也是开集.通过与
职1情况相同的讨论可以证明，球阳 r）及其外部｛re € X [ d（α, x） > r｝都是开集.
（见第七章§1例3, 4.）

定义4.集合F UX称为（X, d）中的闭集，如果它的补集X∖y是（X, d）中

的开集.

特别地，由此可知，闭球B（α, r）-.= ｛xeX ∖ d（a, x） ≤ r｝是度量空间（X,（1）中

的闭集.
对于度量空间（X,d）中的开集和闭集，以下命题成立.

命题L a）由X中的开集G°组成的任何开集族｛G°, aeA｝的集合的并集

∪ Ga是X中的开集.
α∈Λ
n
b） X中有限个开集的交集n G是X中的开集.
i=l
泌）由X中的闭集兀组成的任何闭集族｛兀，α∈ A｝的集合的交集∩ J∙q是
x中的闭集. 住q
1√） X中有限个闭集的并集©无是X中的闭集.
1=1

命题I的证明完全重复关于nr中的开集和闭集的相应命题的证明（见第七
章§1命题1）,这里不再讨论.

定义5. x中包含点x的开集称为这个点在x中的邻域.

定义6.点£ e X称为集合ECX的
内点，如果这个点与它的某个邻域都包含在E中；
外点，如果这个点是E在X中的补集的内点；
边界点，如果这个点既不是E的内点，也不是E的外点（即在这个点的任何
邻域中既有属于E的点，也有不属于E的点）.

例13,球B（q, r）的所有的点都是它的内点，而集合CxB｛a. r） = X∖B（a, r）

由球B（a, r）的外点组成.
• 6 ∙ *第九章连续映射(一般理论)

在具有标准度量d的空间Rn中，球面S(α, r) = {xeRn ∖ d(a, x) = r > Q}是

球B(a, r)的边界点的集合①.

定义7.点α∈X称为集合EUX的极限点，如果对于这个点的任何邻域
O(α)5集合E ∩ 0(«)是无限集.

定义8.集合E与它在X中所有极限点的集合的并集称为集合E在X中的
闭包.

沿用以前的记号，用E表示集合ECX的闭包.

命题2.集合J7U X是X中的闭集的充要条件是它包含自己的所有极限点.

于是，
S是x中的闭集)。(在x中广=尹).

我们省略证明，因为它重复第七章§1中X = 3T时的类似命题的证明.

3.度量空间的子空间.如果(X, d)是度量空间，E是X的子集，并且规定E
中任何两点X1,叼之间的距离等于d{xu吻)，即这两点在X中的距离，我们就得
到度量空间(E, d),该空间称为原度量空间(X, d)的子空间.
于是，我们采用以下定义.

定义9.度量空间(Xι,dι)称为度量空间(X,力的子空间，如果X】UX,并
且对于集合Xi的任何两点αj 5,等式d1(a, b) = d(a, b)成立.

因为度量空间(X, d)的子空间(Xi, r∕1)中的球

Sι(α, r) = {jr ∈ Xi ∖ dγ(a, x) < r}

显然是集合X]UX与X中的球B(a, r)的交集，即

B∖ (α,厂)=Xi ∏ B(a, r),

所以Xi中的任何开集具有以下形式：

Gι =Xι∩G,

其中G是X中的开集，而Xi中的任何闭集方具有以下形式：

J7ι = X∖ ∩ J7,

其中7•是X中的闭集.
由此可见,度量空间中的集合是开集或闭集的性质是相对的，与集合所在空间
有关.

①关于例13,还可以参考本节习题2.
 §1.度量空间 • 7 •

23的横坐标轴上的区间 园V 1, g = 0中引入R2中的标
例14.如果在平面K1
准度量，就得到度量空间(Xi, dι)∙与任何度量空间一样，所得空间本身是闭空间,
因为它包含它在Xi中的所有极限点.与此同时，显然，Xi不是R2=X中的闭集.

这个例子表明，开集的概念也是相对的.

例15.具有度量⑺的区间[α, b]上的连续函数集C[a, b]是度量空间Up[a, δ]

的子空间.但是，如果在C[a, b]上考虑度量(6),而不是(7),则这个结论不再成立.

4.度量空间的直积.如果(X】，dl)和(X2, ⅛)是两个度量空间，就可以在直
积X1 X X2中引入度量(1,最常用的方法如下.
设(n叼)∈^1 × X2,(矿，戒)∈JV1 X X2,则可以取

d(31, ©2), (
,
* 戒))=巩)+ 成(％2,时)，

或
d((n rr2),(矿，⅛)) = dι(m + ⅛(^2,显)，

或
d((^ι,旺)，(矿，^2)) = max(⅛(xι, xf1), ⅛(^2,戒)}.

容易看出，我们在上述每一种情形下都得到X】xX2上的度量.

定义10.如果(Xi,山)，(X2, ⅛)是两个度量空间"而d是在Xi × X2中按照

上述任何一种方式引入的度量，则空间(Xi ×¾, d)称为原度量空间的直积.

例16.可以认为空间股2是具有标准度量的两个度量空间技的直积"而度量
空间皿是度量空间1R2与Ri =]R的直积.

习题

1. a)请推广例2并证明：如果/ : R+ → R+是严格上凸连续函数，II /(0) = 0,而(X, d)

是度量空间，则在X上可以用关系式df(xu x2) = f(d(x1,x2))定义新度量df.
d(n W2)
b)请证明：在任何度量空间(X, d)上都口J以引入度量d,(xu x2)= ，使两点
1 + d(xι, X2)
之间的距离不超过1.
2. 设(X, d)是具有如例2开始所述的平凡度量(离散度量)的度量空间，而α∈X,则集合
B(α, 1/2), B(α, 1), B(<ι, 1), B(α, 1), B(α, 3/2), {a? ∈ X ∣ d(a, w) = 1∕2}, {x ∈ X ∣ d(ay x) = 1),
B(a, l)∖B(a, 1), B(a, l)∖B(a, 1)是怎样的集合？
3. a)任何一族闭集的并集是闭集，这是否成立？
b) 一个集合的任何边界点是否都是它的极限点 ？
c) 在一个集合的一个边界点的任何邻域中既有该集合的内点，又有该集合的外点，这是否
成立？
• 8 ∙ *第九章连续映射(一般理论)

d)请证明：任何一个集合的边界点集合是闭集.
4. a)请证明：如果(V, dγ)是度量空间(X, dx)的子空间，则对于M中的任何开(闭)集
Gγ (7∙y),可以在 X 中找到开(闭)集 Gx (7∙χ),使得 Gγ =Y∏Gx (Fγ = Y∏^x).
b)请验证：如果y中的开集G,γ, G+互不相交，则可以在X中选取相应的集合Gχ,G女,
使它们也没有公共点.
5. 当集合X具有度量d时，可以尝试利用d(A1 B) = inf rf(α, b)来定义集合A U X
αE√4十 f>E B
与BCX之间的距离.
a) 请给出一个度量空间及它的两个互不相交闭子集4 B的实例，使d(A, B) = 0.
b) 请证明(最初由豪斯多夫提出)：在度量空间(X")的有界闭了集集合上可以引入豪斯
多夫度量D,即对于AC X, B CX,可以取

D(A, B) := max < sup J(αt B)1 supd(A1 b) ∖.

I a€A b∈B J

§2.拓扑空间

对于与函数极限或映射极限的概念有关的问题，在许多情况下，重要的并不是
某一种度量在一个空间中存在，而是我们能够定义一个点的邻域.为了让大家相信
这一点，只需要回忆极限或连续性的定义，因为这些定义本身都可以用邻域的术语
表述出来.在拓扑空间这个数学对象中，可以用最一般的形式研究映射的极限运算
和连续性.

