BFSU Lesson Plans Vol 2

SCIENCE 3-5: LESSON PLANS
BFSU Volume 2
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY (13 WEEKS)

Week Lesson Title Lesson Page
1 How Do We Use a Microscope? A-11 Pre-Lesson 3
2 How Does Brownian Motion Show that Atoms and Molecules Move? A-11 Part 1 4
3 How Does Diffusion Show that Atoms and Molecules Move? A-11 Part 2 5
4 How Does Temperature Affect How Fast Atoms and Molecules Move? A-12 Part 1 7
5 What’s Happening When Matter Changes State? (Heating) A-12 Part 2 9
6 What Happening When Matter Changes State? (Cooling) A-12 Part 2 11
7 How Can We Measure Energy? A-12 Part 3 13
8 How are Pressure, Volume, and Temperature Related? A-13 Part 1 15
9 What’s Happening with the Particles When Pressure, Volume, or Temperature Change? A-13 Part 2 16
10 What’s Happening with the Particles when Pressure, Volume, or Temperature Change and A-13 Part 3 17
the State Changes?
11 How is This Pressure-Volume-Temperature Relationship Useful? A-13 Part 4 19
12 What are Elements and Compounds? A-14 Parts 1&2 22
13 What are Chemical Reactions? A-14 Part 3 24
UNIT 2: CELLS (7 WEEKS)

14 What are Cells? B-13 Part 1 26
15 How are Cells Different? How are they Made? B-14 Parts 1&2 28
16 How do Cells “Know” What to Do? B-14 Part 3 30
17 What are Some Issues in our World Related to Cell Division? B-14 Part 4 32
18 What Do Our Cells Need? What Do Our Bodies Need? B-15 Part 1 34
19 How Do Our Cells Get What They Need? B-15 Part 2 35
20 What Happens if Some Part of Our Body isn’t Working Correctly? B-15 Part 3 37
UNIT 3: BOATS AND PLANES (16 WEEKS)

21 What is Density? A-15 Part 1 39
22 How Do We Calculate Density? A-15 Part 2 40
23 Will It Sink or Float? A-15 Part 3 41
24 Will It Sink or Float in Other Liquids? A-15 Part 4 42
25 How Do Metal Ships Float? A-16 Part 1 44
26 How Do Ships Float, Hot Air Balloons Rise, and Submarines Sink? A-16 Part 2 45
27 What Can We Make to Measure Density of Different Liquids? A-16 Part 3 47
* What is Buoyancy? A-16 Part 4 48
28 How Do Kites Fly? C-8 Part 1 50
29 How Do Airplanes and Helicopters Fly? C-8 Part 2 51
30 How Do Birds, Insects, and Other Animals Fly? C-8 Part 3 53
31 What is Center of Gravity? C-9 Part 1 55
32 What Makes Wheels Wobble? C-9 Part 2 57
33 Can You Balance? C-9 Part 3 59
34 Do You Remember What Inertia Is? C-10 Part 1 61
35 What is Momentum? C-10 Parts 2&3 62
36 What Do Waves Do? C-10 Part 4 64
*Optional for more advanced students
UNIT 4: EARTH SCIENCE, SEASONS , AND WEATHER (24 WEEKS)

37 How Do the Volume of Air and Water Change with Temperature? A-17 Part 1 66
38 How Does Density Change as Things Expand and Contract? A-17 Part 2 68
39 Does Temperature Have the Same Effect on Solids? A-17 Part 3 70
40 What Happens to Water’s Volume as it Freezes? A-17 Part 4 71
41 How Are Convection Currents Made and What Do They Do? A-18 Part 1 73
42 How Do Convection Currents Affect Our Lives? A-18 Part 2 75
43 How Does the Angle of the Sun's Rays Affect the Temperature? D-9 Part 1 76
44 How Do The Length of the Day and Height of the Midday Sun Vary With Time of Year? D-9 Part 2 77
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45 The Cause Effect Sequence D-9 Part 3 79
46 The Water Cycle and Its Ramifications: Side-Loops of the Water Cycle D-10 Part 1 80
47 How Do Humans Use Water Resources? D-10 Part 2 82
48 How Do Humans Affect Water Resources? D-10 Part 3 83
49 What’s the Big Deal About Water Pollution? D-10 Part 4 84
50 Why Do Earthquakes and Volcanoes Occur Where They Do? D-11 Part 1 86
51 How Do Tectonic Plates Move? D-11 Part 2 88
52 How Can We Estimate the Earth’s Age Using Erosion? D-11A Part 1 89
53 What Was Earth Like in the Past? D-11A Part 2 92
54 How Do We Use a Map with a Grid? D-12 Part 1 93
55 What is Latitude? D-12 Part 2 94
56 What is Longitude? D-12 Part 3 95
57 What’s the Difference Between Climate and Weather? D-13 Part 1 97
58 Why Are Tropics Wet and Deserts Dry? D-13 Part 2 98
59 What are Savannas Like? D-13 Part 3 100
60 Historical Perspective D-13 Part 4 101
UNIT 5: FUNGI, BACTERIA, AND MICROSCOPIC ORGANISMS (13 WEEKS )

61 What are Fungi and How Do They Live? B-16 Part 1 102
62 Why Are Fungi Important? B-16 Part 2 103
63 What are Bacteria? How Do Fungi and Bacteria Reproduce? B-16 Parts 3&4 104
64 How Should We Store and Preserve Food and Wood? B-17 Parts 1&2 106
65 Do All Materials Rot? B-17 Part 3 108
66 How Can People Use Fungi and Bacteria? B-17 Part 4 109
67 Can Fungi and Bacteria Make Us Sick? B-18 Part 1 110
68 How Can We Help Keep Ourselves Healthy? B-18 Part 2 112
69 How Common are Microscopic Organisms? B-19 Part 1 114
70 How Were Microscopic Organisms Discovered? B-19 Part 2 115
71 What are These Microscopic Organisms? How Many Cells Do They Have? B-20 Part 1 117
72 How Do Single-Celled Organisms Move? B-20 Part 2 118
73 How Do We Classify Organisms Such as Paramecia, Euglena, and Amoeba? B-20 Part 3 119
UNIT 6: SIMPLE MACHINES (6 WEEKS)

74 What Are Levers? C-11 Part 1 120
75 Do Levers Produce Energy? C-11 Part 2 121
76 What Are Inclined Planes? C-12 Part 1 123
77 What Are Pulleys? C-12 Part 2 125
78 What Are Gears? C-12 Part 3 127
79 What Are Hydraulic Lifts? C-12 Part 4 128
UNIT 7: LIFE OF PLANTS (6 WEEKS)

80 Let’s Grow Some Plants! B-21 130
81 Let’s Add Some Mulch! B-21 132
82 Can Plants Grow Without Soil? B-21 133
83 How Does a Plant Grow Its Stems and Leaves? B-22 Part 1 134
84 How Does a Plant Grow Its Roots? B-22 Part 2 136
85 How Does a Plant Grow In Diameter? B-22 Part 3 137
UNIT 8: ELECTRICITY AND LIGHT (12 WEEKS)

86 How Do Electrical Circuits and Switches Work? C-13 Part 1 139
87 Which Materials Will Conduct Electricity and Which Won’t? C-13 Part 2 141
88 What are Volts and Why is High Voltage Dangerous? C-13 Part 3 142
89 What Causes Static Electricity? C-13A Part 1 144
90 How Can We Use Static Electricity in Technology? C-13A Part 2 146
91 What Are Series and Parallel Circuits? C-14 Part 1 148
92 What Are Short Circuits, Fuses, and Circuit Breakers? C-14 Part 2 150
93 Why Do We Ground Electrical Equipment? C-14 Part 3 151
94 What is Light? C-15 Part 1 153
95 What Happens When Light Hits Something? C-15 Parts 2 & 6 155
96 Where Do Colors Come From? C-15 Part 3 157
97 How Do We See Colors? What Are Black, White, and Gray? C-15 Parts 4&5 158
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UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
WEEK 1: HOW DO WE USE A MICROSCOPE?
(Lesson A-11 Pre-Lesson)
MATERIALS
• Microscope and slides
• Objects to view (a feather, butterfly wing, hair, salt crystals)
DISCUSSION
• What does a microscope do? Does it create what you see or just make what’s already there
bigger?
• How is it the same as and different from a magnifying glass?
• Watch the following video on using a microscope: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-
b3Eejf4rDQ
ACTIVITY
• Find an object to observe- a feather, butterfly wing, hair, salt crystals
• Make a dry mount slide with found materials
• Center the slide to find object
• Slowly use the coarse adjustment to focus your object on lower power
• Carefully switch to a higher magnification making sure to not bump the slide or the
stage
• Sharpen focus with the fine focus knob
NOTEBOOK
• Put in all notebook pages from Volume 1. Number these pages in the table of contents.
• Learn parts of microscope and check understanding of how to use microscope by numbering
steps of using a microscope.
• Draw pictures of what was observed at each magnification.
READING
• Kingfisher Science Encyclopedia pg 268-9
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WEEK 2: HOW DOES BROWNIAN MOTION SHOW THAT ATOMS AND
MOLECULES MOVE?
(Lesson A-11 Part 1)
MATERIALS
• Microscope
• 1 tsp homogenized whole milk
• Water
INTERACTIVE DISCUSSION
• What does it mean that matter has a particulate nature?
o All matter is made up of tiny particles.
• Do you think that the basic particles of matter sit still or do they jiggle about?
• Dilute 1 tap homogenized whole milk in ½ c water and place a small drop on a slide with
a cover slip. Focus under 400x.
• How can we explain this jiggling of the fat particles?
o It’s called Brownian motion after Robert Brown who described it in 1827, but the
cause was a mystery for 75 more years.
o Research showed that atoms (which are the basic particles and can be grouped into
different molecules) are made in a way that they jiggle around.
• These fat droplets under the microscope are made of thousands or millions of molecules so
when one atom jiggles one way another probably jiggles back to balance it out. Therefore
we don’t see masses of atoms (droplets and bigger) jiggling. So why does the droplet jiggle?
o Think about the water molecules around the droplet. Could their jiggling make the
drop jiggle?
• Watch Brownian motion video such as: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f4mp4TWYfBs
• Why don’t we see larger objects jiggling around like this?
o Larger particles have more mass. How does that effect how likely it is to move or
stay still? (Hint: Think inertia.)
o The larger size means it’s more likely that the moving of 1 atom in 1 direction is
cancelled out by another atom moving in the opposite direction. Even tiny specks
have millions of atoms.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Continue observing Brownian motion with other substances. (You’ll have to use other
colloidal solutions, such as paint, mayonnaise, Jell-o, or blood.)
NOTEBOOK
• Draw observations of Brownian motion and explain what causes it.
TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

• Ask for various objects: Are the particles that make up that object jiggling? Why don’t we
see the whole object jiggling?
READING
• Kingfisher Science Encyclopedia pg 256
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WEEK 3: HOW DOES DIFFUSION SHOW THAT ATOMS AND MOLECULES
MOVE?
MATERIALS
• Water
• Food coloring
• Clear glass
• For activity 1: watercolors, cardstock or watercolor paper, spray bottle of water
• For activity 2: water soluble materials (salt, sugar, colored drink powder)
EXPERIMENT
• Set a clear glass of water where it won’t be disturbed. Allow it to sit for an hour to be
perfectly still.
• Drop in 1 drop of food coloring.
• Make observations every hour or so (as practical) for 24 hours.
DISCUSSION: D IFFUSION
• This is called DIFFUSION. The dye molecules DIFFUSE through the water.
• Why does diffusion happen? Could it have something to do with atomic/molecular motion?
o Imagine a cluster of pool balls being bombarded by marbles from all directions.
• Interpret the following with diffusion:
o How does the smell of bacon or cookies or smoke spread through the house?
o How can we smell perfume from across the room?
i. Note that diffusion occurs even more in the gas state because gas
molecules are further apart and not connected.
o Why doesn’t sugar (or any other water-soluble substance) in water settle out to the
bottom since sugar is heavier than water? (or any other water-soluble substance)
o If dirt is mixed in water and left to sit, why do larger particles settle out, but clay
particles stay suspended? (This is a SUSPENSION, not a solution, because the
particles in the water are larger than 1 molecule.)
o Will diffusion happen in solids? Why not?
i. The atoms/molecules are held too tightly together.
o Why is an oil spill on water deadly for fish?
i. Oil spreads across the surface of the water. Oxygen from the atmosphere
can’t diffuse through the oil into the water so the fish suffocate.
• Summarize: Diffusion can move liquid or gas molecules through liquids or gas.
DISCUSSION: D IRECTION OF MOVEMENT IN D IFFUSION

• Which direction will something move as it is diffusing?
o From where there is more to where there is less.
o Imagine if the reverse were true, like the smell of bacon gathering back into the
pan.
• Why?
o Random jiggling can’t create a consistent push in one direction.
o Note that even when the particles are evenly distributed they’re still jiggling and
keeping the even distribution.
• Scientists say: Substances diffuse down a concentration gradient.
DISCUSSION: D IFFUSION IS AN ESSENTIAL PROCESS IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS
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• Every living thing needs to move needed things into and wastes out of itself.
o For example, carbon dioxide and oxygen
• Show lung alveoli diagram. (See notebook page.)
• How does oxygen enter and carbon dioxide exit the body using diffusion?
o Think where the concentration of each gas is more and where it is less.
• What about diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide in plants?
o Same principle, just reverse the concentration gradients
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES
• Watercolor diffusion art project:
o Start by drawing something (a field of flowers for example) with permanent
marker on cardstock or watercolor paper.
o Color your pictures with washable markers
o Spray with a water bottle
o Watch as the colors of ink diffuse through the water
• Experiment with how fast other water-soluble substances diffuse, such as salt, sugar,
colored drink powder, etc.
CHECK U NDERSTANDING
• What is Brownian motion and why does it happen?
• What is diffusion? What are some examples?
• Can things move through air and water even if there is no wind or waves?
• How are Brownian movement and diffusion related?
• What is a concentration gradient? What does it have to do with diffusion?
• How does life depend on diffusion? Can you give some examples?
• When you exercise hard and are breathing as hard as you can you might feel like you still
can’t get enough air. Why? What are some things that limit how much oxygen can get into
your body?
• Fish need oxygen, too. How does oxygen get from the atmosphere into the water? Into their
gills? Into the rest of their body?
• With what you know about diffusion, what might happen to wastes dumped into the
environment?
NOTEBOOK
• Data table for the experiment with columns for time, hours after start, and observations.
Include conclusions and a diagram showing the direction of movement in a concentration
gradient.
• Draw and explain how animal bodies and plants use diffusion to exchange oxygen and
carbon dioxide.

