The History of Forensic Science in India

This book explores the interaction between science and society and the
development of forensic science as well as the historical roots of crime detection
in colonial India.
Covering a period from the mid-19th to mid-20th century, the author examines
how the colonial rulers changed the perception of crime which prevailed in
the colonial states and introduced forensic science as a measure of criminal
identification in the Indian subcontinent. The book traces the historical background
of the development and use of forensic science in civil and criminal investigation
during the colonial period, and explores the extent to which forensic science has
proven useful in investigation and trials. Connecting the historical beginning of
forensic science with its socio-historical, socio-political context and diversity of
scientific applications for crime detection, this book sheds new light on the history
of forensic science in colonial India.
Using an interdisciplinary approach, incorporating science and technology
studies and history of crime detection, the book will be of interest to researchers
in the fields of forensic science, criminology, science and technology studies, law,
South Asian history and colonial history.

Saumitra Basu is an independent researcher in the field of history of science and

history of medicine, and currently a guest faculty in the Ramakrishna Mission
Vivekananda Educational and Research Institute, Kolkata. He is the recipient of
different national and international fellowships, including Visiting Fellowship at
the Oxford Institute of Ageing, Oxford, UK.
Routledge Studies in South Asian History

17 Women and Literary Narratives in Colonial India

Her Myriad Gaze on the “Other”
Sukla Chatterjee

18 Gender, Nationalism, and Genocide in Bangladesh

Naristhan/Ladyland
Azra Rashid

19 Evolution, Race and Public Spheres in India

Vernacular Concepts and Sciences (1860–1930)
Luzia Savary

20 Democracy and Unity in India

Understanding the All India Phenomenon, 1940–1960
Emily Rook-Koepsel

21 Memories and Postmemories of the Partition of India

Anjali Gera Roy

22 Cultural Histories of India

Subaltern Spaces, Peripheral Genres, and Alternate Historiography
Rita Banerjee

23 Bureaucracy, Belonging, and the City in North India

1870–1930
Michael S. Dodson

24 The History of Forensic Science in India

Saumitra Basu

For more information about this series, please visit: https​:/​/ww​​w​.rou​​tledg​​e​.com​​/

asia​​nstud​​ies​/s​​e​ries​​/RSSA​H
The History of Forensic
Science in India

Saumitra Basu
First published 2021
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2021 Saumitra Basu
The right of Saumitra Basu to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Basu, Saumitra (History of science researcher), author.
Title: The history of forensic science in India/Saumitra Basu.
Description: Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2021. |
Series: Routledge studies in South Asian history |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021003144 (print) | LCCN 2021003145 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781032005188 (hardback) | ISBN 9781003177203 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Forensic sciences–India.
Classification: LCC HV8073 .B36114 2021 (print) |
LCC HV8073 (ebook) | DDC 363.250954–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021003144
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021003145
ISBN: 978-1-032-00518-8 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-01116-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-17720-3 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003177203
Typeset in Times New Roman
by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India
I dedicate this monograph to Ma and Baba for their love, endless
support, encouragement, and blessings
Contents

List of pictures viii

Acknowledgements ix
Preface xii
List of abbreviations xvi

Introduction 1

1 Concept of Visha, crime, and punishment in ancient India 27

2 Crime and crime detection in the Western world 57

3 Beginning of scientific measures for criminal identification

in British India 81

4 Development of forensic institutions in colonial India 115

5 Forensic science in India, with special reference to the

origin of fingerprints 140

6 Conclusion 176

Primary Sources 195

Subject Index 201

Pictures

4.1 Map showing the establishment of forensic institutions in different

parts of British India 116
4.2 Instruments used for analyzing fingerprints in British India 121
5.1 Specimen of Aurangzeb’s panja sent to Ajit Singh 144
5.2 Handprint of Rajyadhar Konai 150
5.3 Finger print of Kangali Charan 156
5.4 Finger Print Pattern – Arch 157
5.5 Finger Print Pattern – Loop 158
5.6 Finger Print Pattern – Whorl 159
Acknowledgements