1.基本定义

定义1.我们说，集合X具有拓扑空间结构或拓扑，或者说，X是拓扑空间,
如果指定了 X的一个子集族丁(其中的集合称为X中的开集)，它具有以下性质：
a) 0 ∈ τ, X W 丁；
b) (∀α ∈ A (τα ∈ τ))今(J % £ 丁；
α∈A
n
c) (τi ∈ τ, z = 1, n) => ∩ Ti ∈ τ.
i=l

因此，拓扑空间是由集合X和它的上述子集族T组成的序偶(X, 丁).子集族
T包含空集和整个集合X,并且T中的任何数目的集合的并集和有限数目的集合
的交集也都是丁中的集合.
可以看出，拓扑空间的公理a), b), c)就是我们在度量空间情形下已经证明的
开集的性质.因此，定义了上述开集概念的任何度量空间都是拓扑空间.
于是，在X中给出拓扑意味着指出X的一个满足拓扑空间公理a), b), c)的
子集族丁.
 §2.拓扑空间 • 9 •

如上所见，在X中只要给出一种度量，自然也就给出由它导出的拓扑.不过,
应当指出，x中的不同度量能够在这个集合中导出同一种拓扑.

例1.设X="（n>l）.在"中考虑由§1的关系式⑸给出的度量di（x1.x2）
和由§1的公式（3）定义的度量⅛（x1,旺）.
从不等式
dι3ι, x2） ≤ ⅛（^ι,助 ≤ ∖∕nd1（x1, x2）

显然可知，在上述两个度量中的一个度量下，以任意点α∈X为中心的每一个球
B（α, r）都包含另一个度量下以同一个点为中心的某一个球.所以，根据度量空间
开子集的定义，这两个度量在X中导出同一个拓扑.

我们在本书范围内始终采用的几乎全部拓扑空间都是度量空间 ，但是不应认
为任何拓扑空间都是度量空间，即不应认为任何拓扑空间都具有度量，使该度量
下的开集与给出χ中的拓扑的开集族τ中的开集相同.可以这样做的条件就是通
常所说的度量化定理的内容.

定义2.如果（X, τ）是拓扑空间，则子集族τ中的集合称为拓扑空间（X, τ）
的开集，而它在X中的补集称为拓扑空间（X, τ）的闭集.

为了给出集合X中的拓扑乙很少采用列举子集族τ中的所有集合的方法,
经常只需要指出X的某一类子集，只要由这些子集的并集和交集可以得到子集族
τ中的任何集合即可.所以，以下定义非常重要.

定义3. X的开子集族四称为拓扑空间（X, τ）的基（开基或拓扑基入如果每

一个开集G∈τ都是开子集族方中的某些元素的并集.

例2.如果（X, d）是度量空间，而（X, τ）是相应的拓扑空间，则所有的球的集

合四={B（a, r） ∖ a e X. r > 0}显然是τ的拓扑基.此外，如果取以正有理数r为
半径的所有的球的集合作为方，则它也是τ的拓扑基.

于是，只要描述拓扑丁的基，就可以给出拓扑n由例2可见，一个拓扑空间
可以有许多不同的拓扑基.

定义4. 一个拓扑空间的基的最小势称为该拓扑空间的权.

我们通常考虑具有可数拓扑基的拓扑空间（但是，也请考虑习题4和6）.
例3.如果在仲中取以所有可能的有理点（竺ξ…，竺⅛） £晔为中心、以
∖ ni nk ）
所有可能的有理数r=->0为半径的所有的球的集合作为％则显然得到空间
n
Kfc的标准拓扑的可数基.不难验证，有限的开集族不可能给出∏Vc中的标准拓扑.
因此，标准拓扑空间Rfc具有可数的权.
.10 ∙ *第九章连续映射(一般理论)

定义5.拓扑空间(X, 丁)中包含点⑦€ X的开集称为该点的邻域.

显然，如果在X上给出了拓扑τ,就确定了每个点的邻域系.
显然还可以看出，拓扑空间各个点的所有邻域系是这个空间的拓扑基.因此,
只要描述集合X的点的邻域，就可以在X中引入拓扑，而这正是最初定义拓扑的
方式①.请注意，例如，在度量空间中，我们其实只要指出点的<5邻域，即可引入拓
扑.我们再举一个例子.

例4,考虑定义在整条数轴上的实值连续函数集C(IR, R),并在此基础上构造
—连续函数芽的集合.对于函数/, g € C(IH, IR)和点α∈K,如果
一个新的集合—
可以找到这个点的邻域U(a),使∀τ ∈ U(a) (f(x) = g(z)),我们就认为函数/, g在
点Q是等价的.这个关系确实是等价关系(它具有
自反性、对称性和传递性).在点a∈R彼此等价
的连续函数类称为在这个点的连续函数芽.如果f
a 是在点α生成连续函数芽的函数之一，我们就用记
号儿表示连续函数芽本身.现在定义连续函数芽
的邻域.设U(a)是］R中的点a的邻域，/是定义
在U(a)上的连续函数，并且在点q生成连续函数
芽fa.这个函数在任何点zEU(q)生成自己的连
续函数芽h∙所有的点⑦∈ U(a)所对应的连续函数芽的集合｛£｝称为连续函数
芽fa的邻域.取所有连续函数芽的这样的邻域的集合作为拓扑基，我们就把连续
函数芽的集合转变为拓扑空间•值得指出，在这个拓扑空间中，两个不同的点(连
续函数芽)∕α, ga可以没有不相交的邻域(图66).

定义6.如果豪斯多夫公理在一个拓扑空间中成立，即如果该空间的任何两个
不同的点具有不相交的邻域，则该拓扑空间称为豪斯多夫空间.

例5.任何度量空间(X, d)显然都是豪斯多夫空间，因为对于满足d(a, b) > 0

的任何两个点a,beX,其球邻域B(a, d(a, δ)∕2), B(b, d(a, 6)/2)没有公共点.

与此同时，如例4所示，非豪斯多夫拓扑空间也很常见.具有最简单的拓扑
τ=(0, X｝的拓扑空间(X, 丁)大概是这种空间的最简单的例子.如果X至少包
含两个点，则(X, 丁)显然不是豪斯多夫空间.此外，在这个空间中，一个点的补集
X ∖x不是开集.
我们将只考虑豪斯多夫拓扑空间.

①度量空间和拓扑空间的明确概念是在20世纪初提出的.法国数学家弗雷歇(M.R.Fr&het, 1878-
1973)在1906年引入了度量空间的概念，德国数学家豪斯多夫(F.Hausdorff, 1868-1942)在1914年定义了
拓扑空间.
 §2.拓扑空间 . 11 .

定义7.集合EcX称为拓扑空间（X, τ）中的处处稠密集，如果对于任何点
αr∈X和它的任何邻域U（x）,交集E∏U（x）都不是空集.

例6.如果在IR中考虑标准拓扑，则有理数集Q是R中的处处稠密集.类似
地，nr中的有理点集是πr中的处处稠密集.

可以证明，每一个拓扑空间都具有势不大于这个拓扑空间的权的处处稠密集.

定义8.具有可数的处处稠密集的度量空间称为可分空间.

例7.度量空间（r\d）在任何标准度量下都是可分空间，因为集合Q孔是其
中的处处稠密集.

例8.具有由关系式（6）定义的度量的度量空间（Cf（[0, 1], H）, d）也是可分空

间，因为从函数∕∈C（[0, 1],R）的一致连续性可知，可以用顶点具有有理坐标的有
限段折线以任意精度逼近任何这样的函数的图像.这样的折线的集合是可数集.

