Weltbild - picture of the world”—convictions about the not-self (world,

people, nature, and so on) and what the world demands of me.
Thorndike published animal Intelligence in 1898.
Pavlov theory of conditioning came in 1902.
McDougall theory came in 1908.
Wertheimer experiment came in 1912.
Freud interpretation of dream came in 1900.

Johann Friedrich Herbart

His system was based on metaphysics, empiricism & mathematic.

He considered soul as atom, that acted according to newton law.
In response to external stimuli soul defend itself through defensive
response called perception.
Perception is self-preservatory defences of soul in response to
stimuli.
Perception are forces which can be measured.
He said perceptions fight with each other for a place in human
consciousness.
Charles Bell & Magendie
In 1830 published book – Nervous system of human body.
Bell in 1811 proved that ventral roots of spinal cord are consisted
motor nerves only. Dorsal roots contain sensory nerves.
Bell-Magendie “law of forward conduction” – sensory response
only go in direction from muscle to CNS & motor response only go
in direction from CNS to muscles.
 Reflex is one way action of organism.

Johannes Peter Muller

Johannes Peter Müller “Law of specific nerve energies” – light
wala nerve can perceive stimulus in form of light only. the
qualitative differences between visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory,
and gustatory sensations are determined by the particular sensory
receptors that are stimulated.
The same cause, such as electricity, can simultaneously affect all
sensory organs, since they are all sensitive to it; and yet, every
sensory nerve reacts to it differently; one nerve perceives it as
light, another hears its sound, another one smells it; another tastes
the electricity, and another one feels it as pain and shock.

Weber & Fechner

Fechner studied & measured sensory process.
Weber discovered that ability to discriminate small differences in
stimulus depends not on intensity of stimulus alone but on ratio
between the difference of change & initial standard intensity used
in experiment.
Fechner formulated “Weber law” describes how much differences
in needed between two stimuli before people can just tell the
difference (just noticeable difference). It also states that stimuli
increase in geometrical progression & sensation increase in
arithmetical progression.
Two stimuli must differ by constant minimum proportion rather
than constant amount to be perceived as different.
ΔI
Weber law proportion = I
In 1860 Gustav Theodor Fechner published – “ Elements of
psychophysics”
 Fechner concept of initial threshold – minimal intensity of stimulus
necessary for the stimulus to be perceived.
Absolute threshold – intensity that observer can just barely detect.
Difference threshold – minimum of increase in intensity of stimuli
necessary for perception of these increase. OR minimum intensity
difference that is just noticeable to observer.
Fechner discovered three psychophysical methods
1. Methods of limits
2. Method of production/adjustment
3. Constant method
Method of limits – stimuli in experiment are ordered either in
increasing or decreasing intensity.
Method of production – subject control the stimuli according to
experimenter’s instruction.
Constant method – stimuli act upon the subject in irregular order.

Hermann von Helmholtz

He studied speed of neural conduction in both motor & sensory nerves.
He found speed of motor nerve was 30 m/sec.

Wilhelm Wundt

 1879 in Leipzig, Germany he established first psychological

laboratory.
 He published Principles of Physiological psychology in 1873.
 Subject matter of psychology – experience
 Method – introspection,self- observation

Edward Bradford Titchener - Structuralism

Aim of psychology is to find structure of mind to find elemental process.

William James – Functionalism

Aim of psychology is to find explanation of psychological
process( question why?) it requires investigation into function of nervous
system.
 Asklepeia – healing temples in Greece.
 Hippocrates – scientific, mental illness is not due to divine causes
but natural means.
 Galen was disciple of Hippocrates who lived 6 centuries later than
Hippocrates.
 Scientific study of the unconscious is commonly thought to have
started with the renowned polymath Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
(1646–1716). Leibniz studied the role of subliminal perceptions in
our daily life (and, incidentally, coined the term ”dynamic” to
describe the forces operative in unconscious mentation).
 Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841), who attempted to
mathematicise the dynamics describing the passage of memories
between conscious and the unconscious.
 Herbart said – ideas from unconscious want to some to
consciousness. Dissonant ideas repel each other & associated ideas
pull each other.
 Leibniz and Herbart are examples of 17th- and 18th-century
scientists who attributed significance to an understanding of the
unconscious in their work.
 Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1815) and Arthur Schopenhauer
(1788–1860). Mesmer pioneered hypnotherapy.
 Some of the greatest scientists of the 19th century, such as Gustav
T. Fechner (1801– 1887) and Herman von Helmholtz (1821–1894),
conducted seminal research in the area of cognitive science.
 Fechner worked on sleeping & waking states – specially dream
state. Gustav Fechner applied concepts of physics to problems of
psychological research.
 Fechner, in his psychophysics experiments, attempted to measure
the intensity of psychic stimulation needed for ideas to cross the
threshold from the unconscious to full awareness, & intensity of
the resultant perception.
 Helmholtz – discovered unconscious inference. Our unconscious
schema affects how we perceive new things. We make automatic
unconscious judgements. However, as the process is spontaneous
and automatic, we are unable to account for just how we arrived at
our judgments.
 Physical approach to study mental disorder = somaticker
 Mental approach to study mental disorder = psychiker
 Emil Kraepelin classified mental disease, their course, benchmark
for prognosis.
 Carl Gustav Carus (1789–1869) speculated that there are several
levels to the unconscious. He discovered transference.
 Schopenhauer (1819) published “The World as Will and Idea.”
book was in large part a treatise on human sexuality and the realm
of the unconscious. His principal argument was that we are driven
by blind, irrational forces of which we are largely unaware and that
we know things that we are unaware that we know. His irrationalist
and pansexual view of human behaviour and mentation was
deterministic and also. Schopenhauer’s thoughts influenced the
psychology of many later thinkers like Friedrich Nietzsche and
Sigmund Freud.
 Nietzsche, He developed notions of self-deception, sublimation,
repression, conscience, and neurotic guilt. Cynic par excellence
Nietzsche averred that every complaint is an accusation and every
admission of a behavioral fault or characterological flaw is a
subterfuge to conceal more serious personal failures.
  Ambroise Liébault is father of modern hypnotherapy. He
developed Nancy school for treating hysteria.
 Paul Charles Dubois (1848–1918) was a Swiss psychiatrist. Dubois
is known for the introduction of "persuasion therapy", a process
that employed a rational approach for treatment of neurotic
disorders. Within this discipline, he developed a psychotherapeutic
methodology that was a form of Socratic dialogue, using the
doctor-patient relationship as a means to persuade the patient to
change his/her behavior.
 LeDoux – written book on synaptic self (how our brain changes
due to experience.
 Epigenetics refers to the expression of certain genes that due to
activation by specific but common environmental events.
 If our early family experience were good, then we can optimize
desirable outcomes in therapy by epigenetically triggering the
expression of immediate-early genes (IEGs) through exposure to
nurturant social events.

