Carbon Footprint Monitoring Using Remote Sensing Technologies

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 Abstract

This context discussed the use of remote sensing technologies in monitoring the carbon

footprint. While actions undertaken such as the Paris Accord are a step in the right direction, the

use of remote sensing that provides accurate data will enhance transparency hence facilitating the

creation of measurable and realistic goals toward the reduction of the carbon footprint. Methods

undertaken in this study involved the review of literature where a search targeting databases such

as ProQuest, Google Scholar, and Science Direct was undertaken using these search terms;

‘remote sensing’ ‘greenhouse’ ‘gases’ and ‘emissions.’ Results obtained indicated that the strides

of using remote sensing technology in monitoring greenhouse gas emissions received a major

boost in 2009 when the GOSAT became the first satellite mission to be solely dedicated to the

monitoring of greenhouse gases such as carbon (iv) oxide and methane. Figures 1 and 2 in this

context accurately revealed how this satellite was able to record a slight increase in CO 2

concentration by 2.54 ppm between 2020 and 2021. Strides in the use of technology further

intensified since this mission was followed by the Orbiting Carbon Observatoriy-2 launched by

NASA in 2014, then the GMI-II by China. Sentinel-5 and GOSAT-2 were launched in 2017 and

2018 respectively showing that the use of this technology is rapidly advancing.

Keywords: remote sensing, carbon footprint, greenhouse gases, emissions

 Introduction

By definition, carbon footprint refers to the total amount of greenhouse gases emitted into

the atmosphere from various daily activities. According to the EPA, these activities can be

categorized into transportation, electricity production, industry, commercial and residential, and

agriculture [1]. Data shows that there have been variations in greenhouse gas emissions each

year since this is something that is tied to the economy [1]. Greenhouse gas emissions are a

major concern that needs to be addressed. In recent years these emissions have prompted various

actions such as the adoption of the Paris Accord that came into force in 2016. Literature shows

that an increase in these gases has been associated with an increase in global temperatures, and

this is associated with consequences such as the melting of the ice caps [2]. While agreements

such as the Paris Accord are essential in mitigation, it is essential to note that any efforts to

reduce greenhouse gas emissions first require the ability to detect, monitor, and quantify how

much each of the involved parties is contributing to these emissions. This allows for the setting

of measurable and more realistic goals for reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases.

There are various methods that can be used to measure greenhouse gases emitted into the

atmosphere. These include in-situ measures, where measurements are collected directly at the

point of emission, and atmospheric concentration monitoring where stations at various locations

measure the concentration of greenhouse gases to establish a trend. Remote sensing using

satellites and other technologies such as drones is something that also offers an interesting way

of monitoring greenhouse gas emissions. Remote sensing allows for direct emission

measurements over a large area since monitoring does not require instruments to be located at

the primary site of emissions but rather it is from a distance. This paper thus integrated literature
to undertake a thorough discussion of this technology and its use across the globe to monitor the

emissions of greenhouse gases.

Literature Review

Current efforts to tame the increase in greenhouse gas emissions highly depend on

accurate and reliable monitoring and reporting. Monitoring can thus be considered a key step

when it comes to the overall mitigating efforts emphasizing the reduction of greenhouse gas

emissions into the atmosphere. Remote sensing based on highly advanced technologies provides

a very valuable way of monitoring and quantifying these emissions from a distance hence the

ability to monitor large areas and a diverse number of sources [3]. It is thus with this line of

reason that this literature review provided an in-depth discussion of this technology, highlighting

the techniques, progress and challenges. These are aspects that provide the understanding and

direction required in guiding future research on this matter.

Breon &Ciais highlighted three techniques that can be used in space technologies to

monitor and report on greenhouse gas emissions [3]. One of the techniques used in space for

remote sensing is thermal infrared sounding. It is reported that the wavelength which is emitted

by the atmosphere is a function of not only temperature but also the atmospheric composition

[3]. Based on the estimation modules created based on this logic, when the atmospheric

temperature profile is known, a model can be used to estimate the measurements of absorbing

gas concentrations that are part of the atmospheric composition which include the greenhouse

gases such as CO2. Regardless, one challenge that arises as a result of this method is the

certainty of the temperature profile which can affect accuracy [3].

Solar spectroscopy is a technique that is also applied in remote sensing of greenhouse gas

emissions from space. In this method observing stations and instruments measure: the light
emitted by the sun, and also the light reflected by the earth’s surface. Variations in radiance in

these reflections are formulated as a function of atmospheric gas composition. With a high-

resolution capability, the absorption lines of various gases can be obtained and this is used to

account for their concentrations [3]. Nonetheless, solar spectroscopy requires sufficient sunlight

and a clear sky. Hence it is highly limited during winter periods and the regions of high latitudes

[3].

Active methods on the other hand provided a different way of doing things, in that, rather

than relying on the sun and the earth for reflections, an artificial source is used in space and this

is also reflected back from the earth using either a surface reflectance or scattering in the

atmosphere [3]. This provides an advantage since there remains an ability to undertake

measurements throughout the season even when the sun source is not sufficient. The requirement

of high accuracy has however led to the use of various instruments which seem to combine the

individual aspects of each of these methods depending on the needs. This is to strive to achieve

highly reliable data.

