Topic 11.5.1.

4Instrument Systems – Other (ATA 31)

 State the purpose of the following systems / instruments and describe
their operation:
 Angle of attack indication
 Stall warning and stall avoidance systems
 Temperature measurement
 Cabin altitude indication
 Accelerometer
 Aircraft Clock.

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Introduction to Angle of Attack Indication
Many pilots believe that the speed of the aircraft is the only factor which determines the point at which a
stall occurs. This is not true. Many a pilot, both experienced and inexperienced, has come unstuck from a
high speed pull-up from a diving turn, indicating that the wing stalled at a speed far higher than the
recognized stall speed. The problem is that during the manoeuvre, the angle attack of at least one wing
exceeded the stall angle. What exactly is the stall angle? It is an angle of attack at which the airflow over
the wing is no longer even, but instead, starts to break away and create a turbulent flow, destroying the
lift. For most wing configurations there is a set angle at which this occurs. Pilots need to know the attitude
they are flying at, so they can fly safely at high angles of attack without the risk of stalling. To sense these
angles, a system of angle of attack sensors has been incorporated into aircraft design.

Chord Line
Angle of Attack is the angle between the chord line of the aerofoil and the direction of the relative wind. It
is important in the production of lift. As Angle of Attack increases, lift also increases. Lift acts perpendicular
to the relative wind regardless of the angle of attack.

Pilots have direct control over Angle of Attack (AOA). During flight at normal operating speeds, if a pilot
increases the angle of attack, lift increases. The AOA is changed any time the control column is moved
forward or aft during flight and the coefficient of lift is changed at the same time.

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Angle of Attack
Every aircraft has an AOA where maximum lift occurs.
Higher AOA’s produce more lift, up to the critical AOA where all lift is lost and the aerofoil will stall. This
occurs at the same AOA regardless of aircraft speed and loading.

As AOA increases, lift increases. This continues to a point where lift peaks (CL max). In this example this
point of maximum lift is at about 17° (typically between 12° & 18°). If the maximum lift angle is exceeded,
lift decreases rapidly and the wing stalls.
For a given airplane, a stall always occurs at the same angle of attack regardless of airspeed, flight attitude
or weight. This is the stalling or critical angle of attack. It is important to remember that an aircraft can stall
at any airspeed, in any flight attitude, or at any weight.

Stall
Any aircraft wing will produce lift when air passes over it. The value of the lift is directly related to:
Density of the air
Size and shape of the aerofoil angle of attack.

Speed and loading effects the aircraft stall in that at lower speed, a higher AOA must be maintained to
provide sufficient lift to keep the aircraft at a constant altitude. If the aircraft is very heavy, again a higher

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AOA (or higher airspeed {to produce more lift} to compensate for the additional weight is required) must
be maintained to produce sufficient lift to counter the additional weight. So more weight or slower
airspeeds mean an aircraft is at a higher AOA and is therefore closer to the critical AOA and more
susceptible to breeching the critical AOA and stalling. But it is the AOA which causes the stall, not the
weight or airspeed.
When AOA reaches the point of stalling the air is separating from the leading edge, and the wing is
producing no lift. This angle is termed the stalling or critical angle of attack.
Note also that the wing begins to stall as the separation moves forward (nearing critical AOA). The wing is
only fully stalled at the critical AOA.
To recover from a stall smooth airflow must be restored. The only way to do this is to decrease the angle
of attack to a point below the stalling or critical angle of attack.
ANGLE OF ATTACK INDICATION
As we have discussed it is the AOA that determines when an aircraft will stall, not airspeed, attitude or
aircraft weight. Although all of these parameters effect the AOA, it is still the critical AOA where the aircraft
will stall.
The manner in which an aircraft responds as it approaches and reaches a stalled condition depends on
many other factors, such as wing configuration, i.e. high, low, swept-back, and also on whether the
horizontal stabilizer is in the ‘T’-tail configuration.
An aircraft will, in its own characteristic manner, provide warning of a stalled condition, e.g. by buffeting,
gentle or severe pitch -down attitude change, and/or ‘wing drop’, and although recoverable, in a situation
such as an approach when an aircraft is running out of airspace beneath itself, these inherent warnings
could come too late! It is, therefore, necessary to provide a means whereby Alpha Angle can be sensed
directly, and at some value just below that at which a stalled condition can occur it can provide an early
warning of its onset.
One of the methods utilized by pilots to monitor their aircrafts flying characteristics is to provide them with
an indication of AOA. This is achieved by measuring the angle between the aircrafts chord line and the
surrounding airflow. The AOA detecting element musttherefore be able to detect and measure the angle at
which the aircraft is cutting through the air.