我们将主要考虑可分空间.
我们现在指出，因为拓扑空间中的点的邻域的定义与度量空间中的点的邻域
的定义在文字表述上是完全相同的，而我们在§1中研究集合的内点、外点、边界
点、极限点以及集合的闭包等概念时，在表述中只用到了邻域的概念，所以这些概
念自然也适用于任意拓扑空间的情况.
此外（从第七章§1命题2的证明中可以看出），以下命题同样成立：豪斯多夫
拓扑空间中的集合是闭集的充分必要条件是它包含它所有的极限点.

2. 拓扑空间的子空间•设（X, τx）是拓扑空间，而Y是X的子集.利用拓扑
τx可以定义y中的以下拓扑号，我们称之为r ex中的诱导拓扑或相对拓扑.
设Gχ是X中的开集，则形如Gy = YΓ∖Gx的任何集合Gy称为y中的开集.
不难验证，由此产生的y的子集族τy满足拓扑空间的开集公理.
可以看出，Y中的开集Gγ的定义与我们在前一节第3小节中得到的结果一
致，那里的y是度量空间X的子空间.

定义9.设拓扑空间（X, T）的子集F U X具有诱导拓扑岛，则该子集称为拓

扑空间（X, T）的子空间.

显然，（匕τy）中的开集不一定是（X, 丁X）中的开集.

3. 拓扑空间的直积.如果（X1, 丁1）和（X2, τ2）是分别具有开集族τ1 = {G1},

τ2 = {G2}的两个拓扑空间，则在Xi × X2中可以引入一个拓扑，而形如Gι ×G2
的所有可能的集合是它的基.
. 12 . *第九章连续映射（一般理论）

定义10.拓扑空间（Xi x X2, τ1 × τ2）称为拓扑空间（Xi, τ1）, （X2, τ2）的直积,

如果它的拓扑基由形如Gι × G2的集合组成，其中Gi是拓扑空间（& τi） （Z = 1, 2）
中的开集.

例9.如果考虑具有标准拓扑的股="和JR%则可以看出/2是直积gχg,
因为取2中的任何开集都可以表示为它的所有的点的“正方形”邻域的并集，而正方
形（其边平行于坐标轴）是K中的开区间的直积.

应当注意，形如G1 × G2的集合（Gi ∈ t1,G2 ∈ τ2）只组成拓扑基，但不是拓扑

空间直积的所有开集.

习题

1. 请验证：如果（X, d）是度量空间，则（X, d∕（l + d））也是度量空间，并且度量d和

d∕（l + d）在X上给出同样的拓扑（还请参考前一节习题I）.
2. a）在自然数集N中，取等差数列作为n∈N的邻域，其公差d与n互素，则由此生成
的拓扑空间是否是豪斯多夫空间？
b） 当N作为具有标准拓扑的实数集R的子空间时，N具有怎样的拓扑？
c） 请描述职的所有开子集.
3. 如果在同一个集合上给出两个拓扑丁1和τ2,并且τ1 C τ2,即τ2不仅包含组成τ1的开
集，还包含某些不在τ1中的集合，我们就说拓扑丁2比拓扑T1强.
a） 能否比较习题2中的N上的两个拓扑？
b） 在定义在区间［0, 1］上的实值连续函数集C［0, 1］中，如果先用§1的关系式（6）引入度
量，再用同一节的关系式（7）引入度量，则在C［at b］中一般将产生两个拓扑.能否比较这两个
拓扑？
4. a）请详细证明：例4中的连续函数芽空间不是豪斯多夫空间.
b） 请解释不能在这个拓扑空间中引入度量的原因.
c） 这个空间具有怎样的权？
5. a）请用闭集的语言表述拓扑空间各公理.
b） 请证明：一个集合的闭包的闭包等于该集合的闭包.
c） 请证明：任何集合的边界是闭集.
d） 请证明：如果T是（X, τ）中的闭集，G是（X, τ）中的开集，则集合G∖Jr是（X, τ）
中的开集.
e） 如果（匕τγ）是拓扑空间（X, ^rχ）的子空间，集合E满足条件ECY CX和E E τχ,
则 E ∈ τy.
6. 如果拓扑空间（X, 丁）中的任何点都是闭集，则该拓扑空间称为强拓扑空间或τι空间.
请验证：
a） 任何豪斯多夫空间都是τ1空间（这是豪斯多夫空间也称为τ2空间的部分原因）；
b） τ1空间不一定是丁2空间（见例4）;
 §3.紧集 . 13 .

c） 具有开集族τ = {0, X}的双点集X = {α, b}不是丁i空间；

d） 在行空间中，集合7■是闭集的充分必要条件是广包含自己的一切极限点.
7.司请证明：任何拓扑空间都具有势不超过该空间的权的处处稠密集.
b） 请验证：度量空间C[α, 6],。⑴旧，句，K1[a, 6], πp[a, b]是可分空间（相应度量公式见
§1）.
c） 请验证：在定义在区间[a, b]上的有界实值函数集中，如果用§1的关系式（6）引入度
量，就得到不可分度量空间.

§3.紧集

1.紧集的定义和一般性质

定义1.拓扑空间（X, T）中的集合K称为紧集（列紧集①），如果从X中任何
覆盖K的开集族中可以选出K的有限覆盖.

例1.在标准拓扑下，实数集m中的闭区间[fl, b]是紧集，这直接得自在第二
章§3第2小节中已经证明的关于从闭区间的任何开覆盖中可以选出有限覆盖的
引理.

一般地，ιrn中的m维区间

Zm - {z ∈ I αi ≤ zi ≤ δi, 2 = lj 2, ∙ ∙ ∙, m}

是紧集，这在第七章§1第3小节中已经证明.
在第七章§1第3小节中还证明了，!Rm的子集是紧集的充分必要条件是它是
有界闭集.
在拓扑空间中，一个集合是开集或闭集的性质是相对的，但一个集合是紧集的
性质与包含该集合的空间无关，所以一个集合是紧集的性质在这个意义上是绝对
的.更确切地，以下命题成立.

命题L拓扑空间（X, τ）的子集K是X中的紧集的充分必要条件是，K是
其本身作为（X, 丁）的子空间中的紧集.

V上述命题得自紧集的定义和以下结论:K中的每一个开集Gκ都是X中的
某个开集Gχ与K的交集. ►

于是，如果（X, τx）和（匕τγ）是在集合Ku （XCV）上具有同样拓扑的两个

拓扑空间，则K在X和Y中同时是紧集或者同时不是紧集.

①由定义1引入的紧集的概念在拓扑学中有时称为列紧集.
. 14 . *第九章连续映射(一般理论)

例2.设d是吹上的标准度量，而∕ = ｛x∈IR∣O<x<l｝是吹中的单位开区
间.度量空间(/, d)是(该空间本身中的)有界闭集，但不是紧集，因为，例如，它不
是K中的紧集.

现在证明紧集的一些重要性质.

引理1 (紧集的封闭性引理).如果K是豪斯多夫空间(X, 丁)中的紧集，则K

是X的闭子集.