• Note when substances are diffusing, such as smells through the air, sugar in juice, smoke or
jet trails spreading.
• Bring up how our lives, and all life, depend on diffusion.
READING
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WEEK 4: HOW DOES TEMPERATURE AFFECT HOW FAST ATOMS AND
MOLECULES MOVE?
MATERIALS
• Water
• Food coloring
• 2 clear glasses
• Access to refrigerator
• What have we learned about atomic and molecular motion in the last 2 weeks?
o Atoms and molecules are constantly jiggling around.
o They spread out (diffuse) and move from where they are more concentrated to
where they are less concentrated.
• Remember:
o Movement is a form of energy
o Movement energy can be converted to heat energy (as in friction)
o And heat energy can be converted into movement energy (as in a steam engine)
• So do you think how much atoms and molecules move will change if the temperature
changes?
• How could we experiment to find out?
o Diffusion is caused by atoms and molecules moving, so if they move faster at higher
temperatures then diffusion should happen faster at higher temperatures too.
• Put one glass of water in a fridge and one on a counter and allow them to reach their
surrounding temperature.
o Discuss why we want to keep all variables constant other than temperature, such as
amount of water, size of glasses, stirring, etc.
• Add a drop of food coloring to each glass and observe periodically.
• Guide in reaching conclusion by if-then reasoning: If the atoms and molecules moving is
what causes diffusion of the food coloring in the water, then how fast the atoms and
molecules move is directly related to temperature.
• When we measure temperature, it’s always the temperature of SOMETHING.
o So temperature is an attribute of matter. Is there any matter that isn’t at a
temperature?
o What attribute of matter are we measuring when we measure its temperature?
o Scientists have reasoned that temperature measures how much kinetic energy the
atoms/molecules have.
• Visualize cause-effect relationship with a diagram of (or actually) heating a pan of water.
o Heat energy added, speeds up atomic/molecular motion, temperature rises
o Heat energy taken out, slows down atomic/molecular motion, temperature drops
• Is there any way to increase temperature without using heat energy, but just by speeding
up its atomic/molecular motion?
o Microwave ovens use electromagnetic waves to make water molecules speed up and
increase their kinetic energy, which makes the temperature rise.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Continue to experiment with diffusion at different temperatures as desired, or with
different solvents/solutes.
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NOTEBOOK
• Experimental lab report

• When noting the temperature of something, discuss what we’re actually measuring when
we measure temperature.
• When using a microwave oven, discuss how it works to heat up food by speeding up the
water molecules’ molecular motion.
READING
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WEEK 5: WHAT’S HAPPENING WHEN MATTER CHANGES STATE?
(HEATING)
MATERIALS
• 1 cup crushed ice
• Water
• Saucepan
• Thermometer that can measure 0-100⁰ C
• Access to a stove
• Rubbing alcohol
• Ice cube
• What did we learn last week about temperature and how fast atoms and molecules are
moving?
o When heat energy is added, atoms/molecules speed up, so temperature rises.
o When heat energy is taken out, atoms/molecules slow down, so temperature drops.
• What happens when matter changes state (liquid to gas, solid to liquid, etc)? Where does
the heat energy go? Do the molecules move faster?
• How could we find out with an experiment?
• Monitor the temperature as ice is melted, and as water is boiled and turns to steam.
o Prepare graph. (Use notebook page and fill in axes with temperature and time.)
o Put 1 c crushed ice with a little water to fill spaces in a saucepan. Measure and
record temperature.
o Put the saucepan on medium constant heat. Stir continuously. Don’t adjust the
heat!
o Measure and record the temperature every minute until it has boiled for a few
minutes. (Note on your graph the time when the ice has finished melting and
when boiling starts.)
• Discuss the pattern seen: temperature stays constant through melting and boiling.
• What does this tell us about what the added heat energy is doing at each stage?
o During the first stage the heat energy goes into melting the ice, not raising
temperature.
o Between 0 and 100 C it raises the temperature (increases molecular motion/kinetic
energy).
o After boiling starts, the heat goes into converting water to steam.
• Define PHASE CHANGE- change between solid and liquid or liquid and gas
• Write a summary conclusion to the experiment (see notebook page).
o Heat energy can only do one at a time: raise temperature OR cause a phase change.
• Answers to possible questions:
o The heat energy in a phase change goes to breaking the attractions between
molecules.
o Ice can go below 0 C and steam above 100 C
o If the water is heated in a sealed container where it can’t turn to steam the
temperature will keep going up and pressure will build. E.g. Steam engine
http://www.animatedengines.com/locomotive.html
 This can be dangerous. Boiler explosions https://youtu.be/5mDTLsNUpPM
INTERACTIVE DISCUSSION: EVAPORATIVE COOLING
9
• Evaporation is another phase change from liquid to gas. Does it require the same energy as
boiling?
• Put some water or rubbing alcohol on student’s arm and blow on it. Note the cooling
effect.
• The liquid-gas phase change can happen below 100 C, but it still requires the same energy
input. The cooling effect is that heat energy being taken from its surroundings.
• Why do we sweat? Why do dogs pant?
o So the extra heat energy from our bodies/dog bodies will be used to turn liquid
sweat or drool into vapor.
• Why does your hand get cold when you hold an ice cube?
o Stress that heat energy is taken from your hand. “Cold-ness” doesn’t go into it.
NOTEBOOK

• Note and appreciate sweating.
• While cooking: If something is boiling on the stove, can we make it hotter and cook it faster
by turning up the heat? After boiling starts, why does it make sense to turn down the heat
so that it just simmers?
• When packing a cooler: Why is it more effective to pack things in 0 C ice to keep them cool
rather than just in 0 C cold water?
• Take time to discuss heat flow, effect on molecular motion/kinetic energy, and phase
change when examples of heating, thawing, and evaporating arise.
READING
10
WEEK 6: WHAT’S HAPPENING WHEN MATTER CHANGES STATE?
(COOLING)
MATERIALS
• Mug of hot chocolate/tea
• Water
• Thermometer that can measure 0-100⁰ C
• 1 cup crushed ice
• 2 saucepans
• Access to stove and refrigerator
INTERACTIVE DISCUSSION: HEAT RELEASE ON CONDENSATION, COOLING, AND FREEZING

• Review how energy always comes from somewhere and goes somewhere, although it may
change form. E.g. kineticpotential, heatlight, movementheat through friction
• We saw heat energy going into water to increase the temperature and cause phase changes.
So would the reverse happen, that is, heat energy come out when cooling, condensing, and
freezing? How could we test this?
• For evidence of heat released during cooling:
o Hold a cup of hot chocolate/tea and feel the heat energy exiting as its cooling.
• For evidence of heat released during freezing:
o Put a cup of warm water in the freezer and record temperature every 10 min.
o Graph results. (Notebook page.)
o Address any misconceptions on the freezer making things cold by forcing cold in
rather than drawing heat out. More on how freezers work in A-13.
o Interpret results in terms of heat flow. There is a “reservoir” of heat energy given
off in the phase change.
o Practical application: Orange farmers in FL spray water in orchards when the
temperature is going to dip below freezing. The freezing of the water can release
heat energy to prevent freezing of oranges.
• For evidence of heat released during condensation:
o Hold a pan with 1 c crushed ice an inch above a pan of boiling water.
o Would the ice melt as fast if the pan was held above a dry 100 C surface?
 Test with a dry pan on a burner. (First get the burner close to 100 C by
adjusting the flame so water in the pan is just simmering.)
o Why does the steam condensing on the outside of the pan melt the ice faster?
 It’s a more efficient way of transferring energy from the burner to the ice.
o Map the energy flow on a whiteboard
 Heat from burnerwaterphase change from water to steamexiting as
steam condenses on saucepanentering saucepan and melting ice
• All the energy that must be put in to raise temperature, melt ice, and change water to
vapor comes back out when going the other way. No energy is created or lost.
NOTEBOOK

• Notice heat released during cooling, freezing, and condensing, such as food cooling, water
condensing on a cup, etc.
11
• When you put something in the freezer or refrigerator, discuss which way the heat will
flow.
READING
12
WEEK 7: HOW CAN WE MEASURE ENERGY?
MATERIALS
• Nutrition labels
DISCUSSION
• In the last 2 weeks we’ve seen how putting some amount of energy in raises the
temperature and causes phase changes, and how taking some amount of energy out lowers
temperature and causes phase changes.
• Scientists need to measure more exactly how much heat energy is being put in or taken
out. They carefully measured how much heat is needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of
water 1 C, and decided to call this a CALORIE.
• Every kind of energy can be converted to heat (motion through friction, electrical through
resistance, light being absorbed, chemical energy burning), so energy in any form can be
measured in calories.
• Scientists started using kilocalories (1000 calories) but people just started calling those
calories too.
o For example food calories are always actually kilocalories.
• Look at a nutrition label.
o The calorie count is determined by drying a food, burning it, and measuring the
heat released.
• How many calories does your body need? (See table on bottom of notebook page.)
o What happens if you get too many? Not enough?
• Look at the graphs from Part 2. Could these amounts of heat be measured in terms of
calories?
o Yes, scientists have measured that to melt 1 g of ice takes 80 calories, and to
convert 1 g water to steam takes 540 calories.
o How many calories does it take to get 1 g of water that’s just melted up to 100 C
right before it boils?
 100 calories
o That’s why it took about as much time to melt the ice as to bring it to a boil. (80
compared to 100)
o It would take about 5 times as long to boil it all away. (100 compared to 540)
• See also additional points in text if they come up in discussion: refrigerators/AC units,
pressure in relation to phase changes, impurities in water changing freezing/boiling points,
absolute zero, freezing and boiling points of other substances, 3 ways heat travels, heat
input initiating chemical reaction, sublimation.
o Otherwise save for later lessons
• How do we know that temperature is a measure of molecular motion/kinetic energy?
• How do we set up a controlled experiment?
• Why doesn’t temperature rise while ice is melting or while water is boiling? Where is the
heat energy that the burner is adding going? (Show graph made in part 2.)
• Heat must be added to melt, warm, and vaporize. Does heat get released during
condensing, cooling, and freezing? What evidence can you give?
• Why do we sweat when we get hot?
• What requires more energy: melting a pound of ice or raising the temperature of a pound of
water 1⁰C? What evidence can you give?
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• What are calories and why is it important to know how many “calories” are in food?
NOTEBOOK
• Define a calorie and describe what it means in terms of nutrition.
• Do some exercises with examples of how many calories are used for different types of
exercise.

• While cooking: A pot of water will boil dry but it takes a long time compared to how long it
takes to bring it to a boil. Why is this so?
• Examine nutrition labels and discuss the meaning of calories.
READING
• Kingfisher Science Encyclopedia pg ?
14
WEEK 8: HOW ARE PRESSURE, VOLUME, AND TEMPERATURE RELATED?
(Lesson A-13: Part 1)
MATERIALS
• Bike or ball pump
• High pressure tire or ball for inflation
• Show a video of starting a fire with a fire piston.
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=21&v=-
39wmSBO2FM&feature=emb_logo
• How does it work?
o The temperature of air rises as it is compressed.
• Stopper the outlet of a bike/ball pump. Compress the air in the plunger hard and have
the student feel the base of the cylinder get slightly warmer.
• Use this principle to explain the fire piston (which has been used since before recorded
history!)
• If temperature increases with an increase in pressure, what do you think will happen if
pressure decreases?
• Feel a tire or tightly inflated ball cool slightly as the air is quickly released.
• What is the three-way relationship among pressure, volume, and temperature?
• Draw a triangle and write Pressure, Volume, and Temperature at the 3 corners. Conduct Q
and A of how increase or decrease in any one parameter will affect the others. Relate these
to real-life examples (e.g. pressure cooker, fire piston, bike pump or ball being released,
air on a sunny day) (See the Notebook Page)
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Pressure volume temperature animation
o https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/gas-properties/latest/gas-
properties_en.html
NOTEBOOK
• Relationships between pressure, volume, and temperature.

• Notice tire or balls’ pressure increasing in the sun and discuss.
• Discuss gas tanks and why it would be dangerous to heat them.
READING
15
WEEK 9: WHAT’S HAPPENING WITH THE PARTICLES WHEN PRESSURE,
VOLUME, OR TEMPERATURE CHANGE?
MATERIALS
• Baseball bat and ball
• Marbles
• Various sized containers
• Review the pressure-volume-temperature triangle and the animation from last time.
• What is pressure in terms of the air particles?
o The particles bumping into the walls of the container.
• So why are volume and pressure related? What happens to the particles as we reduce
volume? As we increase volume?
• Why does pushing particles closer together (reducing volume) increase temperature?
o Remember that temperature is the movement energy of the particles.
o Analogy: Baseball being hit squarely by a bat. It has kinetic energy from the
pitcher’s throw plus more kinetic energy added by the bat hitting it.
 Relate this to particles banging into each other as they are being pushed
more closely together. They gain kinetic energy and temperature increases.
o Reverse analogy: Bunting the baseball. The bat is pushed back by the ball hitting
it and absorbs some of the kinetic energy. The ball bounces from the bat with less
kinetic energy than it had when it was thrown and doesn’t go far.
 Relate this to particles moving farther apart in decompression. As a particle
hits a receding particle it bounces back with less energy than it had. Kinetic
energy is lost and temperature drops.
• Note: Temperature change from a pressure change isn’t permanent. Heat always flows
toward a cooler location to balance temperatures.
• Also note: A gas at high pressure and at low pressure can be at the same temperature. It’s
just when we change pressure that we see a change in temperature.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Playact the pressure-volume-temperature relationships with the students, with marbles
in different size containers, or anything else the student can think of.
NOTEBOOK
• How are the pressure-volume-temperature relationships related to the kinetic energy of the
particles?
• Illustrate how the pressure-volume-temperature relationships result in heat energy entering
or leaving the system.