Angle-of-Attack Sensors
The most common angle of attack sensor or probe, is the air pressure chamber type. On larger aircraft, the
vane or air flow type transmitters are used, sharing the output with the stall warning and windshear
systems. The sensors/probes are located on the side of the fuselage, normally below the cockpit floor level,
and mounted from the inside. The cockpit indicators are driven by a potentiometer or transmitter in the
sensor/ probe.
On large aircraft, a vane type sensor will be found on either side of the fuselage. This is to compensate for
asymmetric airflows during turns or large crosswinds.
The electrical output is used to drive a pointer in the AOA indicator.
The type of AOA sensor normally used for stall warning & stall avoidance systems consists of a precision
counter-balanced aerodynamic vane which positions the rotor of a synchro. The vane is protected against
ice formation by an internal heater element. The complete unit is accurately aligned by means of index
pins at the side of the front fuselage section of an aircraft
The AOA Probe Type Sensor
The AOA probe type sensor shown is installed so that it senses the airflow, relative to the fuselage datum
line. When equal airflow pressure is passing into the two equal sized slots in the leading edge of the probe,
the air pressure on either side of the vane is equal and the vane takes up a null position. When the aircraft
takes up another attitude, the airflow in the two slots becomes unequal and the vane will be pushed away
by increased air pressure from its null position. Attached at the end of the vane pivot shaft is a

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potentiometer, so any rotation of the shaft will produce a changed electrical output. The potentiometer
output is fed to the cockpit indicator and the pointer will take up a corresponding attitude position.

The vane will always be pointing directly at the oncoming airflow because the vane will move to balance
the pressure in both sides of the chamber. So the AOA probe will always point directly into the airflow, and
the aircraft will rotate around the probe. The electrical output is proportional to the amount of offset
between the aircraft and the AOA probe.

The AOA Airflow Type Sensor

In the airflow type sensor shown the airflow passes over a wedge shaped vane attached to a pivot arm.
When the airflow is equal on either side of the vane, the vane will be stationary. As the airflow changes,
the aircraft takes up another attitude. The vane will rotate on its pivot and move a position transmitter that
is attached to its shaft. The new position signal is fed to a cockpit indicator. On large aircraft, a vane type
sensor will be found on either side of the fuselage. This is to compensate for asymmetric airflows during
turns or large crosswinds.

High Speed Aircraft Indication

The high speed aircraft AOA indicator shown is mounted on the instrument panel and has a scale from 0°
to the max nose up angle. The pilot can move a bug around the indicator bezel to set up the optimum
attitude or pitch angle. The attitude angles change for cruise, descent, climb and landing. The indicator
pointer will take up a position equal to the exterior airflow. A course scale may be found on the exterior
housing near the vane arm pivot point.

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AOA Cockpit Indexer
In military aircraft especially naval carrier based aircraft, an AOA indexer such as a chevron and doughnut
light assembly, as shown is mounted on the instrument panel coaming or integrated in a headup display
(HUD). The chevron or doughnut lights will illuminate at different aircraft attitudes. If the upper chevron is
lit, the nose is too high. If the lower chevron is lit, the nose is too low. When the doughnut is lit, the
optimum attitude is being flown. A test function tests the operation of the lights only.

Indicators
There is no standard requirement for angle of attack indicators to be installed in aircraft, with the result
that the adoption of any one available type is left as an option on the part of an aircraft manufacturer
and/or operator. When selected for installation, however, they must not be used as the only means of
providing stall warning, but as a supplement to an appropriate type of stick-shake and stick-push system.
Indicators are connected to the AOA sensors of a stall warning system, and display the relevant data in a
variety of ways, depending on their design. In some cases a conventional pointer and scale type of display
is used, while in aircraft having electronic flight instrument display systems, the data can be programmed
into computers such that it is displayed against a vertical scale, usually located adjacent to that indicating
vertical speed, on the attitude director indicator. Another type of indicator currently in use has a pointer
which is referenced against horizontal yellow, green and red bands; a dividing line between the yellow and
green bands signifies the angle at which the stick-shaker operates.
Angle Of Attack Probe Precautions
In both types, the AOA sensors/probes/transmitters incorporate a heater element to prevent inflight
freezing. In some cases the heater element is switched to half power when the AOA system senses the
wheels are on the ground. This prevents overheating and the burning out of the element. Inflight excess
heat is removed by the airflow.
CAUTION
Severe burning to your hands can occur if you come in contact with the heated sensor/probe. Note

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Care must be taken when handling the probe not to damage the calibrated slots. When moving the vane
type sensor, care must be taken not to damage the fine movement of the transmitter shaft.
Note
When installing, ensure datum points/lines and direction arrows are observed. The AOA probe must be
aligned and located correctly when being installed.

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Stall Warning Systems
Stall warning systems are required in all modern aircraft. They all rely on an AOA measuring system to
activate the stall warning system. Modern high performance aircraft use an AOA probe as previously
described which is connected to a stall warning circuit. These aircraft usually have several other sensors
connected to the stall warning circuit or computer. Sensors for flap and slat position are used to give an
accurate stall warning for any flight condition.
Light, low speed aircraft do not have complex AOA measuring systems. Low speed general aviation type
aircraft use various types of sensors:
Vibrating reed in older style aircraft and Vane operated
switches
On later small aircraft a vane operated switch is located on the wing leading edge and this switch is closed
by upward movement of the vane at high AOA. The vane, sometimes called a lift transducer, is mounted to
sense the angle at which the air flows over the wing. With the wing flying normally, the vane is held down,
but when the wing approaches its critical angle the airflow lifts the vane up, activating an electrically
operated stall warning device such as a:
Horn light
Stick shaker.
These devices warn the pilot of the impending stall condition.
Stall Warning Systems Operation
On light aircraft both types of stall warning systems function on the same principle, this is that as AOA
increases the stagnation point (where the air separates to go either above or below the wing) gradually
moves down the leading edge of the wing.
Vibrating Reed Operation
The vibrating reed system requires no outside power source. A small hole in the leading edge of the wing is
connected by tubing to e reed and horn near the cockpit. At high AOA close to a stall a low pressure or
suction is produced at the opening of the leading edge and this pulls air through the reed to make it
vibrate and produce a noise.
Uses a reed like that found in a harmonica or a saxophone which produces a sound when the air is sucked
through it. The inlet is located on the leading edge of the wing near the stagnation point. With an increase
in angle of attack, the low pressure region over the wing moves into the area where the reed inlet is
located, causing it to produce a sound to warn the pilot of an impending stall.