The monograph is a revised version of my project on Hundred Years of Forensic

Science in India (1849–1947): A Historical Perspective which was conceived in
October 2015, and the work on which began in June 2016 and was completed on
August 31, 2019. Really, this is an unforgettable moment of contentment on the
successful fulfilment of an aspiration and a milestone fostered for long, i.e. the
successful completion of this research work. I bend my head at the feet of the
Almighty God whose profound grace paved the path forward. This humble work
is a reflection of the mercy of the Almighty. Many people and institutions have
contributed to this study, in ways more profound than I can express here, over
the years that it has been in the making. This work would not have been possible
without the generosity of many people in different corners of India and the United
Kingdom who valued my work, offered me hours of discussion, imparted their
wisdom, and welcomed me into their wider research canvas.
Personal debts cannot be adequately acknowledged to all those I have come
across during the research work because they are so many. They all have extended
their helping hands in unknown environs, both academic and geographic.
First of all, I sincerely express my heartfelt gratitude to the Indian National
Science Academy (INSA). The present study was only made possible due to the
generous support of funding opportunities from the INSA, New Delhi. I have
no words to express my heartfelt gratitude for the respectable members of the
National Commission of History of Science, whose valuable suggestions and
thoughtful review inspired me to complete the work in a successful manner. I am
also grateful to Mr. Madhvendra Narayan, Assistant Executive Director, History
of Science, for his cordial administrative assistance.
I must acknowledge my heartiest regards to Professors K. C. Malhotra, Deepak
Kumar, and Jagdish N. Sinha for their academic guidance, moral support, critical
review, recommendations, and necessary help from the very beginning of this
project, thus enabling me to continue my research work in a proper way and com-
plete this monograph within the stipulated time frame.
I wish to express my especial gratitude and respect from the bottom of my
heart to Dr. Srabani Sen. Since the beginning she bestowed upon me her great
wisdom in framing this work, constantly pushed my expectations of myself, of
what it meant to write history of forensic science, of what my sources could tell
x Acknowledgements
me, and what I could tell for future researchers. Really, I am privileged to have
had such a resourceful mentor as Dr. Sen.
I acknowledge my deep indebtedness to John O’ Brien, Archivist, India Office
Library, and Edward Bishop, Wellcome Trust Library, London, UK, for their
untiring assistance which enabled me to complete my archival and library work in
those esteemed institutions of London, UK.
I am really indebted to my friend, Prof. Debasish Mondal, Assistant Professor
of Anthropology, University of Calcutta, for his untiring academic and moral
support which was really encouraging and provided me with generous mental
support.
With any research of this type, there are a large number of people who make
important contributions for its completion. I shall be failing in my duty if I do not
acknowledge the personal interest taken by Prof. Ranjana Ray, Professor Emeritus,
Department of Anthropology, University of Calcutta, and Anthropological
Secretary, The Asiatic Society, Kolkata; Prof. Rajarshi Majumdar, Professor of
Economics, University of Burdwan; Dr. A. K. Bag, Former Editor of the Indian
Journal of History of Science and member of the National Commission of History
of Science, Indian National Science Academy (INSA), New Delhi; Mr. Suhas
Mitra, Former Deputy Director, Central Finger Print Bureau (CFPB), Kolkata;
Prof. Rajaram Jana, Professor of Ayurveda, J B Roy Ayurvedic Institute, Kolkata,
Govt. of West Bengal; Dr. Thirunabhu Kakkarasu, Deputy Director, Ballistic
Department, Tamil Nadu Forensic Science, Tamil Nadu; Prof. Mitra Sharafi,
Professor of Law and History, University of Wisconsin, USA; Dr. D. Sengupta,
Former Director, Forensic laboratory, Kolkata; Mr. R. N. Meena, Deputy Director,
Petroleum & Explosive Safety Organization (PESO), Kolkata; Dr. P. R. Kumar,
Assistant Serologist, Kolkata; Dr. Sukta, Das, Dr. Jayanta Bhattacharya, Research
Associate, Indian National Science Academy (INSA), New Delhi; and Prof. Badal
Chandra Jana, Professor of Rognidan, Institute of Post Graduate Ayurvedic
Education and Research, West Bengal Health University, for their valuable sug-
gestions which aided the completion of the present study. I convey my sincere
thanks to Dr. Satarupa Dutta Majumdar, Research Associate, Indian National
Science Academy (INSA), New Delhi, for her academic assistance. I also convey
my deep sense of gratitude to my student Arindam Chatterjee, for his heartiest
academic cooperation.
My special thanks to all the members of Editorial team of Routledge for their
heartiest cooperation. I am greatly indebted to Eve Setch, Publisher, Routledge;
Dorothea Schaefter, Senior Editor, Asian Stuides, Routledge; Alexandra de
Brauw, Editorial Assistant, Asian Studies, Catherine Jones, Editorial Assistant,
Health and Social care, Philip Stirups, Senior Production Editor, Natalie Larkin,
Maria Rita J and all other editorial assistants of Deanta Global Publishing Services
whose untiring effort make my draft manuscript into a book.
I also express my sincere thanks to the library and archival authorities of the
Department of History, University of Calcutta, The Asiatic Society, Metcalf Hall,
Kolkata; American Center (USEFI), Kolkata; British Council, Kolkata; Centre
for Studies in Social Sciences, Patuli, Kolkata; National Library, Kolkata; West
 Acknowledgements  xi
Bengal State Archives, Kolkata; Calcutta Police Museum, Kolkata; Finger Print
Department, Bhavani Bhavan, Kolkata; Indian Council of Historical Research
(ICHR), New Delhi; National Archives of India, New Delhi; Jawaharlal Nehru
University, New Delhi; National University of Singapore (NUS); Central
European University (CEU), Budapest, Hungary; University College of London
(UCL); and Bodleian Library, Social Science Library, Radcliffe Science Library,
Oxford, Kings College Library, Cambridge, UK, for their sincere cooperation in
my library work.
My family’s contribution has been the most important. I cannot begin to
acknowledge the role of my wife, Malika (Assistant Professor of History, Kalna
College, University of Burdwan, West Bengal), and my little son, Soumalya, my
best friend and life companion. Both of them have been enormously patient and
supportive of my work – intellectually, emotionally, and materially – over my
long, and sometimes strenuous, journey as an anthropologist of history of science.
My work and my life would not be the same without them.
Preface