PSYCHOANALYSIS

Treatment use – symptom-context method.(symptom is expression of

hidden inner conflict)
Psychodrama – Jacob L Morena
Experiential therapy - Alvin R. Mahrer
Therapeutic alliance – working alliance is the partnership between
patient & therapist forged around working together in treatment.
Research confirms that positive helping alliance is one of the factors that
is consistently associated with a good outcome in psychotherapy.
Also called Helping alliance. It is partnership between partner &
therapist around the work of treatment.
Also called working alliance.
Other psychoanalysis therapies – ego psychology, interpersonal
psychoanalysis, object relations self-psychology.

Defence mechanism
Ek situation hai jiske wajah se wo thoughts mere andar generate ho rahe
hai that I cannot tolerate. It is fearful, dangerous in some way. Then I will
avoid that situation. Avoidance here is defense mechanism.
Defense mechanism is automatic, unconscious response developed by
ego to solve id & superego conflict.

Eg: when situation comes where there is a boy who meet my all criteria
to be good husband. My id says marry him bcz he can provide me safety.
But my superego says that I am thinking of marrying him just because I
want my safety not because I love him. So, both are in conflict. Because
my safety is now conditional. If he is with me, I am safe. If he will leave
me, I will develop neurotic anxiety. To avoid this dependence, I have to
avoid this situation of flirting & relationship. Because I don’t want to
make my self-esteem, worth & safety conditional on another person. I
will make it unconditional.
Transference
 We transfer feelings from past relationships to new relationships.
And it becomes pattern that affects attitude towards new people &
situation.
 It is shaping present with help of past template.
 It’s like because I felt inferior due to abuse by my father, I transfer
 That feeling now into my boyfriend.
 The patient’s transference to the analyst enables them both to see
its operating force and to work on separating reality from
memories and expectations. The transference contains patterns
from the past that may be remembered through actions or through
repetition of the past, rather than through recollection; “ . . . the
patient does not say that he remembers that he used to be defi ant
and critical toward his parents’ authority; instead, he behaves that
way to the doctor”
 Transference has been investigated through clinical research on the
Core Conflictual Relationship Theme (CCRT) method.
 Gestalt, Adlerian, and Client-centered (Rogerian) therapists have
less confidence in the therapeutic value of transference. They place
greater value on actively cultivating a positive relationship with the
client by maintaining a stance that is visibly empathic, supportive
and non-judgmental and attempting to bypass any negative
transference phenomena.
 In REBT, the therapist attempts to eradicate transference
phenomena at the outset by demonstrating that the client’s
feelings are based on irrational, maladaptive wishes. Behaviorally
and cognitively oriented therapists attempt to enhance the
working alliance, but transference is not part of their theories.
Their more active stance, in which homework assignments are
routinely given and explicit instructions are provided about how to
change thoughts and behavior, establishes the therapist as an
authority figure, a role that is utilized to encourage compliance.
 

Freud (1856 – 1939)

Superego develops in phallic stage.

 Study on hysteria(1895)

Written by Freud & Joseph Breuer.

In Book case study was written on Anna O.
They used hypnosis & catharsis method to treat hypnosis.
Hysteria is due to repression of childhood trauma into unconscious
bcz it was painful.
When unconscious trauma come into conscious catharsis (discharge
of emotions) happen.
Freud and Breuer noted that recalling the traumatic event alone was
not sufficient to effect a cure. The discharge of the appropriate
amount of emotion was also necessary.
The task of treatment, they concluded, was to achieve catharsis of the
undischarged affect connected with the painful traumatic experience.
The concept of a repressed trauma was fundamental in Freud’s
conceptualization of hysteria.
Technique used was hypnosis, talking cure. But later due to failure of
hypnosis on some patient he used methods – suggestions, forced
associations, free association.
New terms - Forced association & free association, resistance.
Elisabeth von R, the first patient whom Freud treated by “waking
suggestion,” apparently rebuked Freud for interrupting her flow of
thoughts. Freud took her response seriously, and the method of “free
association” began to emerge.
Hysteria originates from Greek word Uterus. Symptoms were due to
wandering uterus.
In the 5th century BCE Hippocrates first used the term hysteria.