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Vane Type Operation
The simplest form of system, and one which is adopted in several types of small aircraft, consists of a
hinged-vane-type sensor mounted in the leading edge of a wing so that the vane protrudes into the
airstream. In normal level flight conditions, the airstream maintains the vane in a parallel position. If the
aircraft’s attitude changes such that AOA increases, then, by definition, the airflow will meet the leading
edge at an increasing angle, and so cause the vane to be deflected. When AOA reaches that at which the
warning unit has been preset, the vane activates a switch to complete a circuit to an aural warning unit in
the cockpit.

An electrically operated stall warning system uses a small vane mounted near the stagnation point in the
leading edge of the wing. When flying with AOA well below critical AOA, the airflow over the vane is
downward which in turn holds the vane down, this holds the internal electrical switch in the vane open. At
higher angles of attack the stagnation point moves downward, until the airflow over the vane is upward.
This point would be just below critical AOA, thereby warning the pilot of the impending stall condition

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before the wing actually stalls. The vane is blown upward thus closing the switch which in turn illuminates
a warning light and/or warning horn.

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STALL WARNING & STALL AVOIDANCE SYSTEMS
In larger types of aircraft, stall warning systems are designed to perform a more active function, in that
they are either of the ‘stick- shaker’ or ‘stick push or nudger’ type; for some aircraft configurations they are
used in combination.
Although aircraft can have stall warning horns and lights, more complex aircraft have more complex stall
warning systems. The stick shaker system is really just an extension of the warning lights and horns as it is
an indicating system. As a stall is neared the pilots control column will be shaken by an out of balance
electrical motor. This form of warning is simply more demanding than a light or audible warning. The stick
shaker system is designed to provide the pilot with a feeling of buffeting of the separating air, indicating his
immediate attention is required. A stick shaker system is still termed a Stall Warning system, because all it
does is warn the pilot that some action is required.
The type of AOA sensor normally used for these systems consists of a precision counter-balanced
aerodynamic vane which positions the rotor of a synchro. The complete unit is accurately aligned by means
of index pins at the side of the front fuselage section of an aircraft. Stick-shaking is accomplished by a
motor which is secured to a control column and drives a weighted ring that is deliberately unbalanced to
set up vibrations of the column, to simulate the natural buffeting associated with a stalled condition.
In most cases, two AOA detecting systems are installed in an aircraft, so that a sensor is located on each
side of the front fuselage section, and a stick-shaker motor on each pilot’s control column.
In certain types of aircraft the sensor signals are transmitted to an air data computer, which then supplies
an output, corresponding to actual AOA (or Alpha Angle), to a comparator circuit within an electronic
module of the stall warning system. The comparator is also supplied with signals from a central processor
unit (also within the module) which processes a program to determine maximum alpha angles based on
the relationship between flap position and three positions of the leading edge slats. The positions are:
retracted, partially extended and fully extended, and so signals corresponding to three different computed
angles are processed for comparison with an actual a angle signal. If the latter is higher than a computed
maximum, the circuit to the stick-shaker motor is completed.
A stick pusher system on the other hand, is a stall avoidance system. Where a stick shaker simply warns
the pilot, the stick pusher actually forces the stick forward to lower the AOA and avoid entering a stall.

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Stick Shaker
The time between imminent stall and actual stall in the modern high performance aircraft is very small and
most modern aircraft use what is called a ‘stick shaker’ to simulate the buffeting of the separating air. It
employs a motor that drives an unbalanced weight ring.
The motor can be energized by the output of a vane type stall warning detector, although the light aircraft
which incorporate this type of stall warning system would more likely just have lights and horns, not stick
shaker motors.

More likely the motor would be energized by a stall warning computer when it detects that the aircraft is
nearing a stall condition. Angle of attack will be fed to the AOA indicator, and to a stall warning computer.
The stall warning computer will also have inputs of flap configuration, airspeed and power setting and will
energize the stick shaker whenever conditions are met whereby the aircraft is nearing a stall. The sensors
for flap, airspeed and power settings used to provide an accurate stall warning indication for any flight
condition. Most jet aircraft have a stick shaker as part of their stall warning system
The system is energized at all times that the aircraft is airborne, and is deactivated on the ground by a
squat switch or WOW switch.
If fitted, a warning Horn and/or warning lights will also sound in the event of a stall warning.