In the development of the history of science, the histories of the individual scien-
tific disciplines have played a remarkable role. With regard to the subject, there
are specific approaches whose advantages and disadvantages are also important
concerns of the discipline. Undoubtedly, the developments of this discipline have
not only marked a turning point in the development of knowledge but also new
theoretical perspectives of the known facts were preceded by an extensive socio-
historical context. From the 18th century onwards, the growing specialization of
science gave rise to newer understanding about science and scientific thoughts,
which accelerated changes both in theories and in methods. In India, specifically
since the late 19th century, different scientific discoveries profoundly altered sci-
entific thoughts and their application for human welfare, which ultimately led to
the material development of society. Therefore, it is well accepted that it is only
through the history of the discipline that one can understand the origin, growth,
development, controversies, and successive changes that ultimately shape the
subject in its fullest meaning.
From the days of my early boyhood, Bengali detective novels of Saradindu
Bandopadhyay always fascinated me. I tried to understand the nature of crime
and the innovative methods of crime detection by the detective Byomkesh Bakshi.
A major motivation to visualize this project cropped up from this desire and my
source of inspiration has been Dr. Srabani Sen, whom I met and discussed a lot
to understand the issue historically and scientifically, and the present project is a
fruitful outcome in this regard. During an international workshop on History of
Science at Cambridge, the issues of forensic anthropology and fingerprint identi-
fication were raised by an overseas scholar from the United States. The backdrop
of the discussion was the international perspective of forensic science. Being an
overseas participant and specifically from India I pondered over the issue and in
the course of time it became a research concern. However, it is not the lack of a
substantive historical research tradition that urged me to think over the present
research. Rather, it was the dearth of suitable historical material which provided
me with the impetus to conduct my own study and the present research is a fruitful
outcome of it.
The history of forensic science in India encompasses a broad spectrum of sci-
ences to answer questions of interest to the legal system. The term includes the
 Preface  xiii
application of all sciences, such as physics, chemistry, and biology, and such
other related disciplines. Almost all branches of science can help in the admin-
istration of justice and finally its application for understanding the truth. Though
its application was not known by our ancestors in the present scientific form, its
detailed reference can be seen from our ancient literatures. Scientific methods in
one way or the other seem to have been followed in the investigation of crime.
History of forensic science in India comprises a vast and multifaceted story which
had different developmental consequences in different civilizations. The present
research attempts a new kind of challenge to explore the rich historical account
of the development of forensic science in colonial India. The word “forensic”
has been derived from the Latin word forensis, meaning “belonging to the mar-
ket place or forum”. In ancient Rome the “forum” or public meeting place was
where legal cases were tried and pleaded. The term “forensic science” means the
application of the knowledge of science for the purposes of law and justice. The
present study tries to explore the two-way interaction between science and colo-
nialism and the development of forensic science in colonial India and to highlight
the growth and development of the different forensic institutions in colonial India
and their interrelationship with the sociohistorical contexts of crime identifica-
tion. The broader canvas tries to unravel how a new field of science produced an
obvious, consistent, and authoritative message in the courtroom and grounded
the colonial superiority in a more convincing manner. In such an endeavour, the
institutionalization of crime investigation came as a new colonial discourse and
the establishment of different forensic institutions in different presidencies can be
placed at this juncture.
Since the end of the 1857 rebellion, British India felt an impulse to reform
the whole penal law and establish a new Indian Penal Code to demonstrate colo-
nial supremacy in a more convincing manner. The present author has attempted
to investigate the sociohistorical consequences and interconnectedness which
have enabled him to discuss the total gamut in its entirety. The entire perspective
creates a broader canvas within colonial supremacy. The history of magnificent
and specialized scientific discipline, i.e. forensic science, is itself a longstanding
historical science. Questions regarding what constituted an illegal act and what