• Frequently review, going back through the logic of the interrelationships. Avoid
memorization without understanding.
READING
16
WEEK 10: WHAT’S HAPPENING WITH THE PARTICLES WHEN PRESSURE,
VOLUME, OR TEMPERATURE CHANGE AND THE STATE CHANGES?
(Lesson A-13: Parts 3 and part of 4)
Note that this week is quite abstract. If the student is confused, it might be better
to go onto week 11 and practical applications first. You could come back to points
from this week as needed with a practical example in mind.
MATERIALS
• 2 coffee cans or same size/material containers with lids
• 2 smaller containers that will fit inside of the larger ones
• Ice cubes
• Timer or a clock
• Various materials that you think can work well to keep things cold, such as water, rags,
shredded paper, etc.
DISCUSSION
• What happens when a change in state, from gas to liquid or liquid to gas, happens in a
closed container?
• Recall:
o To change water from liquid to steam, heat energy was added. We can call this
heat input.
o Changing back from vapor to liquid releases the same amount of energy. We can
call this heat output.
o If pressure doesn’t change, water’s volume increases a lot as it changes from liquid
to vapor.
o The opposite is true too. When water vapor condenses, volume decreases.
o If we keep the volume from changing by keeping the water trapped in a container
as we heat it above boiling, the pressure increases a lot.
• Using the triangle diagram from the notebook page and looking at the temperature corner:
o If we increase pressure or reduce volume, a gas will heat up. However, it won’t
stay heated up, because heat energy will flow out.
o The opposite is true, too. If we decrease pressure or increase volume, a gas will
cool down. However, it won’t stay cooler, because heat energy will flow in to
balance the temperatures.
o So add to the temperature corner:
 Temperature goes up = Heat energy output
 Temperature goes down = Heat energy input
• If we put a gas under enough pressure or in a small enough volume it will turn into a liquid.
If we reduce pressure or increase the volume, the liquid can turn back into a gas.
o Add this to the triangle diagram:
 Pressure goes up Temperature goes up Heat energy output
 Pressure goes up more Turns to liquid (Temperature stay the same)
Heat energy output
• Does adding a phase change to the triangle change the relationships between pressure,
volume, and temperature?
o No, it only makes the changes greater.
• Where does energy come from in these scenarios? Is there more energy after the changes
than there was before?
17
o No, energy has to be put in to increase pressure or decrease volume, say with a
pump, or energy has to be put in to raise temperature.
o Then the energy can be output as heat or as movement from the increased
pressure.
• Are these physical or chemical changes?
o Physical, because the way the molecules/particles are put together isn’t changing.
They’re just being squeezed closer together.
DISCUSSION: I NSULATION
• To keep something hotter or colder than its surroundings, we have to slow down or stop the
movement of heat. Can you think of some examples where we’d want to do that?
o In an oven, we want to keep heat in. In a fridge or freezer, we want to keep heat
out.
o Note that fridges don’t keep cold in, they keep heat out.
• Something that stops or slows the passage of heat is called INSULATION.
• Why is insulating important?
o If we heat up a house to the temperature we want it, we only have to add more
heat to replace the heat that escapes. Less heat lost means less energy used to
reheat the house. As it becomes more important to conserve energy, it will be even
more important to find better ways to insulate things!
• Can you think of more situations where insulation is important?
o Clothing, picnic baskets, industrial boilers, thermoses
ACTIVITY
• Do an experiment to test various insulating materials
o There are various ways to do this. See instructions for one method here:
https://www.metrofamilymagazine.com/simple-science-experiments-all-about-
insulation/
NOTEBOOK
• Triangle diagram filled out during discussion
• Energy flows

• Continue to review the relationships between pressure, temperature, and volume.
• Discuss and keep an eye out for different insulations around the home or elsewhere.
• Begin bringing up questions to raise interest for next week: How do engines work? How does
a refrigerator work? What is liquid gas?
READING
18
WEEK 11: HOW IS THIS PRESSURE-VOLUME-TEMPERATURE
RELATIONSHIP USEFUL?
This week may be better broken into 2 weeks, or by choosing a topic of interest,
either refrigeration or engines.
MATERIALS
• Water bottle (square one is best)
• 1 straw
• 1 skewer
• Scissors
• 4 plastic caps
• 4 pony beads
• Glue gun or other glue
• Duct tape
• Vinegar
• Baking soda
• Tissue paper
DISCUSSION
• How could the relationships among temperature, pressure, and volume be used in
technology?
DISCUSSION: LIQUID GASES

• Have you heard of liquid gases? (Such as liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen, liquid hydrogen,
propane, etc.) How are they produced?
o Liquid gas is made by pressurizing the gas, letting it cool, and repeating until the
gas condenses into a liquid.
o Then it’s put into a very strong tank that can withstand the pressure.
o Even when it warms back up to room temperature it stays liquid because of the
pressure.
o If the pressure is released, the liquid gas boils back into its gas state. It absorbs
heat energy from its surroundings, making the temperature of whatever its
surroundings drop.
• Why do we make liquid gases?
o It’s easier to transport large amounts gases that are made a lot smaller with a
higher pressure.
o Because we can use them to freeze things very quickly, like cells and tissues that
need to be examined before they rot or change at all.
DISCUSSION: ENGINES
• Steam engines boil water and change it to steam. Steam usually takes up much more
volume than liquid water, but what will happen if it’s held in the steam engine’s boiler at a
constant volume?
o Its pressure will increase a lot!
• Watch a steam engine diagram animation. How does this run an engine?
o The high-pressure steam drives a piston connected to wheels that can turn.
o In a steam turbine, the high-pressure steam blows over fan blades and makes them
turn.
19
• Internal combustion engines are the types used in cars and other vehicles. A mixture of fuel
and air is ignited by a spark in a small space above the piston. What does this explosion do
to temperature and pressure?
o It increases temperature, and therefore pressure too.
• What does this pressure increase cause to happen to the volume of the space above the
moveable piston?
o The volume gets bigger and pushes the piston down, which turns the parts of the
engine that make the wheels turn.
• Watch an internal combustion engine animation.
• In jet engines burn air and fuel in a chamber. Just like a car engine, this increase in
temperature causes an increase in what else?
o Pressure and volume
• These expanded gases blast out the back. Because push pushes back, what happens to the
jet or rocket?
o It moves forward.
• What do all types of engines have in common?
o They rely on using heat to raise temperature and increase pressure and volume.
• Is this efficient or is there wasted energy?
o A lot of the heat ends up passing out to the surroundings, instead of being used to
move the vehicle.
DISCUSSION: R EFRIGERATION
• How do you think refrigerators and air conditioners work? Watch a refrigeration animation.
• They always have 4 stages:
o Gas is compressed until it becomes liquid. It becomes very hot as it does this.
o Hot liquefied gas goes through a tube on the outside of the fridge where it cools.
The heat energy flows from the hot liquefied gas to the cooler room
o The cooled liquefied gas flows to a place where it can expand. As volume increases,
pressure decreases and it turns back into a gas. To do this it absorbs lots of heat
energy and becomes very cold.
o The very cold gas flows through tubes inside the fridge. Heat from inside the
refrigerator flows into the colder refrigerator coils.
o The warmed gas flows back to the compressor and the cycle begins again.
• Does a refrigerator make coldness? If not, what does it do?
o No, at every stage heat just flows from where it is hotter to where it is colder.
• Do you think fridges use regular air in these cycles?
o No, air takes too much pressure to liquefy.
o They use Freon gas which becomes a liquid without too much pressure.
o There may be even better gases or methods out there still to be discovered and
invented!
ACTIVITY
• Make your own jet engine! (Well, kinda)
o https://leftbraincraftbrain.com/chemical-reaction-car-recycled-stem-project/
o Discuss how this is similar to a real jet engine.
• Imagine we make a change in [pressure, volume, or temperature]. How does that affect the
other two parameters? Why?
• Can you think of some times when you’ve experienced the pressure-volume-temperature
relationship?
20
• What happens when gas changes to liquid while under pressure? What about when liquid
changes to gas in a sealed container?
• How can the relationship between pressure, volume, and temperature transfer energy from
one place to another?
• How can the relationship between pressure, volume, and temperature change energy from
one form to another?
• Can we prevent or slow down the flow of heat? How?
• How can heat be taken from a relatively cold place and moved to a warmer one?
NOTEBOOK
• Diagrams of engines
• Diagram of refrigeration system

• Learn more about steam locomotives, the invention of internal combustion engines, and/or
refrigeration systems.
• Check out the back of your refrigerator and see if you can identify some of the
components.
READING
• Magic School Bus Revving Up
• Magic School Bus In the Arctic
21
WEEK 12: WHAT ARE ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS?
(Lesson A-14: Parts 1&2)
MATERIALS
• Chemistry molecular models, or modeling clay of various colors and skewer pieces, or Legos
Start by reading a story about alchemists- The Toy Brother, Rumplestiltskin (straw into gold)
DISCUSSION
• What happens when you burn a piece of wood?
o Wood changes to ash, carbon dioxide, and water vapor.
• Can you think of other examples of some material changing into different materials?
o Rust, food used to grow living things
• If materials can be changed into another, why can’t a common material be changed into
gold?
• In China, Egypt (as far back as 2000 BC), Arabia, Europe, England, and other places
alchemists tried to turn common materials into gold.
o They were the forerunners of chemists—they did experiments and recorded what
they did and their results.
• What did they discover?
o Certain substances, once purified, couldn’t be changed into anything else. They
could be combined with other substances to give new materials, but they could be
“uncombined” to the original substances.
• We now call these substances that can’t be changed into anything else ELEMENTS. All other
substances made of two or more elements combined and called COMPOUNDS.
o Alchemists found that elements couldn’t be created, destroyed, or change into one
another. They could be combined to make compounds and compounds can be taken
apart to make elements. This is called THE NATURAL LAW OF THE CONSERVATION
OF MATTER.
• Here are some elements you might know:
o Gold, silver, iron, copper, tin, lead, mercury, aluminum, helium, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, carbon, calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, chlorine, sulfur, silica
• What are some other substances you can think of?
o Identify as other elements or as compounds (water, glass, plastic, salt, sugar,
carbon dioxide, minerals, rocks, animals and plant tissues)
• There are only about 100 elements, but there are many thousands of materials we see
every day. So are most materials elements or compounds?
• Implications:
o We need calcium for our bones and teeth. If we don’t have calcium in our diet,
what will happen? Can our bodies create calcium from nothing or change another
element into calcium? Or will our bones and teeth deteriorate?
o Aquatic and marine ecosystems in many areas are suffering from too much
phosphorous and/or nitrogen. Can we fix this by adding something to break down
the phosphorous and nitrogen? Why not?
o High efficiency batteries require lithium. Will we be able to produce all the lithium
we need from other materials? Why not?
o Review the carbon cycle from lesson 27 of volume 1, noting how it is never created,
destroyed, or changed into other elements.
• A couple years ago you learned that all matter has a particulate nature. How does the fact
that matter is made of particles relate to elements and compounds?
22
o With iron as an example: “A piece of iron is the element iron. A piece of iron is
made of particles. Therefore, the particles of iron must be different from those of
other elements.” Continue with other elements.
• These fundamental particles are ATOMS. There is a different kind of atom for each
element. They are like building blocks. They can’t be created, destroyed, or changed into
another type.
o Except for nuclear reactions, which are very rare and an exception to be learned
later.
• What is a compound in terms of atoms?
o Atoms of 2 or more elements join to make a molecule of a compound.
o The molecules of a compound can come apart to give the starting elements.
o The atoms aren’t changed in this process.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Model with Legos or clay balls of various colors and small skewer pieces to represent
elements combining to form compounds.
NOTEBOOK
• What is the Natural Law of the Conservation of Matter? Why does it matter in terms of plant
and animal nutrition, getting rid of wastes and pollution, and available resources?

• Discuss the elements that are required by our bodies and how The Natural Law of
Conservation of Matter doesn’t allow us to substitute. Discuss in terms of healthy and junk
foods.
• Also extend to discuss the elements required by plants.
READING
• Magic School Bus Meets Molly Cule
• http://www.levity.com/alchemy/transmut.html (stories about alchemists, for older
readers)
23
WEEK 13: WHAT ARE CHEMICAL REACTIONS?
MATERIALS
• Water
• 2 number 2 pencils
• 9V battery
• Battery clip with alligator clamps attached to the end of each wire
• Small glass
• Small piece of cardboard
• Baking soda or table salt
DISCUSSION
• Through lots of experiments, scientists have found that some elements go together so
quickly easily to make compounds that they make explosions, others go together slowly,
and others won’t join at all.
• They also found that elements join together in very specific ratios.
o For example 2 parts of hydrogen gas and 1 part of oxygen gas make water. If there
was any extra of either gas it would be left over.
o When they put electricity through water they could see hydrogen gas coming off at
one side at twice the rate of the oxygen gas on the other side.
 Watch it here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HQ9Fhd7P_HA&t=2s
• Isn’t it strange that water is made of hydrogen and oxygen, but it’s very different from
both? How is it different? What does this tell us about the properties of a compound
compared to the elements that go into making it?
• What do the ratios tell us?
o Compounds aren’t randomly sticking together elements; they must go together in a
certain way. In this case 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom go together to make
H2O. So this is the smallest fundamental particle of water, a water MOLECULE.
• How is energy involved in oxygen and hydrogen combining to form water or vice versa?
o Energy is released when they combine to form water and must be added to break
water into hydrogen and oxygen.
• Can you think of other examples where 1 or more substances change into 1 or more
substances that are very different, where there is an exact ratio (or some leftover), and
energy is involved?
o Baking soda and vinegar, photosynthesis, respiration (using the food we eat),
burning.
• What about mixing 2 ingredients like sugar and sand together? Do they change into
something entirely different? Does it need specific rations of sugar and sand? Is there a
release or input of energy?
o No, it’s not a chemical reaction.
• What about freezing/thawing and evaporation/condensation?
o The atoms aren’t rearranged into new molecules. Just how free the molecules are
to move around changes.
• To summarize: What makes the other examples different than just mixing is that they are
CHEMICAL REACTIONS. Chemical reactions are different than mixing in 3 ways as stated
before:
o They rearrange atoms to make molecules very different than the starting atoms.
24
o They have specific ratios of starting and ending materials because the same starting
atoms are put together to make the ending substances. Otherwise we would have
to create or destroy some atoms to do the chemical reaction.
o They involve the release or input of energy. Each element or compound has a
certain potential energy. If the ending material has a higher potential energy than
the starting material energy needs to be added. If the ending material has a lower
potential energy than the starting material energy is released.
• Perform the electrolysis of water experiment.
o https://www.wikihow.com/Electrolyse-Water
• Perform any other experiments brainstormed about.
• How are the fundamental particles of matter related to atoms?
• What are elements made up of?
• What are all the materials called that aren’t pure elements?
• What’s the difference between an element and a compound? What is the fundamental
particle of a compound?
• How is a compound different than just a mixture of the elements involved?
• What is the Natural Law of Conservation of Matter?
• What are 3 characteristics of a chemical reaction?
• What happens in freezing, melting, and vaporization? Are these chemical reactions?
NOTEBOOK
• What are the three characteristics that make chemical reactions different from simply
mixing materials? Give an example of a chemical reaction and describe what is occurring at
the molecular level.

• Discuss how our bodies do chemical reactions to change what we eat to the tissues of our
bodies and how plants do chemical reactions to change CO2, water, and a few mineral
elements into their bodies.
READING
• Magic School Bus Gets Ready, Set, Dough
25
UNIT 2: CELLS
WEEK 14: WHAT ARE CELLS?
(Lesson B-13: Part 1)
MATERIALS
• Microscope
• Wet slides with plant materials such as onion membrane, membranes of tropical-type
houseplants, individual leaves of moss, leaves of the aquarium plant Elodea, and thin cross
sections of stems or bark cut with a scalpel
• Wet slides with animal materials: cheek epithelial cells by gently scraping inside of cheek
with a toothpick, blood collected sterile-y with a lancet
ACTIVITY
• Review use of a microscope.
• Watch a video of how to use a compound microscope.
• Prepare wet slides with plant materials such as onion membrane, membranes of
tropical-type houseplants, individual leaves of moss, leaves of the aquarium plant
Elodea, and thin cross sections of stems or bark cut with a scalpel. View at 100x.
• Prepare wet slides with animal materials: cheek epithelial cells by gently scraping
inside of cheek with a toothpick, blood collected sterile-y with a lancet. View at 100x.
o Any other animal tissues may need to be observed through internet searches of
photomicrographs because of challenges in obtaining and staining them.
• Remember not to tell students what they see (cells) or describe what they should see. Let
them observe, discover, and interpret. However, do guide them to see a pattern
(rectangles, circles, other shaped packed together) and draw it rather than just scribbles.
• Guide in carefully adjusting focus up and down to see that these are 3-dimensional
boxes/blocks/balls.
DISCUSSION: W HAT DO STUDENTS SEE?