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Operation
Since the pitch attitude of an aircraft is also changed by the extension of its flaps, the sensor synchro is also
interconnected with a synchro within the transmitter of the flap position indicating system, in order to
modify the a signal output as a function of flap position.
When the aircraft is on the ground & electrical power is on, the contacts of the landing gear microswitches
complete a DC circuit to a sensing relay K which, on being energized, supplies an AC voltage (in this case
11.8 V) to the circuit module amplifier. The output is then supplied to a demodulator whose circuit is
designed to ‘bias off’ the AC voltage from the contacts of K so that the solid-state switch SS1 remains open
to isolate the stick- shaker motor from its DC supply. The vane heater element circuit is also isolated from
its AC supply by the opening of the second set of contacts of K The sensor synchro is supplied directly from
the ac power source.

During take- off, and when the nose gear ‘lifts off’, the microswitches operate to de-energize relay K and
with the system control switch at ‘NORMAL’, the system is fully activated. The only signal now supplied to
the amplifier and demodulator is the modified a signal.
In normal flight, the signal produced and supplied as input to the amplifier is less than a nominal value of
20 mV, and in phase with the AC voltage supplied as a reference to the demodulator. If the aircraft’s
attitude should approach that of a stalled condition, the signal will exceed 20 mV and become out-of-
phase. The demodulator then produces a resultant voltage which triggers the switch SS1 to connect a 28 V
dc supply direct to the stick-shaker motor, which then starts vibrating the control column.

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Stick-pushers
In some types of aircraft, particularly those with rear- mounted engines and a ‘T’-tail configuration, it is
possible for what is termed a ‘deep’ or ‘super’ stall situation to develop. When such aircraft first get into a
stalled condition then, as in all cases, the air flowing from the wings is of a turbulent nature, and if the a
angle is such that the engines are subjected to this airflow, loss of power will occur as a result of surging
and possible ‘flame-out’. If, then, the stall develops still further, the horizontal stabilizer will also be
subjected to the turbulent airflow with a resultant loss of pitch control. The aircraft then sinks rapidly in
the deep stalled attitude, from which recovery is difficult, if not impossible. This was a lesson that was
learned, with tragic results, during the flight testing of two of the earliest types of commercial aircraft
configured as mentioned, namely, the BAC 1—11 and HS ‘Trident’.

In order to prevent the development of a deep stall situation, warning systems are installed which, in
addition to stick-shaking, utilize the sensor signals to cause a forward push on the control columns and
downward deflection of the elevators. The manner in which this is accomplished varies; in some aircraft,
the signals are transmitted to a linear actuator which is mechanically connected to the artificial feel and
centering unit of the elevator control system. In aircraft having computerized flight control systems, a
sensor signals are transmitted to the elevator control channel of the flight control computer.
Mechanically and pneumatically driven the system comprises a low pressure air reservoir which is kept
constantly charged at 40 PSI by bleed air. Air from the reservoir is fed to the pneumatic stick force ram
through solenoid operated pneumatic valves.
In the de-energized state the valves open the ram chamber to atmosphere, both control columns can
operate freely without restraint.
Both AOA stall condition and low airspeed (<180 kts) must be present to activate the “stick pusher” system
at maximum. When conditions are met, the air pressure will be applied to the stick pusher and will apply a
force to the control column to drive the aircraft nose down to a lower AOA.
The stick pusher system would only function with a stall warning computer system to control it (i.e. a vane
type switch would never be incorporated to energise a stick pusher).

As can be seen larger modern aircraft routinely incorporate a stick shaker and a stick pusher.
The stick shaker is a stall warning device, a stick pusher is a stall avoidance device.

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AFCS Stall Avoidance System
Fly by Wire (FBW) aircraft can have stall warning and stall prevention included in the software. Stall
prevention can take the form of an electrical signal sent from the flight control computer to drive a
hydraulic actuator connected to the control surfaces to drop the AOA. This method differs from a stick
pusher system in that a force does not need to be applied to the control column, the Flight control
computer simply sends and electrical signal to the control surfaces to move them, dropping AOA and
avoiding the stall. A stick pusher system is not necessary in modern FBW flight control systems.

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TEMPERATURE MEASURING SYSTEMS
In most forms of temperature measurement, the variation of some property of a substance with
temperature is utilized. These variations may be summarized as follows:
Most substances expand as their temperature rises; thus, a measure of temperature is obtainable by taking
equal amounts of expansion to indicate equal increments of temperature.
Many liquids, when subjected to a temperature rise, experience such motion of their molecules that there
is a change of state from liquid to vapour. Equal increments of temperature may therefore be indicated by
measuring equal increments of the pressure of the vapour.
Substances change their electrical resistance when subjected to varying temperatures, so that a measure
of temperatures is obtain- able by taking equal increments of resistance to indicate equal increments of
temperature.
Dissimilar metals when joined at their ends produce an electro motive force (thermo EMF ) dependent on
the difference in temperature between the junctions. Since equal increments of temperature are only
required at one junction, a measure of the electro motive force produced will be a measure of the junction
temperature.
The radiation emitted by anybody at any wavelength is a function of the temperature of the body, and
what is termed its emissivity. If, therefore, the radiation is measured and the emissivity is known, the
temperature of the body can be determined; such a measuring technique is known as radiation pyrometry.
The utilization of these various methods provides us with a very convenient means of classifying
temperature-measuring instruments:
Expansion type (liquid or solid), vapour-pressure
Type,
Electrical type (resistance or thermo-electric) and radiation type.
The majority of instruments currently in use are, however, of the resistance and thermoelectric type and
are applied to the measurement of the temperature of such liquids and gases as fuel, engine lubricating
oil, outside air, carburetor air, and turbine exhaust gas. In certain types of turbojet engine, the radiation
pyrometry technique is also applied to the measurement of actual turbine blade temperature.
Expansion Type Temperature Measuring Devices
Most substances expand as their temperature rises; thus, a measure of temperature is obtainable by
taking equal amounts of expansion to indicate equal increments of temperature.