is right and what is wrong have plagued human history since the beginning of
humankind. Keeping this philosophy in mind, the present attempt has visualized
the present project from a science and technology studies (STs) and criminology
studies perspective, particularly the history of crime detection and specifically
the history of scientific witness. The basic aim of this study is to understand the
historical roots of crime detection from ancient times to the end of British rule in
India. Within this broader framework, the present study tries to understand how
different socio historical and socio political consequences enables to establish
forensic as a scientific endeavour.
However, the essence of the study centres around the historical emergence
of forensic science within the broader canvas of mid-19th-century sociopolitical
climax. One must understand this sociopolitical interconnectivity before trying to
understand this historical emergence. The historical moment of the 19th century
xiv Preface
witnessed the amendment of three criminal laws, namely the Indian Penal Code,
Criminal Procedure Code, and the New Police Regulation. The first two laws gave
the colonial administration a new shape. The last one was very significant, consid-
ering the earlier experience of colonial rulers who had witnessed the utter failure
of the police force in controlling dreadful crimes and establishing an effective
order as desired by the Company Raj. In such an endeavour, institutionalization of
crime investigation came as a new colonial discourse and establishment of differ-
ent forensic institutions in different Presidencies can be placed at this juncture. In
such a context, enactments of different legal acts were of great importance, which
not only created a new vista in the measure of true criminal identification for
scientific certainty but also drastically altered the concept of crime. After taking
over the Crown permanently and to control the colonial subjects more systemati-
cally and vigorously, along with legal reforms and regulations, the imperial rulers
introduced forensic science as a new scientific tool of supremacy in the Indian
subcontinent. There were also other factors which provided inspiration for the
establishment of different forensic science institutions in colonial Calcutta vis-à-
vis India. These were the different social reformatory and anti-British movements.
In such a sociopolitical situation, the ideology behind this scientific supremacy
was nothing but a colonial mission to mark the footsteps of Western scientific
thoughts of criminal identification more rigidly in the colonial state. To under-
stand this whole perspective in a comprehensive manner, the present author has
interwoven all the necessary sociohistorical and sociopolitical events in such a
fashion that the ways of ancient Indian and medieval Indian criminal identifica-
tion and crime detection, Western forensic science and crime detection, historical
consequence and the beginning of forensic science in the Indian subcontinent, and
subsequently the establishment of different forensic science institutions in British
India, historical origin and scientific beginning of finger print science in colonial
India and the development of forensic science up to the end of the colonial period
have been discussed in detail. It is expected that such a broader perspective will
positively help the readers in understanding the context of the history of forensic
science and the beginning of scientific measures of criminal identification in India
in its totality. The endeavour ends with a theoretical understanding along with a
future research perspective.
However, there is no way to deny the importance of both primary and sec-
ondary sources which ultimately helped to materialize a dream. The archival
sources were of immense help. Personal papers, diaries, letters of correspond-
ence, minutes of meetings, newspaper articles, government reports, proceedings,
micro-films, etc., not only helped the author to think in an in-depth manner but
also helped to understand the perspective with varied connotations. The theo-
retical and conceptual understanding of this attempt was built mostly based on
published books, papers in different national and international journals, personal
interviews, and newspaper articles. To understand this entire effort in a compre-
hensive manner, the whole discussion has been divided into six chapters, includ-
ing observations and conclusion. The treatise ends with a view that the emergence
of forensic science in colonial India not only highlights the then sociopolitical
 Preface  xv
and sociohistorical milieu but also emphasizes a new vista for scientific certainty
which drastically altered the concept of crime. The present treatise concludes with
futuristic visions of Indian forensic science and its multifaceted scientific role
which will cater to the justice of the teeming millions so far as the challenge of
global crime is concerned.
Saumitra Basu
Abbreviations