V根据闭集的判别准则，只要验证K的任何极限点叫E X都属于K即可.
设叫£ K.对亍每一个点xeκ,构造它的开邻域G(χ∙),使G(x)与向的某
邻域不相交.所有这样的邻域G(χl XEK组成K的一个开覆盖，从这个开覆盖
中可以选出有限覆盖G(zι),…，G(xn).现在，如果点瓦的邻域0(瓦)满足条

件G(xi) ∩ O,(x0)=则集合O(xo) = ∩ Oi(x0)也是点x0的邻域，并且对于任何

i=l
2 = 1, ∙∙∙, 7i都有G(τi) ∩O(x0) = 0,而这表示K ∩ 0(瓦)=0.因此，点τ0不可能
是K的极限点.►

引理2 (紧集套引理).如果Ki dK2 >∙∙nκrιn…是豪斯多夫空间中的非

8
空紧集套，则交集∩ κi不是空集.
i=l
◄根据引理1,集合G = K1∖K (2 = 1, 2, ∙∙∙, m ..•)是K1中的开集.如果
8
交集∩ κi是空集，则序列G1 C G2 C ■ ■ ∙ C Gn C • ■-全体组成Ki的覆盖.由此选
2—1
出有限覆盖，我们就得到，序列中的某个元素G7n已经覆盖了 K]∙但是，根据条件,
Km = Ki ∖ Gm ≠ 0.所得矛盾证明了引理2. ►

引理3 (紧集的闭子集引理).紧集K的闭子集F本身也是紧集.

◄设｛Gaι aeA｝是/的开覆盖.如果再补充一个开集G = K∖:F、就得到整

个紧集K的开覆盖.从这个覆盖中可以选出K的有限覆盖.因为G∩F = 0,所
以从集合族｛Ga, aeA｝中可以选出集合T的有限覆盖.►

2.度量紧集.我们在下面证明度量紧集的某些性质，这些性质与度量所导出
的拓扑有关.度量紧集是作为紧集的度量空间.

定义2.我们说，集合E(∑X是度量空间(X,d)中的e网，如果对于任何点
x∈X,都可以找到点e∈E,使得rf(e, x) < ε.

引理4 (有限ε网引理).如果度量空间(K, d)是紧的，则对于任何e>(),这

个空间都具有有限ε网.
 §3.紧集 . 15 .

V对于每个点xeK1取开球B(x, ε).这些球组成K的开覆盖，由此选出有
限覆盖B｛x∖1 e), • ■ ∙, B(xnι ε).点：T],边，•…，xn显然组成所需要的ε■网.►,

上面讨论了有限覆盖的选取.除此之外，在数学分析中还经常讨论从任意序
列中选取收敛子列的问题.结果表明，以下命题成立.

命题2 (度量紧集准则).度量空间(K, 0是紧集的充分必要条件是从它的任

何一个点列中都可以选取收敛到K中某个点的子列.

如前所述，点列｛xn｝收敛到某个点α∈∕<,其含义是，对于点aeK的任何邻
域[/(«),可以找到序号NeN1使得当n>N时，我们有端∈ U(a).
我们将在以后的§6中更详细地讨论极限.
在证明命题2之前，我们给出两个引理.

引理5.如果从度量空间(K, d)的任何一个点列中都可以选出在K中收敛的
子列，则对于任何ε > 0,有限e网都存在.

V假如对于某个ε0 > 0,在K中没有有限ε0网，则在K中可以构造点列位仰｝,

使得对于任何n ∈ N和任何i ∈ ｛1, ∙ ∙ ∙, n - 1｝均有d(xn, xi) > ε0∙从这个点列中
显然无法选出收敛子列.►

引理6.如果从度量空间(K, d)的任何一个点列中可以选出在K中收敛的子
列，则这个空间的任何一个非空闭子集套都有非空的交集.

，如果J7ι D ■ • ■ □ 7n □ •••是K中的上述闭集列，则从其中的每一个闭集中
取一个点，就得到点列孙，…，常，•••，我们由此选出收敛子列 KJ.根据该子列
的构造方法，它的极限α ∈ K必定属于闭集列Λ ∈ N)中的每一个.►

现在证明命题2.

V首先验证，如果(K, d)是紧的，｛xn｝是它的一个点列，则由此可以选出收敛
到K的某个点的子列.如果点列｛端｝只有有限个不同的点，则结论显然成立，所
以可以认为，点列区曷有无穷个不同的点.对于马 =1/1,构造一个有限1网，并
取包含点列中无穷个点的闭球B｛au 1),根据引理3, B(αi, 1)本身是紧集，它具有
有限ε2 = 1/2网和包含点列中无穷个点的闭球B(α2, 1/2).由此得到一个紧集套

B(a1, 1) D B(a2, 1/2) D ∙∙∙ D B(an, l∕n) D •••-

根据引理2,这些紧集有公共点α∈7√.在闭球B(all 1)中取点列｛xn｝中的点xnι,
在闭球B(α2, 1/2)中取点列中序号n2 > n1的点zn2,这样不断重复，就得到子列
｛xni｝.根据该子列的构造方法，它收敛到Q∙
现在证明逆命题，即验证，如果从度量空间(K, d)的任何一个点列｛xn｝中可
以选出在K中收敛的子列，则(K, d)是紧的.
•16 - *第九章连续映射（一般理论）

其实，如果从空间（K,力的某个开覆盖（Gα, α ∈ ½｝中无法选出有限覆盖，则
根据引理5,只要在K中构造有限1网，就得到闭球B（all 1）,它也不能被开覆盖
｛Gω, aeA｝中的有限个集合覆盖.
现在可以认为这个闭球B（αn 1）是最初的集合.于是，在这个闭球中构造有限
1/2网，就可以得到闭球B（α2, 1/2）,它不能被开覆盖｛G., αc4｝中的有限个集
合覆盖.
我们用这种方法得到了 闭集套 B（ttι, 1） D B（α2, 1/2） D D B（αn, 1/"） D ••••
根据引理6和该闭集套的构造方法可以看出，它只有一个公共点α∈K.这个点被
开覆盖｛Gq, αC√l｝中的某个集合Gao覆盖.因为Gan是开集，所以当n足够大
时，所有集合B（an, l∕n）应当都包含于Gao.所得矛盾证明了命题2. ►

习题

1. 度量空间的子集称为完全有界集，如果对于任何e > 0,它都具有有限ε网.

a） 请验证：集合的完全有界性与ε网是由该集合本身的点组成还是由它所在空间的点组
成无关.
b） 请证明：完备度量空间的子集是紧集的充分必要条件是它既是完全有界集也是闭集（关
于完备度量空间的定义，参看本章§5）.
c） 请举例说明：度量空间的闭有界集不一定是完全有界集，因而也不一定是紧集.
2. 拓扑空间的子集称为相对紧的，如果它的闭包是紧集 请举出IT的相对紧子集的例子.
3. 拓扑空间称为局部紧的，如果这个空间的每个点都具有相对紧邻域.请举出局部紧但不
是紧集的拓扑空间的例子.
4. 请证明：对于任何局部紧但不是紧集的拓扑空间（X, τx）,存在紧拓扑空间（匕τγ）,使
得X U匕而V ∖X由一个点组成，并且空间（X, 丁X）是拓扑空间（匕Ty）的子空间.

§4.连通的拓扑空间

定义1.拓扑空间（X, T）称为连通的，如果除了 X本身和空集，这个空间没

有其他开闭子集①.

如果把这个定义写为以下形式，它在直观上就变得更清楚了 .
拓扑空间是连通集的充分必要条件是它无法表示为它的两个没有公共点的非
空闭（开）子集的并集.

定义2.拓扑空间（X, 丁）中的集合E称为连通集，如果它作为（X, T）的拓扑

子空间（具有诱导拓扑）是连通的.