Mechanical types
This type of indicator is normally found on aircraft that fly at or below 150 knots. Above that speed, their
location out in the slipstream interrupts the airflow and causes unnecessary drag.

You will find this type of temperature indicator mostly on light aircraft, protruding from the cabin or
cockpit wall into the airflow. The element is made up of two metals having different temperature
coefficients of linear expansion, welded together to form a spiral. The metals most commonly used are
brass and invar which has a very low expansion coefficient.

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One end of the spiral is fixed to the end of the indicator tube, whilst the other supports the pointer
through the other end of the tube at the bezel and dial assembly. As the temperature varies, the spiral
winds or unwinds, causing the pointer to move over the scale indicating the value of temperature.

Static Air Temperature Measurement

The simplest type, and one which is used in a few types of small private aircraft for indicating SAT, is a
direct-reading thermometer which operates on the principle of expansion and contraction of a bimetallic
element when subjected to temperature changes. The element is in the form of a helix anchored at one
end of a metal sheath or probe; the free end of the helix is attached to the spindle of a pointer. As the helix
expands or contracts, the helix winds or unwinds causing the pointer to rotate against the scale of a dial
fixed to the sheath opposite to the fixed end of the helix. The thermometer is secured through a fixing hole
on one of the side windows of the cockpit, or in the wrap-around portion of a windscreen, so that the
probe protrudes into the airstream.

Bimetallic Switches
The figure illustrates the action of ‘strip’ and ‘disc’ types of ‘bimetallic temperature sensors’. Two metals of
high (brass) and low (invar) temperature coefficients are bonded together. At some datum temperature
the strip is straight. If the strip is heated the brass expands more than the invar to cause it to curl.
If the strip is cooled the brass contracts more than the invar to cause it to curl the opposite way.

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Disc shaped bimetallic sensors are common in applications requiring a snap action. When heated, a slightly
domed bimetallic disc will suddenly snap across to being domed on the opposite side.

Bimetallic temperature sensors are used in temperature, liquid level and position indicators as
temperature compensators or correctors in various instruments and mechanisms and to operate switch
contacts in circuit breakers, fire detectors, thermostats and timers.

Vapour pressure Type

The system consists of a Bourdon tube indicator that is actuated by the pressure rise of the vapour given
off by a volatile liquid such as methyl chloride and the capillary tube that connects the gauge to the sensing
tube that contains the liquid.

The system is sealed off making the assembly a single unit that must be changed as one. The operation of
the system is such that as the tube is heated, the liquid vaporises. The pressure acts upon the Bourdon
tube causing it to expand or open out to carry the pointer up the scale which is graduated in degrees of
temperature. The capillary tube is usually made of annealed copper and is lightly bound with a copper wire

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as a protective cover. Care must be taken to prevent tight bends as the tube may crack, causing a leak and
rendering the unit inoperable.
The type of temperature sensor at 3-5 is more robust than the common glass type. They are suited to
aircraft applications because the sensing bulb can be remotely located from the indicator. They are used as
engine oil temperature indicators on many light aircraft.

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Electrical Type Temperature Measuring Devices Resistance and Temperature
The resistance of a conductor is dependent on temperature, the effect of which is to change the
dimensions by thermal expansion and to change the resistivity. The first effect is comparatively small, the
main changes of resistance being due to changes of resistivity. In the case of pure metallic conductors,
resistance increases with increase in temperature, and this is the basis of temperature measurement in
resistance thermometry.
The two metals most commonly used in aircraft resistance thermometry are nickel and platinum, both of
which are manufactured to a high degree of purity and reproducibility of resistance characteristics.
Platinum is a precious metal with a very stable and near linear resistance versus temperature function.

Temperature coefficients of nickel and platinum can only be regarded as constant over the temperature
range 0-1000° C. beyond these temperatures, requires more complex algebraic formulas to determine
temperature with respect to resistance.

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Wheatstone Bridge
The most common method of measuring resistance is by means of the well-known Wheatstone bridge
network
The circuit is made up of four resistances arms, R1 , R2 , R3 and Rx. A moving-coil or moving-spot
galvanometer is connected across points B and D, and a source of low voltage is connected across points A
and C. Current flows in the directions indicated by the arrows, dividing at point A and flowing through R3
and Rx at strengths which we may designate respectively as 1 and 2. At point C the currents reunite and
flow back to the voltage source.