AAFS American Academy of Forensic Sciences

AFIS Automated Fingerprint Identification System
BPR&D Bureau of Police Research and Development
CCI Central Criminal Intelligence
CMLAC Central Medico-Legal Advisory Committee
CFI Central Forensic Institute
CFSL Central Forensic Science Laboratory
CID Criminal Investigation Department
CIO Central Intelligence Officers
CJS Criminal Justice System
CrPC Criminal Procedure Code
CSI Crime Scene Investigation
CTDS Central Detective Training School
DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid
FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation
FI Forensic Institutions
FRS Fellow of the Royal Society
GEQD Government Examiner of Questioned Documents
IAFS Indian Academy of Forensic Sciences
IB Intelligence Bureau
IDB Inter-American Development Bank
IG Inspector General
INTERPOL International Criminal Police Organization
IP Indian police
IPC Indian Penal Code
ITA Immoral Traffic Act
JSTOR Journal Storage
NAAU Neutron Activation Analysis Unit
NCRB National Crime Records Bureau
NIJ National Institute of Justice
SACC Scientific Advisory Committee to the Cabinet
SCFS Standing Committee on Forensic Science
SFPBs State Finger Print Bureaus
 Abbreviations  xvii
S&T Science and Technology
STs Science and Technology Studies
UNDP United Nations Development Program
USAID US Agency for International Development
UGC University Grants Commission
VDRL Venereal Disease Research Laboratory
Introduction

Where to start the journey for this criminal investigation, crime identification,
and how to unveil the truth? The beginning lies with the beginning of civilization.
Since the beginning of civilization, the attainment of scientific knowledge has
always been intrinsic to human nature. Man, the Homo sapiens sapiens, always
tries to accumulate knowledge and power, which conjointly lead to the develop-
ment of science for understanding truth in its totality.