 Interpretation of dreams(1900)

Dream is formed Bcz of conflict between id & superego.

Superego distort the id wishes – that’s why dreams seem non-
intelligent.
New terms – Oedipus complex, infantile sexuality, unconscious
conflict.
Developed - Topographical structure of mind – conscious,
preconscious & unconscious.
Developed – libido theory – 2 type of drive = 1)Thanos drive,
2)Thanatos
Developed – sexual development stages – Oral, anal, phallic,
latency, genital

 On narcissism (1914)
 The ego & the ID (1923)

structural organization of the mind. Mental functions were

grouped according to the role they played in conflict. Freud named
the three major subdivisions the ego, the id, and the superego.
 One of the major functions of the ego is to protect the mind from
internal dangers and from the threat of a breakthrough into
consciousness of unacceptable conflict-laden impulses.
Anxiety serves as a warning signal, alerting the ego to the danger
of overwhelming anxiety or panic that may supervene if a
repressed, unconscious wish emerges into consciousness. Once
warned, the ego may utilize any of a wide array of defences.

Carl Jung
He acknowledges the significance of unconsciousness.
Similar to psychoanalysis, neurosis in Jungian analysis results when one
is excessively cut off from the contents of the unconscious and the
meaning of the archetypes.

Adler
Adler, another of Freud’s students, departed from the belief in the
unconscious as part of an intrapsychic system based on repression of
drives

Melaine Klein

She opposed freud.

Klein emphasized the importance of primitive fantasies of loss (the
depressive position) and persecution (the paranoid position) in the
pathogenesis of mental illness.
Paranoid Schizoid & Depressive positions

According to Kelin Infant in early few months in this state.

 Paranoid schizoid position – dominated by anxiety of death, fear
of hunger, soiled pants, bodily pains. Worry too much about self.
Paranoid position develops in which infant act out his hostile
feelings toward his mother through projection.
 Depressive position – Now if mother gratifies child’s needs. Child
feels guilt arising from realization that his mother is both good &
bad. conflict arising out of the destructive ideas that accompany
the love impulse. It is conflict between love and hate. Worry too
much about loosing objects in their life. Melanie Klein developed
the idea of conflict in the simple two-body relationship of the
infant to the mother.

Heinz Hartmann

Developed Ego Psychology.

He said ego has adaptive functions.
There is conflict-free sphere of the ego.
Ego defences may serve to control instinctual drives & adaptation
to external worlds finds its expression

Object relation theory

 Proposed by Melaine Klein, Fairbairn popularized it.

  Here object means a person who has great emotional significance
to child. Like mother father.
 We internalize our relationship with these objects in childhood.

 Human behaviour is motivated by need to form relationship.
 It is opposite of Freud theory which says that human motivation is
sexual instinct.
 Object can also means part of person – like mother’s breast.
 Object means mental representation of people that infant
develops.
 Infant also develop mental representation of themselves in relation
to people they interact with.
 Object relation theory emphasis on early family interaction.
 It refers to internalisation of relationships between us & our
significant objects in our life.
 Object relation theories generally see human relationships – not
sexual pleasure – as prime motive of human behaviour.
 Infant early relations with mother or her breast become a model
for her later interpersonal relationships.
 Important portion of any relationship is the internal psychic
representations of early significant objects such as the mother’s
breast or father’s penis that have been taken into infant’s psychic
structure & then projected onto one’s partner.
 Whereas Freud emphasized the first few years of life, klein stressed
the importance of first 4 or 6 months.

3 primary mental representations as perceived by infant -

 Of other people (object)
 Of self
 Of relationship between self & object.
Eg:
  Mother is good
 I am worthy
 I love my mother

Splitting – mother is good when she takes care of me, bad is she don’t
fulfil my needs.
Good enough mother – merging of good & bad. When satisfactorily
mother fulfils the need of infant.

 Melaine Klein proposed that infants are object-seeking beings,

rather than pleasure seeking beings.
 Ronald Fairbairn proposed that individual go from complete
dependence to state of inter-dependency.
 Donald Winnicott emphasized that children be raised in social
environment wherein they develop sense of independence.
 Kelin insisted that infant’s motivations are directed to an object.

Margret Mahler

This underlined the importance of the child’s early attachment to the

mother and the emergence of the self as an independent entity.
Mahler emphasized the emergence of a sense of self through a process
of separation and individuation,
Individual psychological birth begins during first week of postnatal life &
continues for next 3 years or so.
By psychological birth, Mahler meant that child becomes an individual
separate from his or her primary caregiver, which leads to sense of
identity.

Separation-individuation Stages of Development of child

First stage
 Normal autism (3-4 week )
 Infants fulfil need within orbit of all powerful protective mother.
 Needs are taken care of automatically.
 The infant is detached and self-absorbed. Spends most of his/her
time sleeping.

Second stage
 Normal Symbiosis (upto 5 months)
 The infant and the mother are one, and there is a barrier between
them and the rest of the world.
 Child is aware of mother but there is no sense of individuality.