Let us assume that the resistance of the four arms of the bridge are so adjusted that B and D are at the
same potential; then no current will flow through the galvanometer and so it will read zero. Under these
conditions the bridge is said to be ‘balanced’.
Hence, an unknown resistance can be calculated by adjusting the values of the three others until no
current flows through the galvanometer, as indicated by no movement of its pointer or spot.
It will be apparent that, if the resistor Rx is subjected to varying temperatures and its corresponding
resistances are determined, then it is feasible for the network to serve as a simple electrical-resistance
thermometer system.
The unknown resistance Rx forms the temperature-sensing element and is contained within a metal
protective sheath, the assembly being called a bulb. The three other resistances instead of being
adjustable, are fixed and are contained within the case of a moving-coil indicating element calibrated in
units of temperature. Both components are suitably interconnected and supplied with direct current.
When the bulb is subjected to temperature variations, the resistance will vary, thus varying the current
flow through the meter movement which is calibrated to indicate temperature proportional to the
resistance of the temperature bulb.
By suitably arranging the resistors, the bridge circuit may be balanced to give no current flow through the
indicator at any predetermined temperature. This is known as the null point of the indication and is
identified by a V triangle on the scale. The null point is usually selected to correspond to the critical
temperature being measured since at this balanced condition, the bridge is independent of any supply
voltage change.

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On all other points of the scale, the out-of- balance current will depend not only on the resistance value of
the bulb, but also on the supply voltage. Therefore, errors are evident whenever the supply voltage varies
from the value at which the indicator was calibrated.
It should also be noted that it is at the balance point that the pointer comes to rest when power is turned
off or if it failed during flight. Therefore the operator must be careful to monitor the indicator operation.

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Ratiometer
This type of indicating system measures the ratio of two currents. The instrument is a two coil, moving coil
type instrument. The moving coils rotate in an uneven magnetic field, created by having an air gap which is
not uniform.
The theoretical circuit of the ratiometer system shows that the moving coil assembly comprises two coils
mounted on a common former and connected in a manner so that the torques produced by the coils are in
opposition.
With this condition the coils, because they are on a common former, will position themselves in the
magnetic field in such a way that the torque developed by both is equal and opposite. When this occurs,
the moving coil system will be in a state of balance and the pointer will come to rest.

The two coils being powered from the same DC source through a suitable current limiting resistance will
always maintain the same ratio of current through them. The circuit shown on the figure is such that one
coil, known as the constant current coil, is in series with a resistance located within the instrument case.
This resistance is made from manganin which has a very low temperature coefficient of resistance and
therefore does not change in resistance greatly as the temperature at the case varies.

The other coil known as the variable current coil, is in series with the temperature bulb which is located in
the area of the temperature to be measured. Any change in the resistance of the bulb caused by a change
in temperature causes a change in the current in the variable current coil.

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The variable current coil, is in series with the temperature bulb which is located in the area of the
temperature to be measured. Any change in the resistance of the bulb caused by a change in temperature
causes a change in the current in the variable current coil.
This will alter the ratio of currents between the two coils and the meter movement will move to a position
where a new balance of torques will take place. The system is again in a state of balance and the pointer
position represents the new temperature.
Because of the way the coils are connected, there is no effect from voltage variation. The ligaments
(current-carrying hairsprings) which carry the current into and out of the coils, produce a slight torque
which is used to carry the pointer off scale in the event of a power supply failure. However, this effect is
negligible under normal power supply and does not affect the accuracy of the meter.

Temperature-Sensing Elements
The resistance coil is wound on an insulated former and the ends of the coil are connected to a two-pin
socket via contact strips. The bulb, which serves to protect and seal the element, may either be a brass or
stainless-steel tube closed at one end and soldered to a union nut at the other. The union nut is used for
securing the complete element in the pipeline or component of the system whose liquid temperature is
required. The two-pin socket is made a tight fit inside the male portion of the union nut, the receptacle of
which ensures correct location of the socket’s mating plug.

It will be noted from the diagram that the coil is wound at the bottom end of its former and not along the
full length. This ensures that the coil is well immersed in the hottest part of the liquid, thus minimizing
errors due to radiation and conduction losses in the bulb.
A calibrating or balancing coil is normally provided so that a standard constant temperature/resistance
characteristic can be obtained, thus permitting interchangeability of sensing elements. In addition the coil
compensates for any slight change in the physical characteristics of the element.
As the characteristics of nickel are not truly linear, it is necessary to include a calibrating resistor in series
with the nickel sense element to provide a standard temperature/resistance characteristic curve. This wire
wound resistor is made of either:
manganin (which is a copper manganese alloy) eureka (which is a copper nickelalloy)wound into a small
coil and placed in the upper end of the bulb.

Both manganin and eureka have low temperature coefficients of resistance and are used to compensate
for any slight changes in the characteristics that can occur in the nickel wire. This is done so as to achieve
interchangeability of temperature bulbs. The calibrating coil is adjusted by the manufacturer during initial
calibration.