Scientific enquiry and journey for the truth

since the beginning of civilization
The history of the magnificent and specialized scientific discipline of forensic sci-
ence is itself a longstanding historical science. The philosophy of this splendid sub-
ject is also commensurate with the sastriya tradition mentioned in different ancient
Indian religious texts for understanding truth in its totality. Since the beginning
of human civilization the issue which affected human history was the search for
what constituted an illegal act and what is right and wrong. From biblical stories
of murder to modern accounts of assault, men have committed crimes against each
other. In the distant past, crimes were largely solved based on eye witness accounts.
Violence was often chalked up to accident, poisonings, even witchcraft or divine
retribution, and illness to an imbalance of the “humours”. With the passage of time,
man became advanced in knowledge, and so also in justice. As people got more and
more interested in the details of crimes, information about crimes spread widely and
this was accomplished, at least in part, through the penny press. The penny press,1
“newspapers” that delivered the news and were sold on street corners for a penny or
so, relayed mainly sordid or fabricated details about lurid crimes.

in the middle of the 19th century India, the penny press, low-priced news-
papers, which mainly covered news stories of crime and adventure, made
its apparition in the East coast. Penny press papers “revolutionized content
by declaring their independence from political parties and concentrating on
news rather than opinion”. The most important innovation of the penny press
was its price; thus, it provided access to a larger audience of readers, indeed
to the lower class. (Nerone, 1987, p. 378)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003177203-1
2 Introduction
Etymology and meaning of the word “forensic”
Before going to the definition the author feels it is important to explain the
etymology of the word “forensic”. The etymology of the word “forensic” is as
follows:

Origin
LATIN LATIN
forum→forensic
In open court
Public
ENGLISH
forum
mid-17th century: from Latin forensis, “in open court, public,” from forum

Online Etymology Dictionary (2003) defines “forensic” as “pertaining to or suit-

able for courts of law,” 1650s, with –ic + stem of Latin forensis “of a forum, place
of assembly”, related to forum, “public place”. Afterwards “forensic medicine”
was used in the sense of “pertaining to legal trials” (1845). In 1659, the Merriam-
Webster Dictionary officially recognized and printed the word “forensic.”

Merriam Webster (1659) first used the term “forensic” and defines the mean-
ing of forensic as relating to or dealing with the application of scientific
knowledge to legal problems forensic medicine, forensic science, forensic
pathologist, forensic experts.
(Merrian Webster, 1659, pp.445)

The term had been used in medical writings for many years, but until then was not
considered to be an “official” word in the English language. In the present day, the
term “forensic” is very much common in our day-to-day life. With the advance-
ment in years, scientific discoveries became apparent to decide the outcome of
important legal matters and the application of science became essential to solving
legal matters. In this connection, the scientificity of “forensic” becomes obvious
in a court to solve any legal matter. Therefore, forensic science is a conversation
about the application of scientific theories in a judicial setting. It is uncertain
exactly when the concept of “forensic science” originated. Historically, Chinese
text dedicated to forensic medicine was discovered. The book Ming Yuen Shih Lu
by Chich-ts’si was published around the 6th century AD.
the first documented use of forensic science was in 6th century China in
a book titled “Ming Yuen Shih Lu,” which described how to distinguish
drowning from strangulation.
(Tshai, 2008)
 Introduction 3
The concept of utilizing fingerprint and handprint pattern as a means of personal
identification dates back to thousands of years.

there are indications of finger prints and handprints in artifacts recovered

from archaeological excavations of ancient civilizations. Early potters may
have used them to sign their work. Ancient records reveal that using finger-
print and handprint as marks of authenticity in China at least 2000 years ago.
(James, Nordby and Bell, 2014, pp.331)

At the outset, the discussion reveals that the term “forensic science”2 denotes that
it is the application of natural sciences to matters of the law. Practically, forensic
science applies the scientific knowledge of physics, chemistry, biology, and other
scientific principles and methods to solve legal problems. This specific science
is mainly concerned with the appreciation, recognition, individualization, and
assessment of physical evidence. Forensic experts resolve scientific facts from
the proof they assess and may authenticate as expert witnesses in civil or crimi-
nal courts or other legal contexts. It is the responsibility of the lawyers, judges,
and juries to prosecute, defend, and judge the guilt or innocence of an individual
accused of wrongdoing. It is the responsibility of the forensic scientist to pre-
sent the scientific facts in a fair, objective manner, based on accepted scientific
methods, to facilitate the decision (Williams, 2015). Therefore the terms “foren-
sic” and “science” both relate to the common theme of truth, either speaking it
or seeking it. Thus “forensic science” thrives by embracing the human intrigue
and frailties, great mysteries and tragedies, and scientific triumphs and disgraces.
Thus the definition briefly narrates that the word “forensic” has been derived from
the Latin word forensis, meaning “belonging to the market place or forum”. In
ancient Rome, public meetings were held and legal cases tried and pleaded in the
“forum”.