• Compare and contrast the patterns they have seen.
• These tiny building blocks were totally unknown to scientists before 1660. Then a scientist
in England (Robert Hooke) made a microscope and looked at tree bark. He saw these tiny
cubes and was reminded of the little rooms monks slept in called cells. We still call them
CELLS. (Don’t go into organelles and functions yet!)
• Does seeing cells in tree bark mean that every living thing is made of cells?
o Guide in understanding how that generalization is a logical fallacy.
• Also 200 years later, with better microscopes and ways to prepare tissues, 2 scientists
observed a lot of plant and animal tissues. They made the generalization called CELL
THEORY: All living things are made up of cells. Cells are the basic unit of life.
• Do you think that all tissues of every organism on Earth have been examined? Do you think
that scientists might find an exception to cell theory?
• Do larger organisms have larger cells or just more of them?
o They have more cells, not larger ones.
DISCUSSION: STUFF OUTSIDE OF CELLS

• What is a big difference between plant and animal cells?
o Plant cells are more distinct than animal cells with a border around them.
• This border was what reminded Hooke of monk’s cells, and we now call it the CELL WALL.
26
• Animal cells just have a thin layer like a soap bubble, called the CELL MEMBRANE.
o Plants also have a cell membrane right inside the cell wall.
• How does a puppy feel different from a block of wood? Could this be because of the
difference in the cells?
o Plants don’t have a skeleton so they need cell walls to hold them up.
o Animals can move around easier because they don’t have rigid cell walls.
• Living things/tissues are made of cells but there is also stuff outside the cells, as in blood
and bone tissue.
DISCUSSION: HOW BIG OR SMALL ARE CELLS?

• How much does the microscope actually enlarge things?
• Put a tiny dot on a piece of paper, or a salt or sugar crystal, and view it at the same
magnification. Draw it for comparison on one of the pictures.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Watch the following video on Robert Hooke’s discoveries:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zk3vlhz1b6k
• Why wasn’t the Cell Theory proposed before it was in 1838?
• What other things were happening at the time of Hooke’s discovery of cells in 1660?
• A few years ago we learned that biological things (unlike natural earth and human made
things) have fine structural detail. At the microscopic level, why is this?
• Why are animals soft and cuddly or squishy, and plants aren’t?
• What is the connection between monks’ tiny rooms called cells and biological cells?
NOTEBOOK
• Record observations.
• Answer the following questions:
o What is cell theory?
o How does the cell wall of a plant make a plant different than an animal?
o How did the advancement of technology (microscopes) advance what we know
about living things?

• Compile a list of questions that come up.
READING
• Magic School Goes Cellular
27
WEEK 15: HOW ARE CELLS DIFFERENT? HOW ARE THEY MADE?
(Lesson B-14: Parts 1&2)
MATERIALS
• Cookie dough
• Sprinkles/chocolate chips/other decorations
DISCUSSION
• Review photomicrographs of tissues to emphasize how all living things are made of cells.
• Are all cells the same?
• How do the differences relate to the role they perform?
o E.g. plant stems are like tubes to carry water, skin cells make a protective layer,
muscle cells are shaped to contract, etc.
o View photomicrographs of different plant and animal tissues.
• Where do we see the greatest differences among cell structure—among cells of different
tissues (stems vs. leaves) or cells of different species (stems of 2 types of plants)?
o Other examples: blood or liver cells from different animals
• Summary: Besides cell walls for plant cells, the differences between cells depend more on
their roles than on what living thing they’re from.
• Where do cells come from? How do they get into the shapes to form the structures that
they do? How do they get a certain job in a certain organ? How does a body grow?
• This is what scientists in the 1800s spent many years trying to discover.
• Watch video of living cells undergoing division, without audio/explanation.
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L61Gp_d7evo
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4govZdjEBrs
• Where do cells come from?
o CELL DIVISION. Every living thing starts as 1 cell and divides to make more cells.
Cells only come from other cells that already exist.
• If cells only divided in half, then half again and again, they would just get smaller and
smaller and the living thing wouldn’t grow. What has to happen for cells to grow?
o The food we eat goes to feed our cells so they can grow, divide, and do their jobs.
• Only special cells can divide. Muscle cells, nerve cells, liver cells, etc. don’t divide, only
simpler “stem cells” that don’t really look like any certain type of tissue.
• So what would happen if the only things that happened in a body were cell growth and
division over and over?
o The body would be a big formless blob of cells.
o There is a process of cells becoming different: CELL DIFFERENTIATION.
• Summarize: Cell growth, cell division, cell differentiation.
• These don’t just happen in this order and then the process is done. Some cells don’t
differentiate so that they can still divide again later to make more cells.
o E.g. skin, hair, nails, blood
o Why can’t we re-grow an arm or a leg? Or muscle or brain?
o Why can geckos grow back a tail?
• Plants can grow missing parts. How is it that you can start a new plant from a cutting?
DISCUSSION: W HERE DOES THE PROCESS START?

• Where does the first cell in a living thing come from?
28
o A female makes special cells called egg cells and a male makes special cells called
sperm cells. When a sperm and egg cell combine (FERTILIZATION) they make a new
cell that starts a new living organism.
o Emphasize the first new cell of a living thing is made from egg and sperm cells that
were made by existing cells. Cells only come from cells.
• Watch video of fertilization and embryology of a sea urchin.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R1x4iBL-02s
• Watch video of chicken embryology: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PedajVADLGw
• Look at human embryology photos.
• All species have a reproductive cycle with eggs and sperm and fertilization.
o E.g. Plants have male and female parts that make sperm and egg cells, too.
• Discuss how awesomely controlled and directed this is for a single cell to turn into
something as complex and unique as you! Scientists are still studying how this all works.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Model cell division, growth, and differentiation with cookie dough.
o Split a cookie in half to represent division.
o Add bits more of the dough to represent growth in both cells.
o Pick one of the cells to differentiate into a new type of cell by adding sprinkles,
chocolate chips, or anything else to make it different from the “stem cell
cookie.”
NOTEBOOK
• Label diagrams of cell division, growth, and differentiation.
• Label a diagram of how skin replaces itself.
• Label a diagram of production of eggs, sperm, and fertilization to create a new individual.
• Write a short paragraph on the prompt: Why do we call a cell the basic unit of life?

• Talk about how skin will replace itself when getting a scrape or cut.
• Address more questions about fertilization as age appropriate.
READING
29
WEEK 16: HOW DO CELLS “KNOW” WHAT TO DO?
(Lesson B-14 Part 3)
MATERIALS
• Licorice sticks (or other thin, long candy)
• Gumdrops or colored baby marshmallows
• Toothpicks
DISCUSSION
• Review concept of a single cell growing into a whole living thing through cell division,
growth, and differentiation.
• How do the cells “know” when and how many times to divide, how much to grow, and what
type of tissue they should differentiate into? How does a fertilized chicken cell in an egg
“know” to turn into a chicken and a fertilized human cell into a human?
o There must be instructions in the cell.
o These instructions also must be copied and passed to the new cells in cell division.
• Watch video of living cells undergoing division.
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L61Gp_d7evo
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4govZdjEBrs
o Can you see anything here that looks like something being copies and each cell
getting a copy?
• Scientists have found that these chromosomes have a chemical called DNA that codes
information. There are differences between different species and even differences for
different individuals in a species.
• How is it that you inherit traits from your father or mother?
o DNA instructions are passed to the new baby from the egg and sperm, but only half
of the instructions from each parent are in each sperm or egg.
o So when they come together, the new baby gets a full set of instructions, half from
each parent.
• There is some randomness in what half of the mother and father’s DNA goes into each egg
or sperm. That’s why siblings aren’t exactly alike.
• Why can’t we cross a pig and a chicken and get a flying pig?
o Even though the DNA from the mother and father can be a little different, if it’s
too different they won’t be able to work together enough for the cell to be able to
divide and make a new living thing.
• What about identical twins?
o They form from the same fertilized egg dividing into two separate individuals, but
with the same exact DNA instructions.
• Summary: Scientists have discovered the cell’s “instruction book” or DNA, and have found
which parts of the DNA can cause certain effects (like genetic diseases), but there is still so
much that they don’t know about how cells differentiate into different parts of the body.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Make an edible model of DNA. (https://www.science-sparks.com/candy-dna-model/)
NOTEBOOK
• Why are siblings usually different, but identical twins do occasionally occur?

• Discuss traits inherited from parents and how they are inherited.
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READING
31
WEEK 17: WHAT ARE SOME ISSUES IN OUR WORLD RELATED TO CELL
DIVISION?
MATERIALS
• A cutting from a plant (such as a spider plant or other houseplant)
• Pot with soil
DISCUSSION: CLONING
• Is the process with eggs, sperm, and fertilization the only way to reproduce?
o Think about yuca cuttings, potato eyes, spider plants
o Strawberry plant runners video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cQztgR6Nqqc
o Hydra budding video/Planarian experiments video
• Is there any change in the DNA instructions between the parent and the offspring here?
o Review how the differences between parents and offspring come by combining half
of the instructions from the mother’s egg and half from the father’s sperm.
o The offspring just formed from cell division—ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION. They are
GENETICALLY IDENTICAL, a CLONE, with the same exact DNA instructions.
• Most fruits we buy are clones so that they are genetically identical.
o E.g. Macintosh apples
• Vertebrates can’t naturally reproduce asexually, but scientists have learned to do so with
sheep, pigs, cattle, etc. Should we clone humans too? For what purposes?
DISCUSSION: CANCER
• Cancer happens when what normally controls cell division, growth, and differentiation
doesn’t work right. Cells continue to grow and divide instead of differentiating to make
replacement cells for an organ. A mass of cells forms that divide and grow until they crowd
out the normal cells of the organ.
o Radiation and chemotherapy try to kill or at least stop the division of these cells.
o These therapies kill normal cells, too. There is still much more research for
scientists to find a treatment that would better target the cancer cells.
DISCUSSION: STEM CELLS

• STEM CELLS are the cells that keep their ability to divide, grow, and differentiate into all
the different tissues of the body.
• Stem cells are studied to learn how we could make them differentiate in certain ways to
replace lost or defective body parts.
o E.g. new eyes for a blind person, a new leg for someone who was in an accident
o Can you think of more examples?
• The best stem cells to study come from very early embryos. Why is this a problem?
o More recently scientists have found ways to get stem cells from adult body tissues.
o https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/stemcells/
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Propagate a plant from a cutting.
• Why are cells called the basic unit of life?
• How does one generation of a living thing beget the next?
32
• What is the evidence that cells contain instructions? What is the chemical called that makes
those instructions? What did you observe in a video that showed the instructions being
copied in each cell division?
• What could we do if we fully understood how cell differentiation is controlled?
• What are stem cells and what is the goal of stem cell research?
• Why are siblings different and identical twins the same?
• What is cloning? Why does it result in individuals that are exactly the same genetically?
• What’s the difference between cancer and normal cells?
NOTEBOOK
• What are stem cells and why are they important?
• How is cancer different than normal cell differentiation?

• Discuss cancer.
• At a fruit market, discuss how fruits can be grown by cloning instead of mating a male and
female.
READING
• Kingfisher Science Encyclopedia pg 89 “Clones”
• Do some reading about stem cells on this website:
https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/stemcells/ and write a paragraph in the science
notebook about what was learned.
33
WEEK 18: WHAT DO OUR CELLS NEED? WHAT DO OUR BODIES NEED?
MATERIALS
• Large piece of paper (big enough to fit the outline of the student’s body)
• Markers/art supplies
REVIEW
• Look again at photomicrographs of organs and video of sea urchin development.
• All parts of the body are made of cells. Their shape and structure depends on their job.
• Every living thing (except clones) starts as 1 cell, the fertilized egg.
• All cells come from pre-existing cells through cell growth, division, and differentiation.
• Each cell has information in its DNA to guide growth, division, and differentiation.
• Cells are the basic unit of life. Nothing less than a cell grows, divides, and differentiates.
DISCUSSION
• What does a cell need to grow, divide, differentiate, and do its job?
o Nutrients just to grow, divide, and differentiate plus those to make what its job
requires (saliva, bone material, etc.), Energy, Oxygen (to oxidize food molecules),
Water, A way to get rid of wastes
• Is this list of what cells need similar to what the whole body needs (biologically speaking)?
• Why does it make sense that it’s similar?
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Study more in depth the functions of the various organs in terms of what the cells and
the whole body need. Make an outline of the body on a large piece of paper or the floor
and draw the organs with a brief statement of their functions. You may also want to
come up with a way to represent that the whole body is made up of cells that have the
same needs as the body as a whole.
NOTEBOOK
• Write a paragraph describing the needs of the cells and how our body works as a whole to
meet those needs.