Third stage
 Separation–individuation phase.
 It is end of normal symbiotic phase. Child breaks out of an "autistic
shell" into the world with human connections.
 Separation means the child psychologically separates from mother.
 Individuation means child achieve sense of individuation, develop
personal identity.
4 substages under it –
4. Differentiation/Hatching – Aware of differentiation between self &
mother. Rupture of the “autistic shell". Increased alertness and
interest for the outside world. Using the mother as a point of
orientation.
5. Practising - Brought about by the infant's ability to crawl and then
walk freely, the infant begins to explore actively and becomes more
distant from the mother. Child experience himself still as one with his
mother.
6. Reproachment – Child comes again close to mother. For
reassurance. Child slowly realize their helplessness & dependence,
need for independence alternates with need for closeness.
3 steps in reproachment
o Beginning
o Crisis
o Solution

Fourth stage
 Object constancy – Child understand that mother is separate
identity & separate individual. This leads to formation of
Internalization means internal representation that child has formed
of mother. This internalization provides child image that supply
them with unconscious level of security, support & comfort.
Deficiency in positive internalization could possibly lead to sense of
insecurity & low self-esteem in adulthood.
Heinz Kohut
 Developed Self-psychology
 Healthy development centres around concepts of idealizing,
mirroring, twinship needs.
 Kohut observed that narcissistic patients often reported a lack of
mirroring experience in their childhood.
 When child demand attention & admiration from parents(healthy
Narcissistic need), these parents often react with lack of warmth &
often with criticism or ridicule.
 Many of these parents also lacked adult figure to safely idealize
which was crucial to healthy development.
 Psychopathology is result of unmet development needs rather than
psychological conflict.
 Kohut found that psychoanalytic interpretations did not help
narcissistic patients. Instead, he proposed offering empathy,
mirroring, and support for positive self-esteem. In a well-known
 case of “Mr. Z,” he used his empathic approach to reanalyze a
patient who had not done well with traditional analytic technique.

DW Winnicott

Winnicott emphasized the continuing influence of the psychological

experience of the young child, where representations of the external
world take the form of transitional phenomena/object.
Winnicott’s concept of the transitional object can be seen to this day,
whenever a child carries around a teddy bear or baby blanket. These
objects serve as concrete ways for the child to maintain a connection
between herself and her attachments.
Winnicott was a leading figure in the fields of child development,
psychoanalysis, and psychotherapy. He is best known for his theories of
the "good enough mother," the "true self," and the "false self," and for
his pioneering work in the concept of the transitional object.
Phases of Winnicott’s writings

Scholars have identified three phases of Winnicott’s thinking.

 Phase One 1935 – 1944 - The environment-individual set-up

 Phase Two 1945 – 1960 – Transitional phenomena
 Phase Three 1960 – 1971 – The use of an object

 Environment-individual set-up

Importance of the relationship between an infant and its environment.

The familial, material, and social context in which the person develops
is as important as their inner life. This marked Winnicott’s movement
away from the major ways of thinking in psychoanalytic circles,
dominated by Melanie Klein and Anna Freud.

 Transitional phenomena
In 1953, Donald Winnicott introduced the term 'transitional object' to
describe those blankets, soft toys, and bits of cloth to which young
children frequently develop intense, persistent attachments. Winnicott
theorized that such T.O. attachments represent an essential phase of ego
development leading to the establishment of a sense of self.
He called these objects transitional objects or transitional phenomena.
The transitional object helped to facilitate the transition from the
infant’s narcissistic “Me” to the more other-oriented “Not-Me” psychic
development.
Relationship with transitional object requires symbolism.
When symbolism is employed the infant is already clearly distinguishing
between fantasy and fact, between inner objects and external objects,
between primary creativity and perception.

His contributions -

 Holding environment

Therapist’s office can function as a warm and secure environment in

which the patient can experience themselves fully. The holding
environment is an attempt on the therapist’s part to re-create the early
parent-infant relationship with the goal of allowing the failed or
frustrating aspects to be corrected or healed in the therapeutic
relationship.
  True and false selves

False self is developed when mother do not respond accurately to child’s

need & project her own desire & need to baby. The child will develop
a false self in this environment, and learn that their authentic needs and
inner experiences are not valid, and the goal of relationship is to learn
how to satisfy other peoples’ unconscious, and therefore unknown,
wishes.
True self is developed when mother responds accurately to needs of
child. This would contribute to the child’s true self, a self that is capable
of spontaneity, creativity, and authenticity. The infant will grow up
learning that its needs are valid and worth attending to and caring for.

 Good enough mothering

Winnicott discovered that a mother or parent figure need not be perfect
in order to raise a happy and psychologically healthy child. What is
needed, rather, is a devoted parent. General health and good
intentions on the part of the parents are likely to produce an
environment which is good enough. That is, good enough for the child
to enjoy luxury as well as slowly get accustomed to the natural and
universal frustrations in life.
John Bowlby Attachment theory
3 stages of separation anxiety
1. Protest
2. Despair
3. Detachment

Mary Ainsworth
Strange situation test
1. Secure attachment
2. Anxious-resistant
3. Anxious -avoidant

Harry Stack Sullivan

 He developed interpersonal relation theory of psychiatry.

 He was Neo-Freudian who believed in interpersonal relationships
impact on personality.
  Personality develops according to people’s perception of how
others view them.
 Real thing that determines the nature of human person is social
interaction of that person with others.
 Sullivan rejected Freudian concept of sexuality.
 Developed concepts = self-system, good-me & bad-me, security
operations

The smallest unit of study in interpersonal relationships is what he calls

dynamism. 3 major dynamism – malevolence, lust, intimacy.
Malevolence – when one is living among one’s personal enemy in
childhood. Child can then never fully trust another person.
Personification – is same as internal representation of self & significant
others.
Self-system – it functions as security measure to protect the individual
from anxiety. In order to avoid or minimize actual potential anxiety, the
person adopts various types of protective measures (security operation)
& supervisory control over his behaviour. These security measures form
self-system which sanction certain forms of behaviour such as the “good-
me” & forbids other forms of behaviour such as the “bad-me”self.