The history of the term itself originated from the Roman times during which
criminal charges was used to refer to presenting the case before a group of
public individuals in the forum. The forum is in relation to the Roman Empire.
It is a rectangular forum surrounded by the ruins of several important ancient
government buildings at the centre of the city of Rome where citizens go to
carry out some public matters. For example; triumphal processions, elections,
public speeches, criminal trials and gladiatorial matches. (Chroust, 1954)

The term “forensic science” means the application of the knowledge of science
for purposes of law and justice (Agarwal, 2001). Forensics as a science is devoted
to or targeted at the methodical gathering and analysis of evidences to establish
facts that can be referred to in a legal proceeding. It is multidisciplinary, that is,
it is a subject that has a lot of disciplines which are embedded in, and stem from,
biology, chemistry, physics, geology, psychology, and so on. In modern parlance,
4 Introduction
an accurate forensic science definition extends beyond the traditional concept of
science. It can include the areas of accounting, psychological testing, and inter-
pretation of data and other services. In modern scientific parlance, forensics can
embrace toxicology, autopsies, pathology, fingerprinting, and DNA analysis
to determine the cause of death and scientifically connect a suspect to a crime.
Both law enforcement officials and forensic experts use cutting-edge scientific
techniques to preserve and scrutinize evidence in a systematic manner, known as
“chain of evidence”, which confirms that the evidence is pure and has not been
mishandled. Modern forensics can also interpret erased information and records
and can evaluate if someone was involved in a crime (www​.the balancecareers​.c​
om). So from the discussion it is evident that since the beginning of humankind,
the occurrence of crime is interwoven with society in the realm of its scientific
prosperity.

Interconnectedness of crime and society

When we talk about the intricate relationship between crime and society, it
becomes important to know the meaning of both the terms, i.e. “crime and soci-
ety”. So the first question to be asked is: what is crime? It is indeed a herculean
task to define crime. It has always been regarded as a matter of great difficulty
(Turner, 2013). R.C. Nigam says that to answer the question of what is crime, it is
to be known at first what is law, because these two questions are closely interre-
lated. Generally, it has been accepted that the application of law is a control which
commands a course of conduct. Therefore, a crime can be considered an act of
disobedience which occurs against law. But then, sometimes, disobedience of all
laws may not be a crime, for instance, disobedience of civil laws. Therefore, crime
would mean something more than mere disobedience of law (Nigam, 1965). Of
all the branches of law, the branch that closely touches and concerns man in his
day-to-day affairs is criminal law, yet the law is not in a satisfactory state (Brett,
1963). Many attempts have been made to define crime, but they all fail to help us
in precisely identifying what kind of act or omission amounts to a crime. The defi-
nition and concept of crime is a notion that changes from time to time and from
place to place. For instance, suicide was a crime in England until the Suicide Act
was passed in 1961 (Ormerod, Karl and Smith, 2018), and abortion was a crime
in India until 1971, but now it is legal, except in some circumstances (Gupta and
Gupta 2016). Therefore, it can be said that a crime is an act, omission, or event,
the commission of which is prohibited by law. When it is committed, it leads to
examination and punishment of some form administered by agents of the state
rather than the payment of compensation. Therefore, from the above definition,
we can define crime as any moral or social wrong committed by one person or a
group of persons against another person or the state that are restricted by the state.
There have been different types of crime since the beginning of civilization, such
as crimes against a person, crimes against property, organized crimes, occupa-
tional crimes, and political crimes, as well as corporate crimes.