①即同时是开子集和闭子集.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 “I should think so. All Lord Lufton’s horses are coming and he’s to
be here till March.”
“Till March!”
“So her ladyship whispered to me. She could not conceal her
triumph at his coming. He’s going to give up Leicestershire this year
altogether. I wonder what has brought it all about?” Mark knew very
well what had brought it about; he had been made acquainted, as
the reader has also, with the price at which Lady Lufton had
purchased her son’s visit. But no one had told Mrs. Robarts that the
mother had made her son a present of five thousand pounds.
“She’s in a good humour about everything now,” continued Fanny;
“so you need say nothing at all about Gatherum Castle.”
“But she was very angry when she first heard it; was she not?”
“Well, Mark, to tell the truth she was; and we had quite a scene
there up in her own room up-stairs,—Justinia and I. She had heard
something else that she did not like at the same time; and then—but
you know her way. She blazed up quite hot.”
“And said all manner of horrid things about me.”
“About the duke she did. You know she never did like the duke;
and for the matter of that, neither do I. I tell you that fairly, Master
Mark!”
“The duke is not so bad as he’s painted.”
“Ah, that’s what you say about another great person. However, he
won’t come here to trouble us, I suppose. And then I left her, not in
the best temper in the world; for I blazed up too, you must know.”
“I am sure you did,” said Mark, pressing his arm round her waist.
“And then we were going to have a dreadful war, I thought; and I
came home and wrote such a doleful letter to you. But what should
happen when I had just closed it, but in came her ladyship—all
alone, and——. But I can’t tell you what she did or said, only she
behaved beautifully; just like herself too; so full of love and truth and
honesty. There’s nobody like her, Mark; and she’s better than all the
dukes that ever wore—whatever dukes do wear.”
“Horns and hoofs; that’s their usual apparel, according to you and
Lady Lufton,” said he, remembering what Mr. Sowerby had said of
himself.
“You may say what you like about me, Mark, but you shan’t abuse
Lady Lufton. And if horns and hoofs mean wickedness and
dissipation, I believe it’s not far wrong. But get off your big coat and
make yourself comfortable.” And that was all the scolding that Mark
Robarts got from his wife on the occasion of his great iniquity.
“I will certainly tell her about this bill transaction,” he said to
himself; “but not to-day; not till after I have seen Lufton.”
That evening they dined at Framley Court, and there they met the
young lord; they found also Lady Lufton still in high good humour.
Lord Lufton himself was a fine bright-looking young man; not so tall
as Mark Robarts, and with perhaps less intelligence marked on his
face; but his features were finer, and there was in his countenance a
thorough appearance of good humour and sweet temper. It was,
indeed, a pleasant face to look upon, and dearly Lady Lufton loved
to gaze at it.
“Well, Mark, so you have been among the Philistines?” that was
his lordship’s first remark. Robarts laughed as he took his friend’s
hands, and bethought himself how truly that was the case; that he
was, in very truth, already “himself in bonds under Philistian yoke.”
Alas, alas, it is very hard to break asunder the bonds of the latter-day
Philistines. When a Samson does now and then pull a temple down
about their ears, is he not sure to be engulfed in the ruin with them?
There is no horseleech that sticks so fast as your latter-day
Philistine.
“So you have caught Sir George, after all,” said Lady Lufton, and
that was nearly all she did say in allusion to his absence. There was
afterwards some conversation about the lecture, and from her
ladyship’s remarks, it certainly was apparent that she did not like the
people among whom the vicar had been lately staying; but she said
no word that was personal to him himself, or that could be taken as a
reproach. The little episode of Mrs. Proudie’s address in the lecture-
room had already reached Framley, and it was only to be expected
that Lady Lufton should enjoy the joke. She would affect to believe
that the body of the lecture had been given by the bishop’s wife; and
afterwards when Mark described her costume at that Sunday
morning breakfast-table, Lady Lufton would assume that such had
been the dress in which she had exercised her faculties in public.
“I would have given a five-pound note to have heard it,” said Sir
George.
“So would not I,” said Lady Lufton. “When one hears of such
things described so graphically as Mr. Robarts now tells it, one can
hardly help laughing. But it would give me great pain to see the wife
of one of our bishops place herself in such a situation. For he is a
bishop after all.”
“Well, upon my word, my lady, I agree with Meredith,” said Lord
Lufton.—“It must have been good fun. As it did happen, you know,—
as the church was doomed to the disgrace, I should like to have
heard it.”
“I know you would have been shocked, Ludovic.”
“I should have got over that in time, mother. It would have been
like a bull fight I suppose, horrible to see no doubt, but extremely
interesting—And Harold Smith, Mark; what did he do all the while?”
“It didn’t take so very long, you know,” said Robarts.
“And the poor bishop,” said Lady Meredith; “how did he look? I
really do pity him.”
“Well, he was asleep, I think.”
“What, slept through it all?” said Sir George.
“It awakened him; and then he jumped up and said something.”
“What, out loud too?”
“Only one word or so.”
 “What a disgraceful scene!” said Lady Lufton. “To those who
remember the good old man who was in the diocese before him it is
perfectly shocking. He confirmed you, Ludovic, and you ought to
remember him. It was over at Barchester, and you went and lunched
with him afterwards.”
“I do remember; and especially this, that I never ate such tarts in
my life, before or since. The old man particularly called my attention
to them, and seemed remarkably pleased that I concurred in his
sentiments. There are no such tarts as those going in the palace
now, I’ll be bound.”
“Mrs. Proudie will be very happy to do her best for you if you will
go and try,” said Sir George.
“I beg that he will do no such thing,” said Lady Lufton, and that
was the only severe word she said about any of Mark’s visitings.
As Sir George Meredith was there, Robarts could say nothing then
to Lord Lufton about Mr. Sowerby and Mr. Sowerby’s money affairs;
but he did make an appointment for a tête-à-tête on the next
morning.
“You must come down and see my nags, Mark; they came to-day.
The Merediths will be off at twelve, and then we can have an hour
together.” Mark said he would, and then went home with his wife
under his arm.
“Well, now, is not she kind?” said Fanny, as soon as they were out
on the gravel together.
“She is kind; kinder than I can tell you just at present. But did you
ever know anything so bitter as she is to the poor bishop? And really
the bishop is not so bad.”
“Yes; I know something much more bitter; and that is what she
thinks of the bishop’s wife. And you know, Mark, it was so unladylike,
her getting up in that way. What must the people of Barchester think
of her?”
“As far as I could see the people of Barchester liked it.”
 “Nonsense, Mark; they could not. But never mind that now. I want
you to own that she is good.” And then Mrs. Robarts went on with
another long eulogy on the dowager. Since that affair of the pardon-
begging at the parsonage Mrs. Robarts hardly knew how to think
well enough of her friend. And the evening had been so pleasant
after the dreadful storm and threatenings of hurricanes; her husband
had been so well received after his lapse of judgment; the wounds
that had looked so sore had been so thoroughly healed, and
everything was so pleasant. How all of this would have been
changed had she had known of that little bill!
At twelve the next morning the lord and the vicar were walking
through the Framley stables together. Quite a commotion had been
made there, for the larger portion of these buildings had of late years
seldom been used. But now all was crowding and activity. Seven or
eight very precious animals had followed Lord Lufton from
Leicestershire, and all of them required dimensions that were
thought to be rather excessive by the Framley old-fashioned groom.
My lord, however, had a head man of his own who took the matter
quite into his own hands.
Mark, priest as he was, was quite worldly enough to be fond of a
good horse; and for some little time allowed Lord Lufton to descant
on the merit of this four-year-old filly, and that magnificent
Rattlebones colt, out of a Mousetrap mare; but he had other things
that lay heavy on his mind, and after bestowing half an hour on the
stud, he contrived to get his friend away to the shrubbery walks.
“So you have settled with Sowerby,” Robarts began by saying.
“Settled with him; yes, but do you know the price?”
“I believe that you have paid five thousand pounds.”
“Yes, and about three before; and that in a matter in which I did
not really owe one shilling. Whatever I do in future, I’ll keep out of
Sowerby’s grip.”
“But you don’t think he has been unfair to you.”
“Mark, to tell you the truth I have banished the affair from my mind,
and don’t wish to take it up again. My mother has paid the money to
save the property, and of course I must pay her back. But I think I
may promise that I will not have any more money dealings with
Sowerby. I will not say that he is dishonest, but at any rate he is
sharp.”
“Well, Lufton; what will you say when I tell you that I have put my
name to a bill for him, for four hundred pounds.”
“Say; why I should say——; but you’re joking; a man in your
position would never do such a thing.”
“But I have done it.”
Lord Lufton gave a long low whistle.
“He asked me the last night that I was there, making a great favour
of it, and declaring that no bill of his had ever yet been dishonoured.”
Lord Lufton whistled again. “No bill of his dishonoured! Why the
pocket-books of the Jews are stuffed full of his dishonoured papers!
And you have really given him your name for four hundred pounds?”
“I have certainly.”
“At what date?”
“Three months.”
“And have you thought where you are to get the money?”
“I know very well that I can’t get it; not at least by that time. The
bankers must renew it for me, and I must pay it by degrees. That is,
if Sowerby really does not take it up.”