He contributed the role of cognition in personality theory.

3 classification of experience/types of cognition – protaxic, parataxic &
syntaxic

Prototoxic – it is simplest form of experiencing reality. It is awareness

without any connection.
Parataxic – causal correlating two events which are happening at same
time but which are not logically related. here child assumes wrongly
relationship between two unrelated events.
Syntaxic – it is logical, analytical thought. This level should be reached in
grow interpersonal relationship.

He proposed therapist to take more active stance then traditional

psychoanalytic “blank screen” approach.
He believed that emotional well being could be achieved by making an
individual aware of their dysfunctional interpersonal patterns of
interaction & thereby grow into healthy self-awareness of their
interactive behaviour.

Sullivan developed stages of human development it is based on

interpersonal relationships. Not on childhood sexuality as Freud said.
There are 7 stages –
1. Infancy (birth to 18months)
2. Childhood
3. Juvenile
4. Preadolescence
5. Early adolescence
6. Late adolescence
7. adulthood
Interpersonal therapy
He believed that interpersonal relationships constitute the core of
psychotherapeutic treatment.
Therapist role is of participant observer, & become part of interpersonal
relationship with patient. This process actually creates the opportunity
for the patient to establish a syntaxic communication with therapist.
Therapist must establish a relationship based upon his role as an expert
in relationships, not become friend of patient as suggested by Carl
Rogers.
Therapeutic interview is divided into 4 stages –
1. Formal inception
2. Reconnaissance – taking case history
3. Detailed inquiry
4. Termination

He argued that the concept of

“personality” is itself a hypothetical
entity which cannot be isolated
from interpersonal situations and, indeed,
interpersonal behavior is all
that is observable about personality. The
rest, he suggests, is strictly
metaphorical speculation and creative
imagery. It is futile and fruitless
to speak of a person’s personality outside
the social interactive matrix
of the living person. Not discounting the
significance of heredity and
the maturation process as affected by the
physical environment, the
real thing that determines the nature of a
human person is the social
interaction of that person with others
Psychodynamic therapy

 It is less intensive than psychoanalysis.

 It is different from psychoanalysis.

Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual(PDM) is published in 2006. It is

psychodynamic alternative to DSM.

Fonagy
 Developed concept “Ability to Mentalize”
 Mentalize means = mentally represent internal psychological
states, develops from secure early attachment relationship.
 It is related to later ability to regulate emotions & calm one-self
during times of stress & anxiety.
 mentalization is the ability to understand the mental state – of self
or others – that underlies overt behaviour.
 Mentalization can be seen as a form of imaginative mental activity
that lets us perceive and interpret human behaviour in terms of
intentional mental states (e.g., needs, desires, feelings, beliefs,
goals, purposes, and reasons).
4 types of mentalization - Automatic/Controlled, Self/Other, Inner/Outer,
and Cognitive/Affective

1. Automatic/Controlled. Automatic (or implicit) mentalizing is a

fast-processing unreflective process, calling for little
conscious effort or input; whereas controlled mentalization
(explicit) is slow, effortful, and demanding of full awareness.
[19] In a balanced personality, shifts from automatic to
controlled smoothly occur when misunderstandings arise in a
conversation or social setting, to put things right.[20] Inability
to shift from automatic mentalization can lead to a simplistic,
one-sided view of the world, especially when emotions run
high; while conversely inability to leave controlled mentalization
leaves one trapped in a 'heavy', endlessly ruminative thought-mode.
2. Self/Other involves the ability to mentalize about one's own state of mind,
as well as about that of another. Lack of balance means an overemphasis
on either self or other.
3. Inner/Outer: Here problems can arise from an over-emphasis on external
conditions, and a neglect of one's own feelings and experience.
4. Cognitive/Affective are in balance when both dimensions are engaged, as
opposed to either an excessive certainty about one's own one-sided ideas,
or an overwhelming of thought by floods of emotion.

Core Conflictual Relationship Theme

Method (CCRT)

 Examine inner working to patients relationship pattern.

 Repeating pattern in relationships or conflictual theme.
 It has 3 elements
1. Wish
2. Response of others
3. Response of self
Symptom-Context Method
Here therapist look for trigger for symptom.
We find out context behind symptom.

Adlerian – Individual Psychology

 Adler born in February 7, 1870.

 He is neo-Freud Psychoanalyst. He rejected freud concept of
conflict between id, ego, superego. to say that personality work as
unit, we work to maintain unity.
 He rejected Freud’s theory of mind topography.
 He rejected Freud theory that motivation of man is sexual in
nature. Adler said humans are motivated by goal.
 Law of movement – it is the manner in which individual goes about
overcoming the problems in his life.
 Individual is born with free creative power, to choose his goal,
life-style.
 Teleology – Adler rejected deterministic causation of Freud & said
human behaviour is a preparation for some goal.
 Final goal alone is sufficient explanatory principle for anything
individual does, strives, feel & thinks.
 So man’s life is guided by certain goals.
 I behave differently with boys as a result of my secret goal which
include seducing boy into marrying me & providing with safety.
 Aggressive drive – In beginning Adler believed main motivation
was self-assertion(aggression), later he said aggression is neurotic
motivation toward personal superiority to overcome inferiority.
Striving for superiority
Freud said people want pleasure & avoid pain. And people want to
live & avoid death.
But Adler rejected both assumptions as humans may wish to die
when in pain & may accept pain when pleasure threatening our
self-esteem.
So for Adler our motivation is to reach superiority.