• Occasionally bring up why we’re eating, breathing, peeing, etc. in terms of the cellular
needs of the body.
READING
• Magic School Bus Goes Cellular
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WEEK 19: HOW DO OUR CELLS GET WHAT THEY NEED?
MATERIALS
• Masking tape outline of the body on the floor (or use the picture of the body’s organs from
last week)
• Markers/art supplies
• Stethoscope (or a paper towel roll)
DISCUSSION
• How is the whole body made and how does it work so that eating and drinking get food and
water to all the cells, breathing gets oxygen to all our cells, and all our waste is removed?
o These all involve transportation. List where things must be transported to/from.
• The transportation system is called the CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.
o It’s so important that if it fails for just a few minutes, cells and the whole body
dies.
• What do you already know about the circulatory system?
o Address misconceptions. Look up answers together if you’re not sure.
• Show a diagram of a capillary network.
o Complete the notebook section.
o Discuss what goes into and out of the capillary depending on what tissue it’s in:
lungs, intestines, kidneys, muscle. Note that things go in both directions at the
same time.
o Lung gas exchange video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XTMYSGXhJ4E
• Video of capillaries:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q530H1WxtOw&feature=emb_imp_woyt
• Why does blood have to keep flowing in the capillaries?
• Watch video of circulatory system:
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nOLFVC10ctw
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_qmNCJxpsr0
• Discuss parts and functions: capillariesveinsheartlungsheartarteriescapillaries
o Complete the notebook section.
• Address points of confusion:
o The blood doesn’t go through every organ each time around the circuit before
returning to the heart and lungs.
o Blood is all contained in the circulatory system, not simply sloshing around.
• How do things get into and out of cells?
o Review diffusion and concentration gradients. Things move from high to low
concentration.
• Make a large outline of the body with its organs (using masking tape on the floor). Walk
the pathway of blood and state/playact what they would pick up and release at various
organs.
o Or use the tracing with the organs from last week and add the circulatory
system.
• Listen to heartbeats with a stethoscope (or paper towel tube) and discuss what a
heartbeat is.
NOTEBOOK
• Capillary network diagram and questions
35
• Circulatory system diagram

• During a physical or mental activity, ask: What cells were really working in that activity?
What did they need for that work?
READING
• Magic School Bus Works Out
36
WEEK 20: WHAT HAPPENS IF SOME PART OF OUR BODY ISN’T WORKING
CORRECTLY?
MATERIALS
• Small Jar
• 2 Bendy Straws
• Balloon
• Tape/Glue
• Water
• Red Food Coloring
DISCUSSION
• Do you know of anyone who has/had heart, lung, or kidney disease?
• Why are these diseases so serious?
o Our body has needs that each of these organs has to meet.
• What will happen if cells need a certain vitamin, mineral, or other sort of building block,
and we’re not eating it in our diet?
o Our cells, and our whole body, will suffer.
o For example, without enough iron, our blood can’t carry enough oxygen. We’ll get
anemia and feel weak and tired.
• What about smoking, drinking too much alcohol, or abusing drugs?
o This will mess up the cell’s processes and how the cells work together. Toxic
chemicals in these can kill cells.
• How did scientists figure out all this information about what different organs do?
o Slowly, over time, with many observations and testing. Scientists are still learning
more and using what they’re learning to help people.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Make a very simple model of a heart. https://team-cartwright.com/heart-pump-model/
• How do our lives depend on the cells of our body? How do our cells depend on what we do
as a whole individual?
• For various organs: What type of cells make up that organ? What do they need to do their
job? What wastes do they need to get rid of?
• How is the circulatory system designed to get nutrients, fuel, and oxygen to cells and
carbon dioxide and wastes out of cells and out of the body?
• How does the structure of lung tissue help it do its job?
• Is it possible for blood to make a loop around the system without passing through a capillary
network? Or without passing through the lungs? What would be the problem with this?
• Why does heart failure cause a creature to quickly die?
NOTEBOOK
• What is the relationship between the health of our cells and our overall physical and mental
health? What do we need to do to keep our cells in good health and able to do their jobs?
How may smoking, alcohol, or drug abuse affect the abilities of our cells?
• Read about the history of the study of anatomy:
https://www.bioexplorer.net/history_of_biology/anatomy/. Write a paragraph or draw a
timeline of some of the major breakthroughs.
37
• In eating healthy or unhealthy foods ask: Are you providing what your cells need to do their
jobs? How so or how not so?
• Read in the Bible 1 Corinthians 12:12-27. Discuss how this concept relates spiritually to the
church.
READING
• https://www.bioexplorer.net/history_of_biology/anatomy/
38
UNIT 3: BOATS AND PLANES
WEEK 21: WHAT IS DENSITY?
MATERIALS
• Assorted items of various densities (such as wood blocks, nails, plastic toys, rocks and
pebbles, foam, cork, coins, marbles, etc.)
DISCUSSION
• What weighs more, a pound of feathers or a pound of lead?
o The same, but the pound of feathers would take up much more space, because lead
is much heavier per volume.
• We call this relative heaviness or lightness of a material its DENSITY.
o Does lead have a high or low density? What about feathers?
ACTIVITY
• Pass out an assortment of items and have students arrange them according to their
density. Stress that it isn’t by total weight, but by density.
• Make a list in the notebook page from least to most dense.
DISCUSSION
• What if you can’t tell just by feeling which object is denser? How could we measure density
more accurately?
o If we got 2 objects the exact same size we could weigh them to see which weighs
more and is therefore denser.
• Density is measured this way, usually as grams per cubic centimeter (D=g/cm³), but
sometimes with other units like kg/m³ or lb/ft³.
• But say we can’t get exactly 1 cubic centimeter of something? Do we need to?
o What if we measure the volume of a piece of metal, and it’s 10 cubic centimeters.
Then we measure its mass, and it’s 20 grams. We could write the density as 20
grams/10 cubic centimeters. Then we could simplify that fraction to be 2 g/cm³.
NOTEBOOK
• A list of the relative densities of the materials from the activity.
• A few word problems to practice calculating density.
o https://serc.carleton.edu/mathyouneed/density/densitysp.html
• Define density. What are its units of measurement?

• When lifting a heavy or light object discuss what is involved besides the size of the object.
• Discuss why you can carry only a small volume of certain objects and a large volume of
other objects. For example, you can easily like a cubic foot of cushions but could you carry
a cubic foot of gold?
READING
• Magic School Bus Ups and Downs
39
WEEK 22: HOW CAN WE CALCULATE DENSITY?
MATERIALS
• Objects from last week
• Graduated cylinder
• Straw
• Balance or scale
DISCUSSION
• How can we calculate the volume of some object?
o Length x width x height
o What if it’s irregularly shaped? Like a golden crown
• When you put something into a full glass of water, the thing will DISPLACE water, causing it
to spill out. Can we use DISPLACEMENT as a way to measure volume?
o If we measure how much water is displaced, we will know the volume of the
object.
o Remember a milliliter is the same volume as a cubic centimeter.
ACTIVITY
• Demonstrate and practice the displacement method with a graduated cylinder.
o What if something floats? (Push it under with a straw.)
o Be sure there are no trapped air bubbles and that the object is solid.
• Dry the items and weigh them on a balance.
• Calculate densities.
DISCUSSION
• What do you see about the density of objects that are made of the same material?
o The density of different objects that are all made out of the same material is the
same.
o Different kinds of metals though do have different densities.
• What can you say about the densities of objects that float and objects that sink?
o Materials that float have a density less than 1. Those that sink have a density
greater than 1.
• Is it possible for a material to have a density of 0 or less? Why not?
o Matter has mass and volume (occupies space).
NOTEBOOK
• Data sheet with columns for: the item, the material from which it’s made, its mass (g), its
volume (cubic cm), and its density (g/cm³)

• Based on their experience calculating densities estimate the densities of various objects
encountered in daily life.
READING
• Archimedes Takes a Bath
40
WEEK 23: WILL IT SINK OR FLOAT?
MATERIALS
• Graduated cylinder
• Balance or scale
• Large tub of water
• Various household objects (that can get wet)
• Why do you think that objects that sink have densities greater than 1 g/cm³ and objects
that float have densities less than 1 g/cm³?
o Does it have something to do with the density of water?
• How can we measure the density of water?
o Measure the mass of a given volume of water and divide.
• Why does water have a density of 1 g/cm³? Is this a coincidence?
o The metric system was designed so that 1 ml (cm³) of water is the definition of 1 g.
o Your density might be slightly less than 1.01 g/cm³. Water expands with increasing
temperature. The standard of 1 cm³ of water being 1 g is actually at water’s most
dense point (4⁰ C).
• Why do less dense things float on water and denser things sink?
o It’s like a teeter-totter. The heavier guy goes down and the lighter guy goes up.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Make a game of guessing whether various objects will float or sink in a large tub of
water.
NOTEBOOK
• Summary statement of whether objects will float or sink in water.

• Note items floating or sinking in rivers, sinks, or baths. If they are objects with air bubbles
or those affected by buoyancy, encourage questions and save them for the future lesson on
buoyancy.
READING
41
WEEK 24: WILL IT SINK OR FLOAT IN OTHER LIQUIDS?
MATERIALS
• Large clear measuring cup
• Cooking oil
• Scale
• Water
• Household objects and foods such as: carrot sticks, other fruits/vegetables, or an egg
• Various liquids, such as: salt water, dish soap, water, oil, rubbing alcohol, honey, and other
liquids
• Food coloring
• Granola ingredients
• Will things sink or float in other liquids, like oil for example, the same as in water? Why or
why not? How could we predict what will sink and float without making an oily mess?
o Measure the density of cooking oil (0.9 g/cm³) and compare to other densities.
o Put in a few objects that almost sank in water and observe.
o Why does oil float on water?
• What if we dissolve salt in water? Will it affect the density and what can sink or float?
o Conduct experiments. (Use carrot sticks, other fruits/vegetables, or an egg.)
• Can we test the density of liquids by seeing which will sink and which will float?
o Experiment with salt water, dish soap, water, oil, rubbing alcohol, and other
liquids. It will help to differentiate between them if you mix some of them with
different colors of food coloring first.
• Do gases like air have a density?
o Yes, it’s difficult to measure though.
• Is the density of gas more or less than liquids and solids?
o It’s much less which is why bubbles go up and why we have an atmosphere.
• Why does helium float up on air? Or why does hot air rise?
o It’s less dense and floats up like oil on water.
• Summarize:
o All matter has mass, so all matter has density.
o Objects with lesser density rise to the top; objects with greater density sink.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Put honey/syrup, water, and oil into a measuring cup. Experiment with various edible
objects (raisins, peanuts, almonds, coconut, craisins, chocolate chips, etc.) to see
which layer they will sink to. Then make granola. 
• Why would it be easier to float in salt water than in fresh water?
• Is it coincidence that water has a density of 1 g/cm³?
• How could you determine whether a piece of jewelry is actually pure gold?
• Could you swim more easily or less easily in oil?
o Don’t do it. You will drown because you will sink and the thickness of oil will make
it impossible to swim.
• Why does a captain have to recalculate the depth his ship requires when going from salt to
fresh water?
42
• Is it possible to have a material with a negative density?
• How does a helium-filled balloon rise?
NOTEBOOK
• Draw a picture of the liquids and solids in the measuring cup.

• Look for instances of objects floating on or sinking in water or other liquids.
READING
43
WEEK 25: HOW DO METAL SHIPS FLOAT?
MATERIALS
• Gallon or half gallon milk jug
• Scissors
• Small container
• Water
• Scale
• Tinfoil
• Small weights such as marbles/coins
INTERACTIVE DISCUSSION AND EXPERIMENT

• How do metal ships float?
• Think about the weight of the ship and the weight of the water its hull displaces.
o Write hypothesis on lab report.
o How could we measure those 2 weights?
• Cut a jug in half vertically and lay it on its side so that it has a convenient spout. Place a
small container under the spout.
• Add water to the tub until it is completely full to the spout. (Overflow some and dump
out overflow to make sure it’s full.)
• Make a boat of tinfoil. Make sure it floats without leaking!
• Weigh the boat.
• Carefully set the boat into the tub.
• Weigh the water that overflowed. (Remember to subtract the weight of the container.)
o Possible points of difficulty: The sides of the jug may need to be supported to avoid
moving around. Surface tension may cause the overflow water to stick to the spout
and may need to be teased out by touching it with a finger.
• Repeat for several boats and for boats with cargo (marbles/coins).
• Compare the weight of the boat and water displaced. Write summary statement.
• What will happen if the weight of the ship and the cargo are heavier than the amount of
water that can be displaced?
o Test to see that the ship will sink.
NOTEBOOK
• Experimental lab report including data sheet with Object, Weight of Object, Weight of
Collection Container, Weight of Collection Container with Displaced Water, Weight of
Displaced Water and a summary statement

• Note things floating in the bathtub, rivers, and the sink. Especially make note of the effect
of added cargo.
READING
44
WEEK 26: HOW DO SHIPS FLOAT, HOT AIR BALLOONS RISE, AND
SUBMARINES SINK?
MATERIALS
• Gallon or half gallon milk jug from last week
• Small container
• Water
• Salt
• Scale
• Tinfoil
• Small weights such as marbles/coins
DISCUSSION
• How does our conclusion from last week, that the weight of the boat is the same as the
weight of water displaced, fit with what we learned about density a few weeks ago?
o A few weeks ago, we calculated densities and found that objects with a density
greater than water sank and those with a density less than water floated.
o With the calculations from last week, we just skipped measuring the volume and
calculating density and compared weights instead.
o Think of the teeter-totter.
 If an object displaces a weight of water less than its own weight, it’s
heavier so it will go down (sink).
 If an object is able to displace a weight of water greater than its own
weight (when it’s pushed down totally under the water), it’s lighter so it
will go up (float).
 When an object is floating on the surface it is displacing a weight of water
equal to its own weight, so it doesn’t go up any higher or down any lower.
It stays at that level floating on the water.
• What happens to a ship as it comes from salty ocean water into a freshwater port?
o Freshwater is less dense than salt water, so the ship will sink deeper.
• How does this apply to helium balloons and hot air balloons? What do they have to do to
rise higher or to stay at a constant altitude?
o They rise when they displace a weight of air greater than their own weight.
o To stay at a constant altitude the pilot has to adjust to make the balloon displace a
weight of air equal to the weight of the balloon and its load.
• How does this relate to submarines? How do they rise and sink?
o They have tanks to intake or expel water to increase or decrease the weight of the
submarine.
• Try to build a ship out of tinfoil that can hold the greatest weight of cargo.
• Test some of the boats from last week in salt water and compare the results.
NOTEBOOK
• Sample calculations and problems.

• Note things floating in the bathtub, rivers, and the sink and the effect of added cargo.
Discuss in terms of water displacement and comparative weights.
45
READING
• Read about submarines.
• Fish swim bladders: http://aqua-fanatic.blogspot.com/2011/05/what-is-swim-
bladder.html
46
WEEK 27: WHAT CAN WE MAKE TO MEASURE DENSITY OF DIFFERENT
LIQUIDS?
MATERIALS
• Drill
• Plastic bottle cap
• Drinking straw
• Sand
• Permanent marker
• Water and other liquids of known density
DISCUSSION
• Remember last week we talked about how a ship sinks deeper in fresh water than in
saltwater because of the difference in density? Do you think this could be used to figure out
the density of different solutions or liquids?
• Allow students to discuss and design. Points to bring out:
o Any object that floats will float higher or lower depending on the density of the
liquid it’s in. Markings on the side of the object could be made to tell us the
density of different liquids.
o If there’s only a small difference in density it might be hard to tell the difference
between markings. It has to change significantly even for small changes in density.
ACTIVITY- BUILD THE HYDROMETER

• Drill a hole in the cap of a small plastic bottle.
• Seal a 2-3 inch piece of straw through the cap.
• Add enough weight (sand) to the bottle so that it floats with about half the straw about
the surface.
• Mark this level as 1g/ml. Test other solutions and calibrate your HYDROMETER.
• Or a simpler method: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vwnYdED0hVY
NOTEBOOK
• Draw your hydrometer and explain how it works.