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These types of temperature measuring systems are used in aircraft to measure values relating to
carburetor air, oil, fuel and air temperatures. The principle parts of the indicating systems are the indicator
and the temperature sensitive element (bulb) along with the connecting wiring and connectors.
Oil temperature indicators have a range from -70°C to +150°C.
Carburetor air temperature indicators & many outside air temperature indicators range from - 50°C to
+50°C
The typical temperature bulb on the figure has about 98 ohms of resistance at 20°C.
+ve co-efficient – temp up: resistance up
-ve co-efficient – temp up: resistance down

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Engine oil temperature
The temperature bulbs are always placed near the point of oil entry to the engine and never the outlet.
This is because the outlet oil goes to the oil cooler and it is therefore not important to know the
temperature of the oil leaving the engine.
Air Temperature Sensors
Air temperature is one of the basic parameters used to establish data vital to the performance monitoring
of aircraft and engines, e.g. true airspeed measurement, temperature control, thrust settings, fuel/air ratio
settings, etc. of turbine engines, and it is therefore necessary to provide a means of in-flight measurement.
The temperature which overall would be the most ideal is that of air under pure static conditions at the
various flight levels compatible with the operating range of the particular aircraft concerned. The
measurement of static air temperature (SAT) by direct means is, however, not possible for all types of
aircraft or, in many instances, for one type of aircraft, for the reason that measurements can be affected by
the adiabatic compression of air resulting from increases in air speed.

In general, the boundary layer at the outside surfaces of an aircraft flying at speeds below 0.2 Mach
number is very close to the SAT. However, at higher Mach numbers the boundary layer can be slowed
down or stopped relative to the aircraft, and thereby produce adiabatic compression which will raise the
air temperature to a value appreciably higher than SAT. Friction of high speed flow along the aircraft
surfaces will also raise the air temperature. This increase is commonly referred to as ‘ram rise’, and the
temperature indicated under such conditions is known as ram air temperature (RAT) i.e. SAT plus the ram
rise.
The ram rise due to full adiabatic compression is always pre calculated mathematically as a function of
Mach number, and for each type of aircraft values are presented in either tabular or graphical form in the
operating manual or the flight manual for the type. Thus, for air temperature sensors subjected to ram
rise, the RAT readings of the associated indicators can always be corrected to obtain SAT, either by direct
subtraction of tabulated ram rise values, conversion charts, or in the case of air data computers by the
automatic application of a correction signal. The proportion of ram rise is dependent on the ability of the
sensor to sense or recover the temperature rise, the sensitivity in this case being expressed as a
percentage and termed the recovery factor. If, for example, a sensor has a recovery factor of 0.80, it will
measure SAT plus 80% of the ram rise.

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Various types of air temperature sensors may be adopted dependent on whether indications of SAT or RAT
are required. The simplest type, and one which is used in a few types of small private aircraft for indicating
SAT, is a direct-reading thermometer probe protruding into the airstream (only effective up to about 150
knots).

The majority of sensors are, however, of the platinum resistance wire element type, the element being
contained either in a probe similar to that adopted for the temperature measurement of liquids, or
mounted in what is termed a ‘flush bulb’ configuration.
For use at high Mach numbers, it is customary to sense and measure the maximum temperature rise which
is possible. This is referred to as total air temperature (TAT) and is obtained when the air is brought to rest
(or nearly so) without addition or removal of heat. For this purpose, TAT probes were introduced, and are
to be found on a number of present-day public transport aircraft. They have several advantages over ‘flush
bulbs’ notably an almost negligible time lag, and a high recovery factor (approximately 1.00). The probe is
normally connected to an indicator on the flight deck instrument panel and to a Mach number module of a
central air data computer.
The probe is in the form of a small strut and air intake made of nickel-plated beryllium copper which gives
good thermal conductivity and strength. It is secured to the aircraft skin, at a pre-determined location in
the fuselage nose section, and outside of any boundary layer which may exist. In flight, the air pressure
within the probe is higher than that outside, and the air flows in the manner indicated, separation of water
particles from the air is effected by the air flow being caused to turn through a right-angle before passing
round the sensing element. The bleed holes in the intake casing permit boundary layer air to be drawn off
under the influence of the pressure differential across the casing.

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A pure platinum wire resistance element is used and is hermetically sealed within two concentric platinum
tubes. The inner platinum tube is used as the element former, thereby ensuring a close match of thermal
expansion and minimizing of thermal strain. An axial wire heating element is mounted integral with the
probe to prevent ice formation, and is of the self-compensating type in that as the temperature rises so
does the element resistance rise, thereby reducing the heater current. The heater dissipates a nominal 260
W under in-flight icing conditions, and can have an effect on indicated air temperature readings. The errors
involved, however, are small; some typical values obtained experimentally being 0.9° C at 0.1 Mach
decreasing to 0.15 at Mach 1.0
Air temperature measurement is one of the basic parameters we use to establish aircraft performance
data. Under static conditions, temperature is relatively easy to measure. However, in flight the
temperature of the air is affected by what we call adiabatic compression (change of the speed of the air
without a change of temperature). The boundary layers of air are forced to slow down or stop in
relationship to the aircraft. This compression forces a temperature rise known commonly as the ram rise.