Social Interest
Social interest is ability to cooperate with others.
It is innate potential.

 He was one of the earliest humanistic psychologist.

 He wrote – what life should mean to you in 1931.
 He focused on effect of children’s perception of their family
constellation & their struggles to find place of significance within it.
 Name was individual psychology it does not meant to describe the
psychology of individual. It referred rather to Adler’s holistic stance
– that a person could be understood only as a whole, an indivisible
unity.
 Concept = organ inferiority, birth order, life style, goal motivates
the behvaiour.

Basic Assumptions –
 Social context is important when we study defective behaviour.
 Behaviour is function of person & environment.
 Individual psychology is interpersonal psychology.
 It rejects reductionism in favour of studying the whole person &
how he moves through life.
 Rejected competing or conflicting structure of id, ego & superego
to say that personality work as unit, we work to maintain unity.
 Conscious & Unconscious are both in service of individual who uses
them to achieve personal goals.
 Conflict is one step forward & one step backward. Dead centre.
People create these conflicts because they don’t want to solve
problems.
 Understanding individual requires understanding his life-style.
 Inferiority complex - Inferiority is label given to biological disability
(organ inferiority) present at birth. Later included imaginary
inferiority which results from how society treat us.
 We want to compensate for our inferiority. And this inferiority
motivates us to move towards superiority goal.
 Life style is developed early in life to help them move towards
superiority & personal goals.
 People move toward self-selected goals that they feel will give
them a place in world, will provide them security & will preserve
their self-esteem.
 Life of human is not being but becoming.
 High role of cognition in emotion & behaviour.
 Central motivation of human is completion, perfection,
superiority, self-realization, self-actualization, competence &
mastery.
 If striving is solely for the individual’s greater glory, he considers
them socially useless & in extreme is cause of mental problems.
 On other hand if striving is for purpose of overcoming life’s
problems, individual is engaged in striving for self-realization, in
contributing to humanity & making world a better place.
 Adlerian’s are not deterministic but see human as creative,
choosing, self-determined decision makers permit them to
choose the goals they want to pursue.
 Individual may select socially useful goals or they may devote
themselves to useless side of life.
 Greatest value for Adlerian is Social Interest. It is innate potential.
People possess the capacity for coexisting and interrelating with
others.
 If my feeling derives from my inferiority, then I will strive for
personal superiority through overcompensation wearing a mask,
withdrawal, attempting only safe task. Displaying hesitant attitude
towards life.
 Neurotic display – yes but & if only personality.
 Device Adler used for diagnosis of individual task avoidance = “The
Question”
 The Question = if I had a magic wand that would eliminate my
symptoms immediately what would be different in your life?
 Life presents challenges in form of life task – Society, work, sex. We
need to solve this.
 Courage is willingness to engage in risk taking behaviour when one
does not know consequences or consequences might be adverse.
 Life has no intrinsic meaning; we give meaning to life. The meaning
we attribute to life will determine our behaviour.
 Adler psychology has religious tone bcz of his believe in social
interest.
 Adler introduced family therapy in 1922.
 Adler was functionalist. He asked how individual use heredity &
environment.
 Family constellation become primary social environment for child.
Child searches for significance in environment & competes for
position.
 Importance to birth order of child. First child is conservative &
second is often rebellious.
 Maladjusted child is not sick but is discouraged child.
 Goal of discouraged child = attention getting, power seeking,
revenge taking & declaring defeat.
 Child due to experience forms conclusion which are often
incorrect. About self & others. Such conclusions are subjective &
biased rather than objective reality. One can feel inferior without
being inferior.
 Life-style = self-concept, self-ideal, Weltbild (picture of world),
ethical conviction.
 If there is discrepancy between self & ideal self , inferiority feelings
arise. Eg: masculine protest.
 Life style is adopted to reach a goal to get rid of inferiority.
 Using maps people facilitate their movements through life. Life-
style is instrument for coping with experience, it is very largely
unconscious.
 Lif-style comprises cognitive organization of individual. It is
unconscious.
 Goal of psychotherapy is to change life-style.
 Adlerian’s do not accept the concept of the unconscious.
 Adlerian’s major goal is not behaviour modification but motivation
modification.
 Problem is faulty learning, faulty values, faulty perceptions.
 Human is responsible for one’s action & problems.
 Patient has a active role in therapy responsible for contributing in
solution of his problem.
 Therapy requires cooperation = alignment of goals.
 He founded family education centres.
 Of supreme importance is the child’s position in the family
constellation. Birth Order. Thus, it would appear that the first child
usually is a conservative and the second is often a rebel.
 Comparison between Freud & Adler
Freud
1. Objective
2. Emphasised causality
3. Reductionist = individual
was divided into parts.
4. Study of individual centres
on intrapersonal level.
5. Establishment of
intrapsychic harmony =
goal of psychotherapy.
6. People are basically bad.
7. Emphasis on Oedipus
complex.
8. People are enemies
9. Women feel inferior bcz
they envy penis.
Adler
1. Subjective
2. Emphasized teleology
(importance of goals in
motivating human
behaviour)
3. Holistic – individual is
indivisible.
4. People can be understood
only interpersonally as
social beings.
5. Expansion of individual,
self-realization &
enhancement of social
interest represent the ideal
goals for individual.
6. People are neither good or
nor bad, but are creative ,
choosing human beings
they may choose to
become good or bad
depending on their life
style.
7. Emphasis on family
constellation
8. People are fellow human
beings, they are equal.
 10. Neurosis has sexual 9. Women feel inferior bcz of
aetiology. culture.
10. Neurosis is bcz of
distorted perception.