“It is just as likely that he will take up the national debt.”
Robarts then told him about the projected marriage with Miss
Dunstable, giving it as his opinion that the lady would probably
accept the gentleman.
“Not at all improbable,” said his lordship, “for Sowerby is an
agreeable fellow; and if it be so, he will have all that he wants for life.
But his creditors will gain nothing. The duke, who has his title-deeds,
will doubtless get his money, and the estate will in fact belong to the
wife. But the small fry, such as you, will not get a shilling.”
 Poor Mark! He had had an inkling of this before; but it had hardly
presented itself to him in such certain terms. It was, then, a positive
fact, that in punishment for his weakness in having signed that bill he
would have to pay, not only four hundred pounds, but four hundred
pounds with interest, and expenses of renewal, and commission,
and bill stamps. Yes; he had certainly got among the Philistines
during that visit of his to the duke. It began to appear to him pretty
clearly that it would have been better for him to have relinquished
altogether the glories of Chaldicotes and Gatherum Castle.
And now, how was he to tell his wife?
 Sir Joshua and Holbein.
Long ago discarded from our National Gallery, with the contempt
logically due to national or English pictures,—lost to sight and
memory for many a year in the Ogygian seclusions of Marlborough
House—there have reappeared at last, in more honourable exile at
Kensington, two great pictures by Sir Joshua Reynolds. Two, with
others; but these alone worth many an entanglement among the
cross-roads of the West, to see for half-an-hour by spring sunshine:
—the Holy Family, and the Graces, side by side now in the principal
room. Great, as ever was work wrought by man. In placid strength,
and subtlest science, unsurpassed;—in sweet felicity, incomparable.
If you truly want to know what good work of painter’s hand is,
study those two pictures from side to side, and miss no inch of them
(you will hardly, eventually, be inclined to miss one): in some
respects there is no execution like it; none so open in the magic. For
the work of other great men is hidden in its wonderfulness—you
cannot see how it was done. But in Sir Joshua’s there is no mystery:
it is all amazement. No question but that the touch was so laid; only
that it could have been so laid, is a marvel for ever. So also there is
no painting so majestic in sweetness. He is lily-sceptred: his power
blossoms, but burdens not. All other men of equal dignity paint more
slowly; all others of equal force paint less lightly. Tintoret lays his line
like a king marking the boundaries of conquered lands; but Sir
Joshua leaves it as a summer wind its trace on a lake; he could have
painted on a silken veil, where it fell free, and not bent it.
Such at least is his touch when it is life that he paints: for things
lifeless he has a severer hand. If you examine that picture of the
Graces you will find it reverses all the ordinary ideas of expedient
treatment. By other men flesh is firmly painted, but accessories
lightly. Sir Joshua paints accessories firmly,[20] flesh lightly;—nay,
flesh not at all, but spirit. The wreath of flowers he feels to be
material; and gleam by gleam strikes fearlessly the silver and violet
leaves out of the darkness. But the three maidens are less
substantial than rose petals. No flushed nor frosted tissue that ever
faded in night wind is so tender as they; no hue may reach, no line
measure, what is in them so gracious and so fair. Let the hand move
softly—itself as a spirit; for this is Life, of which it touches the
imagery.
“And yet——”
Yes: you do well to pause. There is a “yet” to be thought of. I did
not bring you to these pictures to see wonderful work merely, or
womanly beauty merely. I brought you chiefly to look at that
Madonna, believing that you might remember other Madonnas,
unlike her; and might think it desirable to consider wherein the
difference lay:—other Madonnas not by Sir Joshua, who painted
Madonnas but seldom. Who perhaps, if truth must be told, painted
them never: for surely this dearest pet of an English girl, with the little
curl of lovely hair under her ear, is not one.
Why did not Sir Joshua—or could not—or would not Sir Joshua—
paint Madonnas? neither he, nor his great rival-friend
Gainsborough? Both of them painters of women, such as since
Giorgione and Correggio had not been; both painters of men, such
as had not been since Titian. How is it that these English friends can
so brightly paint that particular order of humanity which we call
“gentlemen and ladies,” but neither heroes, nor saints, nor angels?
Can it be because they were both country-bred boys, and for ever
after strangely sensitive to courtliness? Why, Giotto also was a
country-bred boy. Allegri’s native Correggio, Titian’s Cadore, were
but hill villages; yet these men painted, not the court, nor the
drawing-room, but the Earth: and not a little of Heaven besides:
while our good Sir Joshua never trusts himself outside the park
palings. He could not even have drawn the strawberry girl, unless
she had got through a gap in them—or rather, I think, she must have
been let in at the porter’s lodge, for her strawberries are in a pottle,
ready for the ladies at the Hall. Giorgione would have set them, wild
and fragrant, among their leaves, in her hand. Between his fairness,
and Sir Joshua’s May-fairness, there is a strange, impassable limit—
as of the white reef that in Pacific isles encircles their inner lakelets,
and shuts them from the surf and sound of sea. Clear and calm they
rest, reflecting fringed shadows of the palm-trees, and the passing of
fretted clouds across their own sweet circle of blue sky. But beyond,
and round and round their coral bar, lies the blue of sea and heaven
together—blue of eternal deep.
You will find it a pregnant question, if you follow it forth, and
leading to many others, not trivial, Why it is, that in Sir Joshua’s girl,
or Gainsborough’s, we always think first of the Ladyhood; but in
Giotto’s, of the Womanhood? Why, in Sir Joshua’s hero, or
Vandyck’s, it is always the Prince or the Sir whom we see first; but in
Titian’s, the man.
Not that Titian’s gentlemen are less finished than Sir Joshua’s; but
their gentlemanliness[21] is not the principal thing about them; their
manhood absorbs, conquers, wears it as a despised thing. Nor—and
this is another stern ground of separation—will Titian make a
gentleman of every one he paints. He will make him so if he is so,
not otherwise; and this not merely in general servitude to truth, but
because in his sympathy with deeper humanity, the courtier is not
more interesting to him than any one else. “You have learned to
dance and fence; you can speak with clearness, and think with
precision; your hands are small, your senses acute, and your
features well-shaped. Yes: I see all this in you, and will do it justice.
You shall stand as none but a well-bred man could stand; and your
fingers shall fall on the sword-hilt as no fingers could but those that
knew the grasp of it. But for the rest, this grisly fisherman, with rusty
cheek and rope-frayed hand, is a man as well as you, and might
possibly make several of you, if souls were divisible. His bronze
colour is quite as interesting to me, Titian, as your paleness, and his
hoary spray of stormy hair takes the light as well as your waving
curls. Him also I will paint, with such picturesqueness as he may
have; yet not putting the picturesqueness first in him, as in you I
have not put the gentlemanliness first. In him I see a strong human
creature, contending with all hardship: in you also a human creature,
uncontending, and possibly not strong. Contention or strength,
weakness or picturesqueness, and all other such accidents in either,
shall have due place. But the immortality and miracle of you—this
clay that burns, this colour that changes—are in truth the awful
things in both: these shall be first painted—and last.”
With which question respecting treatment of character we have to
connect also this further one: How is it that the attempts of so great
painters as Reynolds and Gainsborough are, beyond portraiture,
limited almost like children’s. No domestic drama—no history—no
noble natural scenes, far less any religious subject:—only market
carts; girls with pigs; woodmen going home to supper; watering-
places; grey cart-horses in fields, and such like. Reynolds, indeed,
once or twice touched higher themes,—“among the chords his
fingers laid,” and recoiled: wisely; for, strange to say, his very
sensibility deserts him when he leaves his courtly quiet. The horror
of the subjects he chose (Cardinal Beaufort and Ugolino) showed
inherent apathy: had he felt deeply, he would not have sought for this
strongest possible excitement of feeling,—would not willingly have
dwelt on the worst conditions of despair—the despair of the ignoble.
His religious subjects are conceived even with less care than these.
Beautiful as it is, this Holy Family by which we stand has neither
dignity nor sacredness, other than those which attach to every group
of gentle mother and ruddy babe; while his Faiths, Charities or other
well-ordered and emblem-fitted virtues are even less lovely than his
ordinary portraits of women.
It was a faultful temper, which, having so mighty a power of
realization at command, never became so much interested in any
fact of human history as to spend one touch of heartfelt skill upon it;
—which, yielding momentarily to indolent imagination, ended, at
best, in a Puck, or a Thais; a Mercury as Thief, or a Cupid as
Linkboy. How wide the interval between this gently trivial humour,
guided by the wave of a feather, or arrested by the enchantment of a
smile,—and the habitual dwelling of the thoughts of the great Greeks
and Florentines among the beings and the interests of the eternal
world!
In some degree it may indeed be true that the modesty and sense
of the English painters are the causes of their simple practice. All
that they did, they did well, and attempted nothing over which
conquest was doubtful. They knew they could paint men and
women: it did not follow that they could paint angels. Their own gifts
never appeared to them so great as to call for serious question as to
the use to be made of them. “They could mix colours and catch
likeness—yes; but were they therefore able to teach religion, or
reform the world? To support themselves honourably, pass the hours