• Look for various solutions to test with the hydrometer.
READING
47
BONUS WEEK: WHAT IS BUOYANCY?
This is for more advanced students who have already had time to grasp the other
concepts in this lesson.
MATERIALS
• Gallon or half gallon milk jug from weeks 25-26
• Small container
• Water
• Scale
• Spring scale
• An object that sinks in water
• String
DISCUSSION
• How much an object sinks or floats is called its BUOYANCY.
• What determines buoyancy?
o The weight of the object vs. the weight of the water it displaces when totally
submerged
• Every object displaces some water whether it sinks or floats. Objects that sink just displace
a weight of water less than their own weight.
o But the weight of that water still has an effect on the object—it pushes up on the
submerged object with a force equal to its weight.
o This pushing up by the weight of displace water is called BUOYANCY FORCE.
ACTIVITY
• Test buoyancy force experimentally:
o Suspend an object from a string and measure the weight with a spring scale.
o Immerse the object in water in the set-up from week 25.
o Observe and record the decrease in weight.
o Weigh the displaced water collected and record.
• How could you determine the weight of an object that floats without using a balance or
scales?
o It will displace the same weight of water as its own weight. Measure how much
water it displaces in ml. 1 ml of water weighs 1 g.
• When you go swimming what is the weight of water you displace?
• Why is it easier to swim in salt water?
• What about swimming in oil, which is less dense than water? Why would it be impossible?
• Fish can “hang’ in the water without moving. What does this say about their body weight
and the weight of water they displace? How do fish do this?
• How do helium balloons and hot air balloons rise in the air?
• Why doesn’t a tank of pressurized helium also rise?
o It’s held down in the tank. Emphasize that floating objects aren’t weightless. They
are being pushed up by the greater weight of the surrounding water/air.
NOTEBOOK
• What is buoyancy and buoyancy force?
• Experimental data and conclusion of testing buoyancy force.
48
• Notice the feeling of buoyancy force in a pool or bathtub.
READING
49
WEEK 28: HOW DO KITES FLY?
(Lesson C-8 Part 1)
MATERIALS
• Sticks or dowels
• Plastic bag
• String
• Masking tape
DISCUSSION
• Drop something and ask why it fell down.
• Do we have a way of changing gravity to make it stronger or weaker or turn it on or off?
• How do airplanes, birds, insects, and other heavier-than air things fly?
o They must be using their wings to make a force up greater than the force of gravity
pulling them down.
o We know this because what happens if their wings or engines stop working?
• How do wings create a force up?
• Observe a kite. What are some things necessary to make a kite fly?
o Wind
o String to hold the kite
o It must be held so that the front is pointed upward and the back is pointed
downward.
• So what is the force that pushes the kite upward against gravity?
o As the wind hits the angled bottom side of the kite the air is deflected downward.
o Remember “push pushes back”?
o As air is pushed downward the kite is pushed upward.
o This force is greater than the weight of the kite and lifts it into the air.
• There’s also something important happening over the top surface of the kite. Can you see
what it is?
o The curve of the kite makes the air moving over the top leave an “empty space”.
It’s not really totally empty; it just has less air particles so lower air pressure.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Build and fly a kite.
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z2QLdTiOU3c
NOTEBOOK
• Draw a kite and the forces that make it fly.
• How does a kite fly? Does it change gravity in some way?

• Note birds and insects flying. Do they turn off gravity? What do they do to be able to fly?
READING
• Magic School Bus Takes Flight
50
WEEK 29: HOW DO AIRPLANES AND HELICOPTERS FLY?
(Lesson C-8 Part 2)
MATERIALS
• Several sheets of paper (recycled or scrap paper is fine)
DISCUSSION
• What makes airplanes fly?
o Engines (jets or propellers) just make them go forward
o The wings act similar to kites, but instead of staying still while wind goes by, the
engine makes an airplane go forward to move wind past the wings.
• What were the 2 forces that pushed a kite up? (See last week.)
o It’s the same for an airplane!
• Why can’t a wing be shaped like a tilted board?
o It would have the same 2 forces acting on it.
o The problem is friction/wind resistance—also known as turbulence or drag.
• How Wings Work: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YDeQXPNpLeY
• What will need larger wings—a slow flying heavy aircraft or a fast light one? Why?
o A slow heavy one- to have more force to counteract the force with which gravity is
pushing down, and because slower moving wings generate less force.
• What makes a helicopter fly?
o The cross sectional shape of a rotor blade is the same as an airplane wing.
o It just rotates its “wings” through the air instead.
• What about the small propellers on the sides and back of a helicopter?
o To push the body of the helicopter in order to turn.
• How a Helicopter Flies: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2tdnqZgKa0E
• What are some other parts of an airplane and what are they for?
o Stability is important.
o Demonstrate by throwing an unfolded sheet of paper through the air. Then fold
it into a paper airplane.
 It’s not the wing shape that made it glide as much as a design that is more
stable and keeps a steady path through the air.
o The tail is for stability and to steer. The flaps on the wings are also for steering and
for slowing the plane to land.
o Aircraft Steering: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rav0ls3OZ9I
• Since the ideas of flight are pretty simple, why did it take until the 1900s for airplanes to
be developed?
o Think about other technology developed, specifically engines and their power-to-
weight ratio.
o Steam engines in the 1800s had huge boilers and were too heavy.
o Gasoline engines had much more power with less fuel weight.
o Jet engines are even better.
o Do you think that better engines will be developed in the future?
o History of flight: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JVJrWgU2Xfs
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Make paper (or other model) airplanes and have a contest of which can fly the farthest,
straightest, etc.
NOTEBOOK
51
• Draw a cross-section of an airplane wing or a helicopter rotor blade. Label the 2 forces that
push the aircraft up.
• Write a paragraph about the history of flight.

• Draw attention to airplanes and helicopters and discuss how they fly.
READING
52
WEEK 30: HOW DO BIRDS, INSECTS, AND OTHER ANIMALS FLY?
(Lesson C-8 Part 3)
MATERIALS
• Tub of water
• Birds, insects, and other flying animals were what inspired human flight.
• How do birds fly?
o Their wing shape is like a kite and an airplane wing, but that only helps them glide.
Birds also flap their wings.
• Slow motion birds in flight: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lpog3yi6jr0
• What happens with the wing during the up stroke and the down stroke?
o They push lots of air down and back on the down stroke, but not very much is
pushed in the other direction on the upstroke.
o Have students try this in a tub of water with their hand. They should get the
water moving in one direction around the tub while keeping their hand
immersed.
• How Birds Fly: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3So7OMwNgy8
• Many insects and hummingbirds move their wings in a way called sculling so they can hover
and move vertically.
o Slow Motion Hummingbird: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=316AJOBQhew
o Have students try sculling in a tub of water with their hand: Hold the palm flat,
fingers tightly together. Move the hand sideways slicing through the water. With
this same movement, angle the hand so that the little finger side is a bit forward
on one stroke and the thumb side is a bit forward on the back stroke.
• Re-emphasize that everything that flies does so not by changing gravity but by creating a
force greater than the force with which gravity is pulling it down.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Learn more about different types of birds. Study their wing shapes and how they are
adapted to how they fly. For example, ostrich, Andean condor, American robin,
Chickadee.
o See also https://www.birds.cornell.edu/k12/animals-in-flight/
• Is the force of gravity changed in flight?
• For something heavier/denser than air to fly, it must have a force up that counterbalances
gravity’s force down. How is this force made?
• Can an aircraft that is heavier/denser than air be totally motionless in air? Why not?
• How is flight affected by: air speed? Surface area of the wings? Weight of the aircraft?
• What is power-to-weight ratio?
• Why can’t humans fly by attaching wings to our arms and flapping them? (Power-to-weight
ratio)
NOTEBOOK
• Draw the contour of a bird’s wing on the down stroke and on the up stroke. How does this
make a bird fly?
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• Take note of birds, insects, and other flying animals. Observe and discuss how the way their
wings are shaped and the way they move them enables them to fly. Notice especially take
off and landing.
READING
54
WEEK 31: WHAT IS CENTER OF GRAVITY?
(Lesson C-9 Part 1)
MATERIALS
• Straightedge
• Medium-sized potato
• 2 metal table forks
• Broom
• Marker
ACTIVITY
• Give the student a straightedge, medium-sized potato, and 2 metal table forks.
• They must balance the potato on the straightedge using the forks as an aid.
o The forks can be inserted into the potato but they can’t be bent or used to cut
or break the potato.
• They should insert the 2 forks so that they are hanging down one on each side of the
potato. (Check ahead to make sure the potato isn’t too large or the forks too light.)
DISCUSSION
• Why could the potato with the forks balance?
o Where is the center of weight of the fork-potato combination?
o Lay it horizontally across the straight-edge to show that the fork handle side is
heavier than the potato side.
• Every solid object has a location where it will balance perfectly. The weight in all
directions from that point would be equal. This is called the object’s CENTER OF GRAVITY.
o The center of gravity always seeks the lowest point possible.
• Clarify the center of gravity is not the same as the force of gravity itself.
• Note that the center of gravity for some object or combination of objects might not be in
the actual object.
o For example a donut’s center of gravity is in the center of the hole.
• Where is the center of gravity for the potato-fork combination?
o Below the point of support between the forks.
o When tipped, the center of gravity is being raised like a pendulum bob swinging off
center. This makes it swing back and forth as it seeks its lowest point.
o So the potato-fork combination isn’t balancing as much as “hanging on a hook”.
• Why does a coat hang on a hook?
o Because the center of gravity of the coat is much below the point of support, the
hook.
• Look at novelty balancing toys.
o Note how they are designed so much of the weight is below the point of support.
o They are hanging and swinging on the point of support more than they are actually
balancing.
• True balancing is when the center of gravity is above the point of support.
ACTIVITY
• Try balancing a broom on the palm of the hand.
• Now find the broom’s center of gravity, where it balances horizontally. Mark it.
• Now try to balance the broom keeping the eyes fixed on this point.
DISCUSSION
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• Why could you balance the broom better the second time?
o To balance something we need to keep the point of support not under its
uppermost part, but under its center of gravity.
• Consider our bodies. They can balance while standing and moving even though the center of
gravity is quite high.
o We learn to balance our bodies automatically as babies and toddlers.
ACTIVITY
• Have the student stand with their back against the wall and try to bend over to pick
something off the floor without moving their feet or bending their knees.
DISCUSSION
• Why is this impossible?
o The hips have to move back to keep the center of gravity over the feet.
• Analyze the following objects/situations in terms of center of gravity:
o Why are sports cars designed so that they are broad and low to the ground?
o Why does an SUV roll over easier than a regular car?
o Why does piling a load high on a truck make it more subject to tipping over?
o Why is a high stool easier to tip over than a low stool?
o When stacking items, why should you put the largest, heaviest ones on the bottom?
o In loading a boat why should you put the heaviest items on the bottom?
• Top heaviness is important to consider in the design and construction of almost everything.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Experiment with designing, constructing, and demonstrating balancing toys.
NOTEBOOK
• Explain what center of gravity is.
• Draw a diagram of the potato-fork arrangement on the straightedge. Label the location of
the center of gravity. Why does this “balance?”
• Give/draw some examples of situations where engineering design must consider the center
of gravity.

• Note various vehicles and analyze their “tippiness” in terms of center of gravity.
READING
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WEEK 32: WHAT MAKES WHEELS WOBBLE?
(Lesson C-9 Part 2)
MATERIALS
• Paper plate
• Markers of 2 different colors
• Large butterfly paper clip
• Pencil
DISCUSSION
• What is the center of gravity?
o The point at which an object will balance
o The weight is evenly distributed in all directions from the center of gravity.
• What does center of gravity have to do with a spinning wheel?
ACTIVITY
• Draw a large dot of one color at the center of the plate.
• Attach a large butterfly paper clip to the edge of the plate.
• Determine (approximately) where the plate balances with the paper clip attached by
placing it upside down on a pencil until it balances. Put a large dot of another color
there (at the center of gravity of the plate with the paper clip.
• Focus on one of the spots as you give the plate a fast horizontal spin and let it drop
from waist height.
DISCUSSION
• Around which point does the plate with the paper clip spin? Its center of gravity or its
geometric center?
• What does this mean about the design of wheels or other rotating parts of machinery?
o We always put the axle at the geometric center of a wheel.
• What if one side of the wheel is heavier than another?
o The axle will try to make the wheel rotate about its geometric center but the
wheel will want to rotate around its center of gravity.
• Demonstrate this by punching a sharp pencil through the geometric center of the plate.
Let the students hold it and spin it.
• What might happen if a wheel or engine part is off-balance?
o It will wobble and vibrate, and may even cause the axle or other parts to break.
• What is the solution?
o BALANCE the wheels or part so that the center of gravity is in the geometric center.
o Have you seen new tires on a car being balanced?
• What are some other rotating parts that need to be balanced?
o Airplane propellers, helicopter blades, turbines
• What about the Earth and the moon? Does the moon just orbit the Earth?
o Not quite. The Earth-moon-combination spin around a common center of gravity.
o This may be what causes the tides.
o Watch explanation of tides: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pwChk4S99i4
• Summary: Any rotating object or system will tend to revolve around its center of gravity.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Continue experimenting with spinning paper plates weighted in various ways.
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NOTEBOOK
• Draw the plate and clip combination and around which point it spins.
• Why is it important to balance wheels and tires?

• Throw a stick so that it rotates as it sails through the air. What is the point around which it
rotates?
• If your washing machine moves during the spin cycle, discuss why this occurs and how it
could be corrected.
READING
• See Supplementary list in Appendix B
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WEEK 33: CAN YOU BALANCE?
(Lesson C-9 Part 3)
MATERIALS
• Straight-backed chair without armrests
DISCUSSION
• Where is your center of gravity?
o Try to balance horizontally. You’ll see it’s near the hips.
o It’s also about in the middle between the front and back of the body.
• Unless you’re lying down or sitting, your center of gravity is pretty high above a small base
of support, just your feet! And anytime you move any part of your body you must
compensate to keep the center of gravity over the point of support.
o Have students stand and assume different postures to observe this point.
• We usually say the body has 5 senses, but we also have a very important sense of balance!
o Without thinking about it we’re constantly sensing our center of gravity and points
of support and using different muscles to balance.
• Video on vestibular system. Watch from 7:30-9:30:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ie2j7GpC4JU
• Why do babies fall so much as they learn to walk and stand?
• Drinking too much alcohol makes a person unable to sense and maintain balance.
• Almost all organisms, even plants, have a way to sense gravity and keep their center of
gravity over the point of support.
ACTIVITIES
• Stand on two feet and away from the wall. You can bend your knees but keep your arms
next to your body. Lift your left foot without moving your right foot.
Next, stand with your right side against the wall so your foot, hip, arm and shoulder
touch the wall. You can bend your knees. Can you lift your left foot without moving the
right foot?
• Sit in a chair without armrests and a straight back with your back straight up, feet flat
on the ground and hands on your thighs. Now try to stand up, keeping your back
vertical, hands on your thighs and feet on the ground.
• Bend over to grab your toes, with your knees slightly bent. Now try to jump, first
forward then backward.
o Observe how your center of mass (or your mass distribution) shifts when doing a
regular jump forward or backward. Think of how your mass distribution is different
when bending over to hold your toes compared with standing up. How would this
impact the location of your center of mass? How could this make specific jumps
difficult?
• What’s the difference between the center of gravity and the geometric center of the
object?
• Show a novelty-balancing toy illustration/video and ask: How does it balance?
• How does the center of gravity apply to the design of sports cars? Boats? Aircraft? Loading a
vehicle?
• It can be dangerous to approach a floating iceberg because they can roll over suddenly.
Why? (The underside can melt, leaving it top heavy.)
• If you hear a vibration in your car that changes with the speed, what might be causing it?
What should you do about it?
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• What is the connection between center of gravity, the moon’s orbit around Earth, and
tides?
• When you bend forward your hips move back to balance. How does your body know to do
that? What sensory, nerve, and muscle systems are involved and what does each do?
• Why is center of gravity important in engineering and designing technology?
• Why does a spinning disc that is heavy on one side wobble? How can it be fixed?
NOTEBOOK
• Draw how the body adjusts to maintain balance in movements such as bending over.
• Describe the steps the body takes to maintain balance.