There was jhagda between adler

& freud.

Fight between Adler & Freud

Adler’s increasing divergence from Freud’s viewpoint led to

discomfort and disillusion in the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society.
Adler criticized Freud’s sexual stance; Freud condemned Adler’s
ego psychology.
They disagreed on (1) the unity of neuroses, (2) penis envy (sexual)
versus the masculine protest (social), (3) the defensive role of the
ego in neuroses, and (4) the role of the unconscious.
Freud thought that Adler had not discovered anything new but had
merely reinterpreted what psychoanalysis had already said. He
believed that what Adler discovered was “trivial” and that it was
“methodologically deplorable and condemns his whole work to
sterility” (Colby, 1951).
In 1911, after a series of meetings where these issues were
discussed in an atmosphere of fencing, heckling, and vitriol
(Brome, 1968), Adler resigned as president of the Vienna Society.
Later that year, Freud forced the choice between Adler and himself.

Socially embedded
An individual does not develop in isolation. A critical goal is to find a place of significance or
belonging in the social group. All of our problems are basically social problems, i.e., how we
relate to each other. The ability to cooperate and contribute is a measure of social interest and
mental health. A well-adjusted person is oriented to and behaves in line with the needs of the
situation. A mal-adjusted person has faulty concepts of his or her place in the group, feelings of
isolation and inferiority, and mistaken goals, which are compensation for these feelings.
Individuals grow up initially feeling a sense of inferiority and compensate by developing a unique
sense of superiority or striving for significance (moving from felt minus to perceived plus). Given
the inherent social nature of individuals, this striving is seen through the lens of social interest,
either adequately fulfilling the tasks of life in socially useful ways or moving on the socially
useless side of life and living a world more at odds with others, more in one’s own private logic
and personal strivings for superiority.

Comparison between Adler & Beck

Beck Adler

1. Emphasis role of cognition 1. Emphasis role of cognition

in emotions & behaviour in emotions & behaviour

2. Believe in cognitive 2. Believe in cognitive

structure called schema. structure called life-style.

3. Cognitive distortion. 3. Basic mistake.

4. Socratic dialogue
5. Guided discovery
6. Collaborative empiricism
7. For self interest 4. For social interest.

8. Not good result with 5. Frequently deals with

psychosis patient. psychotic patients.
Adlerian Technique

Therapist act as a model, The patient has an active role in the therapy.
Giving task
Anti-suggestion, paradoxical intention.
Images to remember goals.
Catching oneself
Push-button technique – it is to make patient understand that they
are creator not the victim of their own emotions. It is for those
patients who thinks that are victim of their disjunctive emotions.
Here therapist request patient to close their eyes to re-create
pleasant incident from past & un-pleasant incident of hurt. For
depression we can use this.

CARL JUNG – ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY

It is builds on Freud’s and Adler’s perspectives.
Individuals inner psyche decides how they perceive.
Psyche consist of 3 parts – Conscious, Personal unconscious,
collective unconscious.
Conscious plays a secondary role as compared to unconscious in
Jung’s theory.
Principle of opposites – Conscious & unconscious are in conflict, it
creates tension. Due to this conflict – life energy arises. Called
libido/psychic energy.
Distribution of mental energy follows principle of equivalence &
entropy.
Principle of equivalence – energy removed form one rea will
appear in another.
Principle of entropy – energy moves from high to low.
2 main rules of libido movements – progression & regression.
Progression – when opposite forces are balanced, progression
happens.
Regression – when opposite forces are not balanced, conflict
happens & regression happens.

Collective unconsciousness - vast, hidden psychic resource shared

by all human beings. Images that emerge out of the collective
unconscious are shared by all people but modified by their
personal experiences. Jung called these motifs archetypal images.
Whereas the collective unconscious reveals itself to a person by
means of such archetypal images, the personal unconscious makes
itself known through complexes. Archetypal images flow from the
collective unconscious into the personal unconscious by means of a
complex (a sensitive, energy-filled cluster of emotions, such as an
attitude toward one’s father or anyone resembling him).
Complex resides in personal unconscious.
Jung felt that individuals grow toward wholeness when both
conscious and unconscious parts of the mind work in harmony.
Jung focused on the complex as the royal road to the unconscious,
whereas Freud emphasized the importance of dreams.
Jung developed free word association method to study
unconscious.
For Jung, motivation was – self-preservation(survival purpose)
Freud had his patients lie on a couch and free associate, but Jung
and Adler sat face-to-face with their patients. Finally, both Adler
and Jung believed that psychotherapy should look to the future as
well as to the past. Jung’s ideas of life goals and forward-looking
(teleological) energy are similar to Adler’s views.
Jung 4 function – thinking(T), feeling(F), sensation(S), intuition (N)
Typology is one of the most important and best-known
contributions Jung made to personality theory. In Psychological
Types (1921/1971), Jung describes varying ways in which
individuals habitually respond to the world. Two basic responses
are introversion and extraversion.
Enantiodromia - This word refers to Heraclitus’ law that everything
sooner or later turns into its opposite.
Transcendent Function – images that unite opposite forces.
Mandala - symbol of wholeness and of the centre of the
personality. It represents reconciliation of opposites, fusion of
conscious & unconscious.
Preoedipal Development – It is initial relationship between mother
and child affects personality development at its most basic and
profound level. Jung paid far more attention to this stage and its
problems than to the father-son complications of the Oedipus
complex. He placed the archetypal image of the Good Mother/Bad
Mother at the centre of an infant’s experience.
A neurosis is a symptom of disturbance in the personality’s
equilibrium; thus, the whole personality has to be considered, not
 only the symptom of distress. Rather than concentrating on
isolated symptoms, the psychotherapist looks for an underlying
complex.
Jung built his system of psychotherapy on four tenets: (1) the
psyche is a self-regulating system, (2) the unconscious has a
creative and compensatory component, (3) the doctor-patient
relationship plays a major role in facilitating self-awareness and
healing, and (4) personality growth takes place at many stages over
the life span.
Jung delineated four stages in the process of psychotherapy:
confession, elucidation, education, and transformation.
In 1955, Jung introduced idea of synchronicity to explain
clairvoyance, telepathy etc by this principle. An unconscious idea
may appear simultaneously in physical world. None of these
phenomena is cause or effect.