of life happily, please their friends, and leave no enemies, was not
this all that duty could require, or prudence recommend? Their own
art was, it seemed, difficult enough to employ all their genius: was it
reasonable to hope also to be poets or theologians? Such men had,
indeed, existed; but the age of miracles and prophets was long past;
nor, because they could seize the trick of an expression, or the turn
of a head, had they any right to think themselves able to conceive
heroes with Homer, or gods with Michael Angelo.”
Such was, in the main, their feeling: wise, modest, unenvious, and
unambitious. Meaner men, their contemporaries or successors,
raved of high art with incoherent passion; arrogated to themselves
an equality with the masters of elder time, and declaimed against the
degenerate tastes of a public which acknowledged not the return of
the Heraclidæ. But the two great—the two only painters of their age
—happy in a reputation founded as deeply in the heart as in the
judgment of mankind, demanded no higher function than that of
soothing the domestic affections; and achieved for themselves at last
an immortality not the less noble, because in their lifetime they had
concerned themselves less to claim it than to bestow.
Yet, while we acknowledge the discretion and simple-heartedness
of these men, honouring them for both: and the more when we
compare their tranquil powers with the hot egotism and hollow
ambition of their inferiors: we have to remember, on the other hand,
that the measure they thus set to their aims was, if a just, yet a
narrow one; that amiable discretion is not the highest virtue, nor to
please the frivolous, the best success. There is probably some
strange weakness in the painter, and some fatal error in the age,
when in thinking over the examples of their greatest work, for some
type of culminating loveliness or veracity, we remember no
expression either of religion or heroism, and instead of reverently
naming a Madonna di San Sisto, can only whisper, modestly, “Mrs.
Pelham feeding chickens.”
The nature of the fault, so far as it exists in the painters
themselves, may perhaps best be discerned by comparing them with
a man who went not far beyond them in his general range of effort,
but who did all his work in a wholly different temper—Hans Holbein.
The first great difference between them is of course in
completeness of execution. Sir Joshua’s and Gainsborough’s work,
at its best, is only magnificent sketching; giving indeed, in places, a
perfection of result unattainable by other methods, and possessing
always a charm of grace and power exclusively its own: yet, in its
slightness addressing itself, purposefully, to the casual glance, and
common thought—eager to arrest the passer-by, but careless to
detain him; or detaining him, if at all, by an unexplained
enchantment, not by continuance of teaching, or development of
idea. But the work of Holbein is true and thorough; accomplished, in
the highest as the most literal sense, with a calm entireness of
unaffected resolution, which sacrifices nothing, forgets nothing, and
fears nothing.
In the portrait of the Hausmann George Gyzen,[22] every
accessory is perfect with a fine perfection: the carnations in the glass
vase by his side—the ball of gold, chased with blue enamel,
suspended on the wall—the books—the steelyard—the papers on
the table, the seal-ring, with its quartered bearings,—all intensely
there, and there in beauty of which no one could have dreamed that
even flowers or gold were capable, far less parchment or steel. But
every change of shade is felt, every rich and rubied line of petal
followed; every subdued gleam in the soft blue of the enamel and
bending of the gold touched with a hand whose patience of regard
creates rather than paints. The jewel itself was not so precious as
the rays of enduring light which form it, and flash from it, beneath
that errorless hand. The man himself, what he was—not more; but to
all conceivable proof of sight—in all aspect of life or thought—not
less. He sits alone in his accustomed room, his common work laid
out before him; he is conscious of no presence, assumes no dignity,
bears no sudden or superficial look of care or interest, lives only as
he lived—but for ever.
The time occupied in painting this portrait was probably twenty
times greater than Sir Joshua ever spent on a single picture,
however large. The result is, to the general spectator, less attractive.
In some qualities of force and grace it is absolutely inferior. But it is
inexhaustible. Every detail of it wins, retains, rewards the attention
with a continually increasing sense of wonderfulness. It is also wholly
true. So far as it reaches, it contains the absolute facts of colour,
form, and character, rendered with an unaccuseable faithfulness.
There is no question respecting things which it is best worth while to
know, or things which it is unnecessary to state, or which might be
overlooked with advantage. What of this man and his house were
visible to Holbein, are visible to us: we may despise if we will; deny
or doubt, we shall not; if we care to know anything concerning them,
great or small, so much as may by the eye be known is for ever
knowable, reliable, indisputable.
Respecting the advantage, or the contrary, of so great
earnestness in drawing a portrait of an uncelebrated person, we
raise at present no debate: I only wish the reader to note this quality
of earnestness, as entirely separating Holbein from Sir Joshua,—
raising him into another sphere of intellect. For here is no question of
mere difference in style or in power, none of minuteness or
largeness. It is a question of Entireness. Holbein is complete in
intellect: what he sees, he sees with his whole soul: what he paints,
he paints with his whole might. Sir Joshua sees partially, slightly,
tenderly—catches the flying lights of things, the momentary glooms:
paints also partially, tenderly, never with half his strength; content
with uncertain visions, insecure delights; the truth not precious nor
significant to him, only pleasing; falsehood also pleasureable, even
useful on occasion—must, however, be discreetly touched, just
enough to make all men noble, all women lovely: “we do not need
this flattery often, most of those we know being such; and it is a
pleasant world, and with diligence—for nothing can be done without
diligence—every day till four” (says Sir Joshua)—“a painter’s is a
happy life.”
 Yes: and the Isis, with her swans, and shadows of Windsor Forest,
is a sweet stream, touching her shores softly. The Rhine at Basle is
of another temper, stern and deep, as strong, however bright its
face: winding far through the solemn plain, beneath the slopes of
Jura, tufted and steep: sweeping away into its regardless calm of
current the waves of that little brook of St. Jakob, that bathe the
Swiss Thermopylæ;[23] the low village nestling beneath a little bank
of sloping fields—its spire seen white against the deep blue shadows
of the Jura pines.
Gazing on that scene day by day, Holbein went his own way, with
the earnestness and silent swell of the strong river—not unconscious
of the awe, nor of the sanctities of its life. The snows of the eternal
Alps giving forth their strength to it; the blood of the St. Jakob brook
poured into it as it passes by—not in vain. He also could feel his
strength coming from white snows far off in heaven. He also bore
upon him the purple stain of the earth sorrow. A grave man, knowing
what steps of men keep truest time to the chanting of Death. Having
grave friends also;—the same singing heard far off, it seems to me,
or, perhaps, even low in the room, by that family of Sir Thomas
More; or mingling with the hum of bees in the meadows outside the
towered wall of Basle; or making the words of the book more
tuneable, which meditative Erasmus looks upon. Nay, that same soft
Death-music is on the lips even of Holbein’s Madonna. Who, among
many, is the Virgin you had best compare with the one before whose
image we have stood so long.
Holbein’s is at Dresden, companioned by the Madonna di San
Sisto; but both are visible enough to you here, for, by a strange
coincidence, they are (at least so far as I know) the only two great
pictures in the world which have been faultlessly engraved.
The received tradition respecting the Holbein Madonna is
beautiful; and I believe the interpretation to be true. A father and
mother have prayed to her for the life of their sick child. She appears
to them, her own Christ in her arms. She puts down her Christ
beside them—takes their child into her arms instead. It lies down
upon her bosom, and stretches its hand to its father and mother,
saying farewell.
 This interpretation of the picture has been doubted, as nearly all
the most precious truths of pictures have been doubted, and
forgotten. But even supposing it erroneous, the design is not less
characteristic of Holbein. For that there are signs of suffering on the
features of the child in the arms of the Virgin, is beyond question;
and if this child be intended for the Christ, it would not be doubtful to
my mind, that, of the two—Raphael and Holbein—the latter had
given the truest aspect and deepest reading of the early life of the
Redeemer. Raphael sought to express His power only; but Holbein
His labour and sorrow.
There are two other pictures which you should remember together
with this (attributed, indeed, but with no semblance of probability, to
the elder Holbein, none of whose work, preserved at Basle, or
elsewhere, approaches in the slightest degree to their power), the St.
Barbara and St. Elizabeth.[24] I do not know among the pictures of
the great sacred schools any at once so powerful, so simple, so
pathetically expressive of the need of the heart that conceived them.
Not ascetic, nor quaint, nor feverishly or fondly passionate, nor wrapt
in withdrawn solemnities of thought. Only entirely true—entirely pure.
No depth of glowing heaven beyond them—but the clear sharp
sweetness of the northern air: no splendour of rich colour, striving to
adorn them with better brightness than of the day: a gray glory, as of
moonlight without mist, dwelling on face and fold of dress;—all
faultless-fair. Creatures they are, humble by nature, not by self-
condemnation; merciful by habit, not by tearful impulse; lofty without
consciousness; gentle without weakness; wholly in this present
world, doing its work calmly; beautiful with all that holiest life can
reach—yet already freed from all that holiest death can cast away.