• Draw attention to the sense of balance when performing various activities. Have them pay
attention to how the muscles in their lower legs and feet react to changes in posture
automatically.
• Notice how important balance is in sports. https://ed.ted.com/lessons/an-athlete-uses-
physics-to-shatter-world-records-asaf-bar-yosef#watch
READING
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WEEK 34: DO YOU REMEMBER WHAT INERTIA IS?
(Lesson C-10 Part 1)
MATERIALS
• Paper
• Glass of water
DISCUSSION
• Act out pushing/pulling to get something to move and to stop moving.
• What is the principle being demonstrated?
o INERTIA
• What are some other examples of inertia?
• Emphasize these points:
o Things sitting still don’t move until they are pushed or pulled by some force.
o Moving things tend to keep moving unless a force (friction, gravity, counterforce)
stops, slows, or turns them.
o These points are called INERTIA, and are a basic attribute of matter, like having
mass and taking up space.
o Movement is a form of energy and can do work.
• What does inertia tell us about where movement energy comes from and where it goes?
o Movement energy comes from energy giving a push or a pull. This can be from fuel,
physical energy, or potential energy (if gravity makes it roll down a hill).
o As a moving object slows or stops the energy exits as heat or sound in friction or as
causing something else to move.
• Summarize inertia as an energy flow: Energy input starts motionthe object has movement
energy while it’s moving energy exits to slow or stop motion.
o Is energy created or destroyed?
o Think of examples of these steps happening.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Inertia tablecloth trick
o Pull a paper quickly out from under a glass of water
o Try pulling a tablecloth out from under a heavy object, or even a place setting.
This will take practice!
NOTEBOOK
• Define inertia and, with a specific example, describe how it relates to a flow of energy.

• Look for instances of inertia being violated in cartoons and science fiction. Discuss what
would actually happen in real life.
READING
• Magic School Bus Plays Ball
61
WEEK 35: WHAT IS MOMENTUM?
(Lesson C-10 Parts 2 & 3)
MATERIALS
• Marbles
• Other materials as needed for a designed experiment
DISCUSSION
• Can we measure the amount of energy in a moving object? Is it the same for every moving
object or is it different in different cases? What would make something have more or less
movement energy?
• Think about a soccer ball rolling toward you quickly. What would you do? Then, think
about a soccer-ball-sized rock rolling toward you quickly. What would you do?
• What is the difference? Why does one have more movement energy?
o Same size, same speed, but different mass (weight)
o So, the amount of movement energy in an object depends on its mass.
• Think about a soccer-ball-sized rock rolling toward you very slowly. What would you do?
• What is the difference?
o The amount of movement energy also depends on an object’s velocity.
 Don’t go too detailed into velocity— speed but in a certain direction.
• The amount of energy in a moving object depends on both mass and velocity (like cookies
have more than one ingredient).
o The amount of energy in a moving object is called MOMENTUM.
o Momentum = Mass x Velocity
• Describe why momentum is greater in one case than the other:
o Why can a heavier person break down a door easier than a light person? Why does
he take a running start?
o When driving in a railroad spike why does a workman use a heavy hammer?
o If you want to hit something harder, why would you use a rock instead of a stick?
o If a truck misses a turn and crashes into a building, will it do more damage if it’s
empty or has a load of bricks? Will it do more damage traveling at 60 or 30 mph?
o Why does it take longer to stop if you’re going 50 mph than if you’re going 25 mph?
o Why is it important to drive slower around schools and homes? Why do roads have
speed limits?
o Why can an ocean liner running into a dock cause tremendous damage even if it’s
going very slowly?
o Why can a small meteorite do so much damage?
o Why can you jump farther when you get a running start?
• More mass and/or more velocity mean more energy to do greater damage.
• What’s the relationship between how much energy you put in and how much movement
energy an object has?
o Think about getting your bike going slowly vs. going faster, or about throwing a
marble vs. throwing a large rock.
o What about how much energy exits as an object stops?
o As the energy flows through the system, the amount stays the same. It isn’t created
or destroyed.
• Applications:
o In a car accident scene, investigators can look at the weight (mass) of the vehicles
and how much damage was done to estimate the vehicle’s speed (velocity).
o Analyze a football kick in terms of momentum:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aJjv8tWbj4c
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• Play marbles to analyze and predict results of one object hitting another.
• Come up with experiments to test the relationship between kinetic energy, mass, and
velocity. For example, test how far a ball will go when hit with sticks of different
masses and swung at different velocities.
NOTEBOOK
• What are some ways we experience or make use of momentum in everyday life?
• What is some evidence that momentum depends on both velocity and mass of an object?

• Note or imagine situations where 2 objects collide. Discuss the impact in terms of
momentum.
• Look for examples of momentum being used in sports, whether watching or playing.
• Look for instances of inertia and momentum being violated in cartoons and science fiction.
Discuss what would actually happen in real life.
READING
63
WEEK 36: WHAT DO WAVES DO?
MATERIALS
• Length of rope
• Stone and puddle (optional)
• Vibrating string (such as on a guitar or a taut rubber band)
• Salt
• Cup
• Balloon
• Speaker (a small one is fine)
DISCUSSION
• Usually we think of motion as an object moving in a straight line or sometimes as circular
motion of something spinning. There’s a third kind of motion—wave motion.
• Think of waves on a body of water. What is wave motion? What are 2 things we can
measure on a wave?
o AMPLITUDE and WAVELENGTH
• Think about a buoy tethered to the ocean floor. How does it show amplitude and
wavelength as it bobs up and down?
o Amplitude is how high up and down it goes. Wavelength is how long it is between
its peaks (or any other point)
o Instead of measuring wavelength we could also time the number of waves passing
each minute, which is the FREQUENCY of the waves.
• It’s obvious that waves move from one location to another, but does the water move along
with the wave?
o Have you ever stood in an ocean or lake that has waves? Did the water push you in
the direction of the waves or just lift you up and down?
o Demonstrate with a length of rope jerked up and down and side to side.
• Throw (or visualize throwing) a stone into a puddle.
o What happens when the waves reach the shore? Moves vegetation and dirt.
o So what caused that movement? The stone’s motion energy travels through the
waves to the shoreline to cause movement there.
• There are other forms of waves. Remember sound waves? (Review Lesson C-2 as necessary.)
o Demonstrate with a vibrating string.
o How do sound waves transfer a vibration from the string to your ear?
o Watch https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=27a26e2CnuM
• How are sound waves different from waves on water or down a rope?
o They’re actually bands of compressed/decompressed air moving through the air.
o They still have amplitude (loudness) and wavelength/frequency (pitch).
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• Do sound waves of different amplitude and frequency travel at the same time through the
air? If not, how would music sound?
• Summarize lesson: Energy input is carried by waves and released wherever the waves
impact. This is like how a moving object is set in motion by energy input, carries the energy
with its motion, and releases the energy as it slows or stops/
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Sound wave salt vibrations: https://frugalfun4boys.com/science-demonstration-kids-
sound-vibrations/
• Why can’t stuffed animals and dolls come to life and move around in terms of inertia?
• What keeps the Earth rotating on its axis and orbiting the sun?
• Earthquakes can cause structures to fall down. What does inertia have to do with a collapse
like that?
• How are inertia and energy related? How does inertia support the idea that energy isn’t
created or destroyed?
• What 2 factors affect momentum?
• Why does a larger car use more fuel?
• Why does docking an ocean liner have to be done very carefully?
• Give an example of something with inertia and momentum and describe how the energy
flows into and out of the thing.
• As a moving object slows down, what happens to its movement energy?
• How does knowing the weight of a vehicle and damage caused in an accident help an
investigator estimate the speed of the vehicles?
• How do waves transmit energy?
• What are differences and similarities between sound waves and waves on water?
NOTEBOOK
• A diagram of waves, labeling amplitude and wavelength.
• What is some evidence that waves transmit energy?

• Experiment with generating waves of differing amplitudes and wavelengths in tubs and
pools.
• Throw rocks into water. Discuss how waves are transmitting energy from one place to
another.
READING
• Magic School Bus Inside the Haunted House
65
UNIT 4: EARTH SCIENCE, SEASONS AND
WEATHER
WEEK 37: HOW DO THE VOLUME OF AIR AND WATER CHANGE WITH
TEMPERATURE?
MATERIALS
• Tub of hot water
• Tub of ice water
• Glass bottle (narrow necked if possible)
• Balloon
• Marker
DISCUSSION
• How does heating affect air? How could we find out?
• Do the following activity and corresponding lab report.
ACTIVITY
• Put the balloon over the top of the bottle.
• Place the bottle in a tub of hot water. Observe for a few minutes.
• Next, place the bottle in a tub of cool water. Observe for a few minutes.
DISCUSSION
• Why did the balloon inflate and deflate?
o Heat causes the air to expand, increasing volume.
o Cooling causes the air to contract, decreasing volume.
• Does temperature have the same effect on water? How could we find out?
• Do the following experiment.
ACTIVITY
• Repeat the above experiment instead fill the bottle with water and leave off the
balloon. Mark the level of water when it is at room temperature, after it has been
heated, and after it has been cooled. Note that it will take much longer, and the tubs of
water may need to be reheated or cooled with additional ice.
DISCUSSION
• Do you think we could use this to measure temperature?
o This is basically what a classic bulb-and-stem thermometer is!
• In 1717 a man named Fahrenheit invented this type of thermometer.
o Before that no one could measure and say how warm or cold it was.
o Since there was no Fahrenheit/Celsius scale yet, he made one up!
o He mixed water and salt to get the coldest temperature he could and called it 0⁰.
o He measured his wife’s armpit and called it 96⁰.
• In 1742 a man named Celsius made another scale.
o He made 0⁰ water’s freezing point, and 100⁰ water’s boiling point.
o Most of the world and scientists use this scale.
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• History of the thermometer: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rARnTlPax8E
NOTEBOOK
• Experimental lab report with space for both the air and water experimentation.

• Practice reading temperatures in both Fahrenheit and Celsius scales.
READING
• Magic School Bus Goes On Air
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WEEK 38: HOW DOES DENSITY CHANGE WHEN THINGS EXPAND AND
CONTRACT?
MATERIALS
• Ice water
• Warm/hot water
• Food coloring
• 4 ice cubes
• Matches
• Stick/paper to burn
DISCUSSION
• Do you remember what density is and how we measure it?
o Review week 21 if needed.
• How does the expansion and contraction we saw in last week’s experiments affect density?
o When something is heated and expands what happens to volume? (increases) What
happens to mass? (stays the same)
o So what does this mean for density? (decrease)
o If we have something with a density of 1 g/cm³ and we double its volume, what will
its density be? (1 g/2 cm³, or .5 g/cm³.)
ACTIVITY
• Color some cold water with food coloring. Put a drop of it onto the surface of a glass of
uncolored warm water.
• Then do the opposite by switching the warm and cold water in the above activity.
DISCUSSION
• Summarize why warmer things rise and colder things sink in terms of density.
• Emphasize that “heat” by itself doesn’t rise. It’s a form of energy, not matter with mass, so
gravity can’t affect it. It actually radiates in all directions. Rising or sinking is caused by
density differences in matter.
• How does a hot-air balloon work in terms of density?
• Why does smoke rise? (The particles are carried by warm, less dense air rising.)
o How could we test this? Will cold air carry smoke particles down?
ACTIVITY
• Make a small “ice house” with 3 ice cubes for walls and 1 for the roof with the front
open. Make sure there is no draft where you do this experiment.
• Insert a smoking stick or tightly rolled paper into the house. The smoke should flow in a
stream from the house and down toward the floor.
NOTEBOOK
• Draw pictures and explain what happened with the first activity of dropping warm water
into cold water and vice versa.
• Why isn’t it right to say that heat rises? What actually makes things rise as they get
warmer?
• Draw a picture of what happened with the smoke in the “ice house” and explain why it
happened.
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• Watch smoke rise, cool, and fall. Discuss why it rises. Is it just what smoke does?
READING
69
WEEK 39: DOES TEMPERATURE HAVE THE SAME EFFECT ON SOLIDS?
MATERIALS
• Coin
• Metal tongs
• Adjustable crescent wrench
DISCUSSION
• In the last 2 weeks we saw how air and water expand and contract with changes in
temperature.
• Do solids do the same thing? How could we find out?
ACTIVITY (DEMONSTRATION)
• Hold a coin over a burner (using metal tongs) and heat it very hot.
• While it’s still hot quickly place it between the jaws of an adjustable crescent wrench
and tighten.
• Wait. As it cools it will fall out of the wrench.
DISCUSSION
• Why did this happen?
o It expanded when heated and contracted when cooled.
• Observe a dial thermometer: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oOF7bBC0guU
o How does this use expansion and contraction of metals with heating/cooling to
measure temperature?
• Review Lesson A-12. Atoms/molecules are constantly jiggling around. We saw that they
jiggle more with an increase in temperature.
• How is this related to gases, liquids, and solids expanding with increasing temperature and
causing density to decrease?
o As atoms or molecules jiggle around more it pushes them further apart. This means
an increase in volume and so a decrease in density.
o Think about in terms of a group of children huddled together. If they start dancing
around they’ll push each other further apart, and so expand and be less dense.
NOTEBOOK
• Draw a diagram of how atomic/molecular motion causes expansion and contraction with
heating and cooling.
• Expansion and contraction of materials with temperature is important for engineers to
consider. Why are roadways and bridge sections separated by interlocking joints? Why are
there gaps between sections of railroad track?

• Keep an eye out of interlocking joints in bridges and gaps in railroads.
READING
70
WEEK 40: WHAT HAPPENS TO WATER’S VOLUME AS IT FREEZES?
MATERIALS
• Glass jar with secure lid
• 2 paper bags
• Access to freezer
DISCUSSION
• We learned that gases, liquids, and solids expand when heated and contract when cooled.
• There’s a major exception: water near its freezing point.
o It’s actually most contracted (most dense) at 4⁰C. It expands and decreases in
density as it cools to 0⁰C and then expands even more as it freezes.
o This is why ice floats on water.
• Why does water do this as it freezes?
o Think of (or demonstrate with) a container of K’Nex or Tinkertoys. All separated
they fit into a small box and slosh around when the box is shaken. When built into a
structure they take up more space and won’t fit into the box.
o When water freezes the water molecules connect together into a 3D structure that
is rigid and takes up more space. This means it has lower density.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Fill a glass jar completely with water, and cap it securely.
• Double bag it in 2 sturdy paper bags, and place it in a freezer.
• Look at it a day later. Don’t touch the ice or broken glass!
• People sometimes say “Heat goes up” and “Cold goes down.” What’s wrong with that? What
does heat by itself actually do?
• In fall a lake’s surface cools. How will this affect how the water circulates in the lake?
• How did people come up with temperature scales? Have we always had them?
• How can something increase in volume without increasing in mass?
• If you see air or water rising, what can you predict about its density? What about its
temperature compared to its surroundings?
• In ancient times, people would split rocks by drilling a hole, filling it with water, and
letting it freeze. Why would that work?
• A hot air balloonist decides to guide his balloon into the hot air in a volcano for a better
look. What will probably happen?
• Bicyclists shouldn’t drag their brakes on long downgrades. Why?
o The friction of the rubbing brake pads produces heat. The heat can make the air in
the tire expand and burst the tire.
NOTEBOOK
• How would the world be different if ice/cold water weren’t an exception to the rule that
things expand when heated and contract when cooled?