We can calculate this ram rise due to the full adiabatic compression, mathematically, as a function of the
Mach number (speed of the aircraft in relation to the local speed of sound) of the aircraft. To successfully
do this calculation, we need to start with a reference temperature reading, which may be obtained in flight
if we use measuring devices to register:
no ram rise( Bendix and Flush Mounted) complete ram rise
(TAT Probe)
a constant factor of the ram rise.
The different forms of temperature measurement devices all function in a different manner with respect to
the effect of ram rise. All passenger aircraft have an outside air temperature sensing device but the shape
and style of the temperature sensor will be dependent upon how the temperature sensing system is
designed.
Acronyms :
SAT – Static Air Temperature
OAT – Outside Air Temperature
TAT – Total Air Temperature
RAT – Ram Air Temperature
TAT – Total Air Temperature

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Electrical Air Temperature Sensors – Safety Precautions
No hand holds
No hanging equipment on them
Fit covers when on the ground for personnel safety and to stop contamination by insects
They are a protrusion hazard, don’t walk into them
They are sensitive items, treat them with care when working around them
Thermocouple type indication systems
If the ends of two dissimilar metals of equal length were jointed together at both ends to form a
continuous circuit and one end was heated, an EMF will be generated in the circuit. The magnitude of the
EMF and the resultant current produced will depend upon the combination of the metals, the difference in
temperature between the hot and cold junctions of the metals and the resistance of the circuit
Thermocouples are used in very high temperature applications, eg engine turbine & cylinder head
temperature

Radiation Pyrometer System

Thermocouple combinations work very effectively, but are subject to errors because of:
Differing characteristics of compressor and turbine assemblies thermal hysteresis of the system
burning away of the thermocouples with age.
This can result in even the best engine operating at less than its most efficient output.
The temperature of the turbine blades in air-cooled blade engines, is governed by:
Efficiency of the engine inlet air temperature.
These variations will cause a change in the output characteristics of the engine. Designers found it
essential to be able to accurately monitor the turbine blade temperatures. They needed a system with a
rapid response time to allow closecontrol of the operating parameters.
The system found to be the most suitable was the radiation pyrometer system. It works on the fact that
hot engine parts emit infra-red radiation, the value of which is a direct function of:
Temperature of the parts
Radiation characteristics of the blade materials.

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The temperature of the turbine blades can be measured then by measuring the infrared radiation from
them.

The Sensing Head

The sensing head is positioned on the turbine casing directly facing the turbine blades. A synthetic
sapphire lens focuses the blade radiation into a fiber optic cable which transmits the radiated energy as an
optical signal to a silicon photo cell detector unit.
The output of this unit is non-linear and has to be processed through an amplifier to create an output
capable of operating a temperature indicator or engine control unit as required.
Cooling
The sensing head and fiber links are mounted directly in the hot turbine exhaust gas stream or around the
hottest part of the engine. Careful design, choice of materials andThermo statically controlled temperature
are required to ensure stability of operation and long service life.

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ACCELEROMETER
An airplane structure is designed and built to withstand a certain load, and an accelerometer on the
instrument panel gives the pilot an indication of the load imposed on the airframe in terms of load factors.
An aircraft that is allowed to carry a load factor of 3.8 positive can carry 3.8 times its maximum gross
weight before structural failure is likely to occur.

Accelerometers are calibrated in G Units and when an rest the instrument should read 1 G positive.
Measures aircraft's acceleration in the pitch axis (G-Force). Most often used to determine how tightly the
aircraft is turning, or in achieving a "zero G" dive for maximum aircraft acceleration. The number of "G's"
indicate the apparent gravitational force being applied to the aircraft and pilot in the pitch axis.
Two auxiliary pointers also move with the pulley, the one moving in the negative direction remains at the
maximum negative value, and the other, moving only in the positive direction, remains at the maximum
positive load factor. These auxiliary pointers may be returned to the rest condition by turning the pointer
reset button which releases the pawls.
1 G is the normal force of gravity, and is what is experienced in normal straight and level flight. So in a 5 G
turn, the plane and pilot experience a force apparently 5 times the force of gravity... a 200-pound man
would SEEM to weigh 1000 pounds! Positive G's indicate a force toward the bottom of the aircraft,
negative G's indicate a force towards the top of the aircraft.
The accelerometer is an instrument that measures the “G” forces or acceleration forces on an aircraft in
flight. The common application is in an aerobatic airplane where the pilot needs to know how much “G”
force the airplane is being subjected to in order to prevent overstress of the structure.
The mechanism of the accelerometer consists of a weight which is connected by a cord and pulleys to the
shaft that operates the pointer. The weight is supported by a guide shaft which only allows it to move up
and down relative to the guide shaft. A positive G acceleration will cause the weight to move downward
and rotate the pointer to show a higher positive G loading. There is a balance spring on the pointer shaft
pulley to balance the forces. The instrument is installed in the airplane so that it measures acceleration
along the vertical axis of the airplane. The normal at rest indication on the ground or in level flight is + 1 Gs.

The instrument has three pointers connected to the operating mechanism. One pointer gives a readout of
the current acceleration force along the vertical axis. The other two pointers have a ratchet device so that
they will remain at the highest reading recorded for positive and negative forces. A knob is included on the
instrument to reset the two recording pointers.

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AIRCRAFT CLOCK
An aircraft clock performs exactly the same function as any other clock, but must be very accurate, display
hours, minutes and seconds, and will normally have internal lighting incorporated.
Aircraft clocks can be digital, analogue, battery powered, mechanically powered, etc.
Normally aircraft clocks have a stopwatch function incorporated.
Critical for navigation, eg timing legs of journeys, periodic manual radio broadcasts, and for timing events
such as APU start, engine spool down,

Signature of the Instructor Signature of Training

Manager

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