Archetypes

1. Persona
2. Shadow – urges, wishes which are not approved by conscious ego.
It is dark side of personality. It comes out through projection.
3. Anima – man’s feminine side.
4. Animus – female’s masculine side.

Sandor Ferenczi
4 stages of development of reality perception-
1. Unconditional omnipotence
2. Hallucination-magic omnipotence
3. Magic gesture omnipotence
4. Magic of thoughts & words
He developed participation therapy.

Karen Horney

She rejected Oedipus complex, heredity is not the cause of behaviour

but environment is.
Motivation – need for safety & free from fear.
Lack of acceptance in childhood creates the basic anxiety.
Basic anxiety is not innate, it arises from broken home.
Concepts – Neurotic ambition, need for perfection, category of power, all
drives for glory= Have in common reaching out for greater knowledge,
wisdom & power than are given to humans.
These concepts are similar to Adler.
Socratic method – Cognitive Therapy

Beck and Weishaar use method “collaborative empiricism, Socratic

dialogue, and guided discovery” in cognitive therapy (Beck & Weishaar,
2005).

The Socratic Method has been defined as “a method of guided discovery

in which the therapist asks a series of carefully sequenced questions to
help define problems, assist in the identification of thoughts and beliefs,
examine the meaning of events, or assess the ramifications of particular
thoughts or behaviors” (Beck & Dozois, 2011).

Cognitive therapy is not designed for personal growth, whereas

Adlerians focus on personal growth even for the patient with
psychopathology. Cognitive therapists narrow the types of
psychopathology with which they will deal; Adlerians do not. For
example, cognitive therapists do not obtain good results with people
coping with psychosis.
Joshua Bierer
Pioneer of social psychiatry.
He developed “therapeutic social club” within mental hospitals &
outside hospital also.
It is to facilitate the patients re-entrance into society.
Leader of Day hospital movement.

Abraham Low
Recovery group similar to social club.

Otto Rank
Rank regarded birth as the most traumatic event in human life, &
as major source of an overwhelming anxiety.
Any other anxiety in later life is outcome of basic birth anxiety.
Since birth is separation from mother’s body, any future separation
will revive this anxiety.
Male desire for intercourse is craving for mother’s womb but sight
of birth giving female organs was fear producing.
Oedipus complex is repetition of primal birth anxiety.
Individual has fear of living alone & being independent.
According to Rank there is deep seated conflict between
individuality & belongingness, between separation & unity.
Emotional life fully develops at higher stage, where will develops.

Eric Fromm
Freud said society is product of human.
Fromm said - Human behaviour is product of culture at that time.
Society is formed by objective conditions – like politics, geography
etc.
He used human history to explain his psychological theories.
He accepted that humans have biological needs but they do not
fulfil it like animals.
He rejected instinct as uniform pattern of behaviour in man. Higher
the species more developed the brain of an animal, less rigid the
method to fulfil biological needs.
Humans fulfil needs as he learned through society.
Only lower animals display full fledged instinctual behaviour, while
humans learns, reason & his behaviour is flexible & adaptable.
Except biological needs all other needs are products of social
process like love, hatred, lust etc.
Existential dichotomies like life & death – humans cannot escape.
But historical dichotomies like high production & poverty – humans
can solve.
To escape the truth of death, humans created groups, religions for
sense of security, & save them from feeling of being alone.
But humans could not stay away from truth & revolted for freedom
& they stove towards independence. This process is called
individuation. High individuality brings high insecurity.
But with this freedom, security & happiness did not come. That’s
why many people return to totalitarian systems to gain back
security.
4 ways to gain security
 Sadism – complete control over other person.
 Masochism – submission of self to another person to
escape loneliness.
  Destructiveness – destroy others to escape
powerlessness.
 Automation conformity – complete conformity to social
rules.
Child if had bad parenting develops above 4 ways to gain security.
So these escape mechanisms are product not of heredity but of
their experiences in childhood.
Child’s individual personality is formed by parenting & society.
Not as Freud’s assumption that personality is genetic.
Child’s character is formed by environmental influences exercised
by parents.
Whatever human learns good or bad it is through society &
parents models.
2 part of character – personal & social character.
Social character is same as superego.
Freud said that society is product of personality, Fromm said that
personality is a product of society.