Instruments used include the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder (TOVS) which has a

thermal infrared radiometer, microwave radiometer and offers nineteen channels from 4µm to

15µm [4]. The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder AIRS on the other hand boasts to be the first high

spectral resolution sounder based on infrared that was created by NASA to be used to support

forecasting of the weather [5]. While it is metrologically focused, it has been instrumental in the

progress of remote sensing of greenhouse gases as well.

In addition to this, there have been missions undertaken by various state agencies across

the globe which have been instrumental in advancing the use of remote sensing technologies to

monitor the emission of greenhouse gases. The GOSAT mission was undertaken by the Japanese
Space Agency and the National Institute for Environmental Studies which launched the GOSAT

satellite into orbit in 2009 [6]. This satellite used a thermal infrared sensor and a Fourier

Transform spectrometer to accurately measure carbon (iv) oxide and methane gas emissions into

the atmosphere. GOSAT is reported as the first mission that solely dedicated a satellite to the

monitoring of greenhouse gases.

Eldering et al., also reported that NASA launched the Orbiting Carbon Obsrvatory-2 in

2014 as their first dedicated greenhouse gas monitoring satellite [7]. This was to be used to

provide accurate carbon (iv) oxide measurements on a regional scale. Even though the first year

of operation involved various activities such as calibrations to improve the quality of the output,

data obtained within the first 18 months after this program was launched provided some of the

most robust figures for CO2 emissions ever obtained [7].

In addition, the European Space Agency Sentile-5P also provides sufficient evidence

regarding the use of remote sensing technologies to monitor greenhouse gas emissions. Utilizing

the TROPOspheric monitoring instrument (TROPOMI), this satellite allows the measurement of

NO2 and CO gases with a high degree of accuracy [8]. This satellite further has the ability to not

only monitor the above-named gases but also SO 2, CH4, O3 and aerosols through the use of

images obtained using its robust instruments. Obtained data is also used in performing

environmental evaluations and air quality calculations [8]. These are just a few case studies and

examples that have significantly contributed to an increased understanding and the use of remote

sensing technologies for monitoring greenhouse gas emissions.

Even though tremendous strides in the use of remote sensing technologies to monitor and

quantify greenhouse gas emissions have been achieved, there are still challenges that are being

encountered. Cloud cover, accuracy of the instruments, and validation of data are just some of
the few aspects that need to be considered in future research that seeks to further improvements

in this area. It is also essential to note that collaboration in research efforts provides a robust way

to come up with solutions and increase the opportunities for innovation that can further drive the

advancement and use of this technology to new heights.

Data and Methodology

The primary method used in this context was analysis and reporting of existing literature.

To investigate and evaluate the use of remote sensing in monitoring greenhouse gas emissions

coming up with the appropriate search terms and search strategies is one of the crucial stages of

this research. This is because if search terms are not accurate in reflecting the topic or research

question, then the relevance of the results obtained can be affected. Since this paper was mainly

interested in the use of remote sensing technologies in monitoring greenhouse gases, the search

terms were simple and concise. These included, ‘remote sensing’ ‘monitoring’ ‘greenhouse’

‘gases’ and ‘emissions.’ A search using various relevant combinations of these terms was

undertaken targeting various databases such as ProQuest, Google Scholar, Science Direct, and

Taylor and Francis Online.

Results obtained were largely filtered using the period 2010 to 2023. Articles published

before 2010 were thus excluded. In the first phase, the researcher was only interested in the titles

of articles that had a high degree of similarity to the search terms. It is from these selected

articles that a further view was conducted by reading the abstracts of the articles. Only articles

that provided a high degree of relevance in relation to the use of remote sensing applications for

monitoring greenhouse gas emissions were selected. Emphasis was placed towards peer-

reviewed articles, and articles that sought to provide results of large geographical areas/

economies.
 Results

Zhang et al., reported on the global CO 2 and CH4 emissions using the GOSAT satellite

[6]. The GOSAT mission as earlier noted was launched by the Japanese Space Agency in

conjunction with the National Institute for Environmental Studies in 2009 [6]. This satellite has

over the years been instrumental in providing accurate data of CO 2 and CH4 concentrations

across annual, seasons and monthly time periods. Obtained results can be compared with those of

a similar period in the previous years and this thus can be used to show whether greenhouse gas

concentrations have increased or decreased within that particular time. In this case, the results

focused on large economies and the entire world. The results of 2020 were then compared to the

results of the year 2021 [6].

Figure 1 shows GOSAT CO2 concentrations in 2020 and in 2021 [6]

Table 1 shows the CO2 concentrations of major regions and the globe between 2020 and 2021 [6]
Figure 2 shows GOSAT CH4 concentrations in 2020 and 2021 [6]

Luo et al., also reported China’s monitoring efforts based on the Gaofen-5 satellite II [9].