FOOTNOTES
[20] As showing gigantic power of hand, joined with utmost
accuracy and rapidity, the folds of drapery under the breast of the
Virgin are, perhaps, as marvellous a piece of work as could be
found in any picture, of whatever time or master.
 [21] The reader must observe that I use the word here in a
limited sense, as meaning only the effect of careful education,
good society, and refined habits of life, on average temper and
character. Of deep and true gentlemanliness—based as it is on
intense sensibility and sincerity, perfected by courage, and other
qualities of race; as well as of that union of insensibility with
cunning, which is the essence of vulgarity, I shall have to speak at
length in another place.
[22] Museum of Berlin.
[23] Of 1,200 Swiss, who fought by that brookside, ten only
returned. The battle checked the attack of the French, led by
Louis XI. (then Dauphin) in 1444; and was the first of the great
series of efforts and victories which were closed at Nancy by the
death of Charles of Burgundy.
[24] Pinacothek of Munich.
 A Changeling.
A little changeling Spirit
Crept to my arms one day.
I had no heart or courage
To drive the child away.

So all day long I soothed her

And hushed her on my breast;
And all night long her wailing
Would never let me rest.

I dug a grave to hold her,

A grave both dark and deep:
I covered her with violets,
And laid her there to sleep.

I used to go and watch there,

Both night and morning too;
It was my tears, I fancy,
That kept the violets blue.

I took her up: and once more

I felt the clinging hold,
And heard the ceaseless wailing
That wearied me of old.

I wandered and I wandered

With my burden on my breast,
Till I saw a church door open,
And entered in to rest.

In the dim, dying daylight,

Set in a flowery shrine,
I saw the kings and shepherds
Adore a Child divine.

I knelt down there in silence;

And on the Altar-stone
I laid my wailing burden,
And came away,—alone.

And now that little Spirit

That sobbed so all day long,
Is grown a shining Angel,
With wings both wide and strong.

She watches me from heaven,

With loving, tender care,
And one day, she has promised
That I shall find her there.

A. A. P.
 Lovel the Widower.
CHAPTER III.
In which I Play the Spy.
The room to which Bedford conducted me I hold to be the very
pleasantest chamber in all the mansion of Shrublands. To lie on that
comfortable, cool bachelor’s bed there, and see the birds hopping
about on the lawn; to peep out of the French window at early
morning, inhale the sweet air, mark the dewy bloom on the grass,
listen to the little warblers performing their chorus, step forth in your
dressing-gown and slippers, pick a strawberry from the bed, or an
apricot in its season; blow one, two, three, just half-a-dozen puffs of
a cigarette, hear the venerable towers of Putney toll the hour of six
(three hours from breakfast, by consequence), and pop back into
bed again with a favourite novel, or review, to set you off (you see I
am not malicious, or I could easily insert here the name of some
twaddler against whom I have a grudgekin): to pop back into bed
again, I say, with a book which sets you off into that dear invaluable
second sleep, by which health, spirits, appetite are so prodigiously
improved:—all these I hold to be most cheerful and harmless
pleasures, and have partaken of them often at Shrublands with a
grateful heart. That heart may have had its griefs, but is yet
susceptible of enjoyment and consolation. That bosom may have
been lacerated, but is not therefore and henceforward a stranger to
comfort. After a certain affair in Dublin—nay, very soon after, three
months after—I recollect remarking to myself: “Well, thank my stars,
I still have a relish for 34 claret.” Once at Shrublands I heard steps
pacing overhead at night, and the feeble but continued wail of an
infant. I wakened from my sleep, was sulky, but turned and slept
again. Biddlecombe the barrister I knew was the occupant of the
upper chamber. He came down the next morning looking wretchedly
yellow about the cheeks, and livid round the eyes. His teething infant