China's growing economy has been a huge contributor to greenhouse gases, thus accurate

monitoring is key in assisting the mitigation efforts. To improve the spectral resolution of this

satellite, spatial heterodyne spectroscopy is a key instrument used in this satellite in monitoring

and quantifying greenhouse gases in the atmosphere [9]. Even though this study highly focused
on the design aspects of the instruments, this context focused only on the results, taking into

account that these were the first results of this satellite [9]. These were also compared to those

obtained using the GOSAT system that was briefly discussed in the preceding section above.

Figure 3 shows the dry molecule fraction of CO2 obtained from the GMI-II and compared to the

output of GOSAT. A regional mean of 413.41ppm was achieved from the GMI-II in comparison

to that of 413.38ppm from the GOSAT [9].

An article authored by Imasu et al., that was published in the Journal of Progress in

Earth and Planetary Science revealed that GOSAT-2 was launched in 2018 [10]. Unlike its

predecessor GOSAT, GOSAT-2 offers increased performance in terms of quality with better

signal-to-noise ratio frames and an increased capacity for data monitoring [10]. Improvements

even allowed for the availability of data in high-latitude areas that were otherwise unavailable

during winter in the GOSAT due to signal fading. In addition, GOSAT-2 has the capability to

monitor a wide range of greenhouse gases other than CO 2 and CH4 [10]. This in itself shows that

the efforts of advancing and using remote sensing technologies in monitoring greenhouse gases

are intensifying. This came at a time when the EU also intensified its efforts of planned

development and launching of low constellation satellites with the sole purpose of increasing
monitoring of CO2 emissions. Sentinel-5P for instance was successfully launched in 2017 [12].

Results obtained from the GOSAT-2 were depicted below:

Figure 4 shows CO2 monitoring from the GOSAT-2 in parts per million (ppm) [10]

Figure 5 shows CO monitoring from the GOSAT-2 in ppm [10]

 Varon et al., on the other hand also reported on the weekly monitoring of greenhouse gas

emissions, especially methane in the Permian basin using data recorded using the TROPOMI

instrument on board of the Sentinel-5 [11]. This author used these capabilities to map out

methane emissions in the Permian basin located in Texas and New Mexico. This basin is one of

the largest oil producers when it comes to the United States, and is estimated to account for about

40% of oil produced in this nation [11]. Remote sensing in this case thus allowed the researcher

to investigate just how oil production activities in this basin affected methane concentrations in

the atmosphere. Results indicated that the methane indicator highly varied depending on the

production. Nonetheless, weekly results indicated a steady reduction of methane indicator over

time from 2018 to 2020. This was consistent with improvements made in production practices

[11].
Figure 6 shows CH4 monitoring on the Permian basin from the TROPOMI instrument on board

the Sentinel-5 [11]

Discussion

One thing that is evident based on the above results is the growing trend of the use of

space remote sensing technologies to monitor greenhouse gas emissions. GOSAT was a joint

mission that was launched in 2009 and this was the time when a satellite was solely dedicated to

monitoring CO2 emissions from space [6]. Even so, based on the results of CO 2 concentrations

between 2021 to 2020, it can be noted that there was a slight increase in CO2ppm by an average

of 2.54ppm within the four major regions i.e., China, EU, India and the US [6]. This increase

was also observed in the CH4 concentrations between 2021 and 2020 [6]. This thus pointed to an

increase in the emission of CO2 and CH4 into the atmosphere.

Launched in 2010, China’s Gaofen-5 satellite II has also been instrumental in monitoring

greenhouse gas emissions as seen in Figure 3 where a regional mean of 413.41ppm was achieved

from the GMI-II in comparison to that of 413.38ppm from the GOSAT [9]. Imasu et al., on the

other hand, revealed an interesting perspective that Japan was advancing its monitoring efforts

by launching GOSAT-2 in 2018 [10]. GOSAT-2 offered improved performance and increased

accuracy with robust onboard instruments. This is an aspect that is instrumental in showing that

the use of remote sensing for greenhouse gas emissions is continually growing.

Varon et al., also clearly portrayed why remote sensing is an important tool in

championing greenhouse gas reduction strategies when it comes to oil production practices [11].

In this case study, weekly results indicated a steady reduction of the methane indicator over time

from 2018 to 2020 and this was associated with improvements undertaken in oil production

practices [11]. This shows that remote sensing technology is crucial when it comes to assessing
how the actions nations undertake to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases are performing.

Remote sensing systems thus offer a robust way of monitoring greenhouse gases, where

reporting concentrations is continually becoming a more transparent affair. Since these systems

are being deployed by various governments, data accuracy and reliability can be further

enhanced through collaboration.

Conclusion

To sum up this discussion, the use of remote sensing technologies to monitor the

emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere is advancing. GOSAT which is the first

satellite solely dedicated to monitoring greenhouse gases was launched in 2009, nonetheless,

since that time there have been significant strides as those depicted by the Orbiting Carbon

Obsrvatory-2, GMI-II, Sentinel-5, and GOSAT-2. The ability to monitor a variety of greenhouse

gases over a large geographical area offers the world a chance to implement actionable and

measurable goals in mitigating the ongoing greenhouse gas crisis. This is because the

performance of any implemented strategies will be easily monitored using these remote sensing

technologies.
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