• Look for ice floating on ponds or in glasses. Discuss why this is.
• When freezing food in containers, talk about why you should always leave a little space at
the top for the food to expand.
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READING
72
WEEK 41: HOW ARE CONVECTION CURRENTS MADE AND WHAT DO THEY
DO?
MATERIALS
• Stove-top safe large flat dish
• Ice cube
• Water
• Food coloring
• Access to stove
• Paper
• Scissors
• String
• Hot lamp/pot of boiling water
• Materials for tin can pinwheel (optional)
• Place the dish so that only one side is over a stove burner.
• Fill the dish with room temperature water. Let the water settle for a minute.
• Turn on the burner.
• Gently add an ice cube to the side away from the burner. Again, let the water settle for
a minute.
• Put a drop or two of food coloring on top of the ice cube. Observe what happens.
• What happens to the food coloring?
o It likely moved down the ice cube and moved along the bottom of the dish. When it
reached the side with the burner, it rose and moved along the top of the water
toward the ice cube.
• Will this keep going on forever?
o As long as it continues to be heated on one side and cooled on the other, yes.
• Why did the food coloring move? Can you explain each of the four directions of movement?
o It sinks on the ice cube because cold causes it to contract and be more dense.
o It rises over the burner because heat causes it to expand and be less dense.
o Rising at one end and sinking at the other causes a circular movement of water to
replace the water that has moved away.
• This is called a convection current. How does the convection current in the dish convey, or
transfer, heat energy from one place to another?
o Water moves the heat from the side with the burner over to the other side to melt
the ice cube.
• So the water absorbs heat at one place and releases it at another cooler place. Would heat
move like this without the water? How or why not?
o No, heat is energy. It doesn’t have mass to expand or contract. It can’t become
more or less dense, or rise or sink.
• How much does the water have to be heated on one side and cooled on the other for a
convection current to flow? (Hint: Remember convection depends on the densities of the
water.)
o There just needs to be a difference in temperature between the two sides. The
more the difference in temperature is, the more the water will move.
• If we heated the entire dish would convection currents form the same way?
o No, cool water needs to come below the warm water to push it up.
• What caused the little swirls in the dish?
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o The flowing water pushes against the still water, making it move too.
• Do you think that there can be convection currents in air? Why or why not?
o Yes, because air can become more or less dense, too.
• Make a convection current spiral:
o Cut a circle of paper into a spiral.
o Make a hole in the center of the spiral.
o Thread a string through and tie a knot that can’t slip back through the hole.
o Hold the spiral by the string over a hot lamp or pot of boiling water.
• Make a tin can pinwheel powered by sunlight. How does a convection current turn the
pinwheel. Many different instructions can be found online, such as:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Qmgdz9E47s or
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v2bYpjMDFVo
NOTEBOOK
• Draw a picture of the convection current that you made. Explain what drives a convection
current, and what a convection current does to heat.

• Analyze convection currents, as well as other forms of heat transfer, at mealtimes.
READING
• Kingfisher Science Encyclopedia pg 250-251 Heat Transfer
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WEEK 42: HOW DO CONVECTION CURRENTS AFFECT OUR LIVES?
MATERIALS
• Access to your home’s heating and cooling systems
• Paper and pencil
DISCUSSION
• Last week we saw how convection currents can convey heat through water. You also
learned that convection currents convey heat through air, too. Can you give some
examples?
o Wind in the atmosphere, home heating and cooling
• Where do you think the biggest convection currents of air in the world are?
o Air rises in equatorial regions, moves to the polar regions, then cools and sinks,
before flowing back to the Equator.
o There are also huge convection currents in the oceans, and of lava underneath the
Earth’s surface.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Take a look at your home’s heating and cooling systems. Why are ducts, blowers, and
vents placed where they are? Does it make sense in terms of convection currents?
• Then, design a house (or other building or room) that uses solar energy from radiation
and convection currents to heat and cool itself efficiently. Talk about why this may be
increasingly important to consider in the design of homes.
• What do you need for a convection current to occur? Why?
• Will heat follow the pathway of a convection current without the air or water?
• Why does a convection current require an open pathway for the returning cooler fluid to
come in under the rising fluid? What will happen if there isn’t an open pathway?
• Without stirring, how could you speed up mixing dye into water?
• Sitting in front of a fire, you may feel a cold breeze of the back of your neck? Why?
• Does a convection current always have to rise up? Why can’t it move sideways?
• Can convection currents flow in solids? Why not?
NOTEBOOK
• Your house design from the activity.

• Continue to analyze heating systems in different homes and buildings.
• Look for convection currents in nature, too.
READING
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WEEK 43: HOW DOES THE ANGLE OF THE SUN’S RAYS AFFECT HOW
WARM IT IS?
(Lesson D-9 Part 1)
MATERIALS
• Flashlight
• Paper and pencil
• What does the sun do for the Earth?
o It gives light and heat.
• How does the sun heat the Earth? It’s not hot in outer space all the way to the Earth...
o Energy can change forms. As light hits the Earth’s surface it’s absorbed and turned
into heat.
• Why are there different temperatures in different parts of the world? And why are summer
and winter temperatures different in middle latitudes?
o The sunlight is hitting the different parts of the world at different angles.
• Hold a flashlight above a piece of paper (this week’s notebook page) and shine it
straight down.
• Trace the beam and mark the center point on the paper.
• Hold the flashlight the same distance away but at an angle. Line up the center point.
• Trace the beam on the paper.
• Why does it matter what angle the light hits at? What did you see in your experiment?
o The light is more spread out when it’s not pointing directly at the paper, so the
light energy that turns into heat energy is more spread out.
• Can you model this with a globe and flashlight?
o Near the equator the sun is more direct, and closer to the poles it’s less direct.
NOTEBOOK
• Your paper from the activity. Describe how this relates to the Earth’s temperatures at
different locations on the globe and during different seasons.

• Notice how the temperature cools off in the evenings as the angle of the sun’s rays
becomes less direct.
READING
• Kingfisher Science Encyclopedia pg 3, 426-427
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WEEK 44: HOW DO THE LENGTH OF THE DAY AND HEIGHT OF THE
MIDDAY SUN VARY WITH TIME OF YEAR?
(Lesson D-9 Part 2)
MATERIALS
• Globe on stand
• Strips of paper and a marker/pen
• Tape/sticky tack
• Lamp or light bulb that’s positioned in the middle of the room
• Besides the angle of the sun, what else makes the weather be colder in the winter than in
the summer?
o How long the sun is up during the day
• Why are the days shorter and the sun less high in the sky during the winter in the United
States? Can you show me with a globe and flashlight?
o The sunlight is less direct on the northern hemisphere during those months because
of the Earth’s tilt.
• Why are the days longer and the sun higher in the summer in Michigan? Can you show me
with a globe and flashlight?
o The sunlight is more direct on the northern hemisphere during those months
because of the Earth’s tilt.
• What would the days and nights be like in Australia during summer in the northern
hemisphere, which is their winter? Can you show me with a globe and flashlight?
o The sunlight is less direct in the Southern Hemisphere while it’s more direct in the
Northern Hemisphere.
• What are days and nights like on the North Pole throughout the year? Can you show me
with a globe and flashlight?
o The sun is never very direct, even in the summer, although it doesn’t ever set
completely for about 11 weeks. In the winter the sun doesn’t even rise.
• Do you know what’s special about the Tropic of Capricorn?
o It’s the farthest place south that the sun’s rays are ever directly above. When this
happens it’s called Winter Solstice, on Dec 21.
• What about the Tropic of Cancer?
o It’s the farthest place north that the sun’s rays are ever directly above. When this
happens it’s called Summer Solstice, on June 21.
• What is special about the Arctic and Antarctic Circles?
o On the summer solstice the sun can’t be seen below the Antarctic Circle. On the
winter solstice the sun can’t be seen above the Arctic Circle.
• Actually the hottest part of the year is about a month or two after the summer solstice and
the coldest part of the year is a month or two after the winter solstice. Why do you think
the temperature might lag? (Hint: Think about a pot of water on a stove. Does it get hotter
as soon as you turn up the heat?)
o No, it takes time to heat up or cool down, especially because oceans make up most
of the Earth’s surface. Water takes time to absorb and release energy.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• With a flashlight and a globe, continue modeling how a person at different locations will
perceive the height of the noonday sun and the length of days changing with the time of
year.
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NOTEBOOK
• Draw a diagram and explain why the Earth’s orbit around the sun with its 23.5 degree tilt
causes the changes in day length and height of the noonday sun.

• Explore the Earth’s tilt and revolution around the sun from your exact location digitally:
http://www.dudamath.com/earthOrbit.html
• Research Stonehenge, Newgrange, and Maeshawe, and their connections to the Winter
Solstice.
READING
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WEEK 45: HOW DOES THE SUN’S POSITION IN RELATION TO DIFFERENT
PARTS OF THE EARTH AFFECT LIVING THINGS?
(Lesson D-9 Part 3)
MATERIALS
• None
DISCUSSION
• Using what you now know about how the Earth orbits the sun, you can see the cause behind
many changes that occur around you throughout the year. These changes affect plants and
animals, too. Can you think of a way a plant or animal responds or adapts to a coming
season?
o Hibernating, storing food, having babies, losing leaves, growing flowers/fruit, etc.
• We started this lesson knowing that the Earth orbits the sun with a certain degree and
direction of tilt. Did humans always know this?
o No, in fact, many cultures believed the Earth to be flat.
• About 500 years ago, Copernicus proposed that the sun was at the center of the solar
system. Then sailors and explorers sighted the sun at different times from different
locations. Scientists and mathematicians used this information to figure out the tilt of the
Earth .
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Take a nature walk to look for adaptations to seasonal changes.
• How does the way the Earth orbits the sun affect day length and the height of the noonday
sun at a certain location?
• Why do the day length and the height of the sun affect temperatures?
• What causes rising temperatures in the spring and cooling temperatures in the fall?
• Why are seasons in the Southern Hemisphere the opposite of those in the Northern
Hemisphere?
• What’s important about the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn?
NOTEBOOK
• In whatever season you find yourself, observe how some living thing responds to the change
in seasons (such as flowering, bearing fruits, hibernating, etc.) Trace the cause-effect
sequence from the Earth’s tilt and revolution all the way to how the creature’s behavior.

• Learn more about the history of learning that brought us to our current understanding of
Earth’s revolution about the sun.
• Take advantage of any solstices or equinoxes to reinforce concepts. You could measure the
length of the day, or model the sun/Earth placement with a globe and a lamp.
READING
• Nicolaus Copernicus: The Earth is a Planet
• Sunshine Makes the Seasons by Branley
79
WEEK 46: WHAT ARE SOME ALTERNATE LOOPS WATER CAN TAKE IN
THE W ATER CYCLE?
(Lesson D-10 Part 1)
MATERIALS
• Large wide-mouth jar
• Pebbles or marbles to fill jar 2/3 full
• Cotton batting
• Paper towels
• Drinking straw
• Potted plant
• Clear plastic bag large enough to cover the plant
DISCUSSION
• List all the ways you can think of that you interact with, see, or experience water.
• You’ve learned about the water cycle before. Do you remember the three basic steps in the
cycle?
o Evaporation Condensation Precipitation…
• Now let’s think about how the ways you listed that you experience water fit into that cycle.
There are (at least) three alternative loops that water can take between precipitation and
evaporation.
o Surface runoff loop: rain water can flow along the surface of the ground and collect
in streams, lakes, and oceans.
o Loop through soil and plants: plants absorb water from the soil. Most of that water
is drawn up and evaporates from the leaves (TRANSPIRATION)
 Note: This can be demonstrated by tying a clear plastic bag over a potted
plant or even a small branch. Water droplets will be seen on the bag
from the transpiration.
o GROUNDWATER loop: water flows (PERCOLATES) down through soil until it comes to
a layer where it can no longer pass (IMPERVIOUS layer). It can flow downhill along
this layer (the flow is known as an AQUIFER) and come out to the surface naturally
at a SPRING or be drawn up through a well.
 Side note: This groundwater’s upper surface is called the WATER TABLE. It’s
usually many feet underground. It’s not where many/most plants get their
water.)
• Which pathway does most of the water take? Do you think there’s always a certain fraction
that goes through each loop or might it depend on different factors?
o It depends on rainfall, what the surface of the ground is like (does it allow water to
pass through?), what the soil is like (can it hold much water?)
• Which parts of the water cycle have salt water? Why?
o Streams, rivers lakes, and groundwater are all fresh water. Only oceans and some
lakes with no outlet are salt water because water flows in but can only leave by
evaporating, leaving any salt behind.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Model these alternate water cycle loops:
o Fill a jar 2/3 full with pebbles or marbles. (This represents rock/earth with
cracks and spaces. The bottom of the jar is the impermeable layer.) Add a layer
of cotton batting on top, then a few layers of paper towel. (These represent the
soil.) Place a straw into the gravel for a well.
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o Sprinkle water at different rates and in different amounts. Can you see soil
water, surface runoff, groundwater, and the water table?
NOTEBOOK
• Draw the model of the water cycle created in a jar. Label what different aspects of the
model represent in real life.
• Draw a picture of the water cycle, adding in the three alternate loops discussed in this
lesson.

• Keep a lookout for these three loops and more instances in which we interact with water.
READING
• Kingfisher Science Encyclopedia pg 37 (Groundwater illustration)
81
WEEK 47: HOW DO HUMANS USE WATER RESOURCES?
MATERIALS
• None, but try to visit your municipal water treatment plant or wastewater treatment plant
DISCUSSION
• Is water that we use still part of the water cycle?
o Yes, it’s just in a “side-loop”
• Water for humans is taken from well, lakes, or reservoirs. Rivers are often dammed to
make reservoirs to draw water from. Why do you think this is?
o To have a constant supply of water even as the flow of the river changes
• Does water come straight to our faucets from a lake or reservoir?
o No, it passes through a water treatment plant first to be filtered and cleaned
• What happens to water after we use it and it goes down the drain?
o Drains from different houses go together to a wastewater treatment plant. The
water is cleaned before being dumped into another body of water.
• How can gravity be used in a water system like this to reduce energy costs?
o The sources are usually at a higher elevation than where the waste water is
discharged.
• There’s another way humans use water that actually uses much more than home use. Can
you think what it might be?
o Irrigation for crops
• Where does irrigation water go next in the water cycle?
o It returns to the atmosphere through transpiration and evaporation from the soil
(together known as EVAPOTRANSPIRATION).
• Can we ever run out of water?
o No, in the sense that all water is recycled. But yes, because not all of that water is
available for humans to use.
• If a region doesn’t get enough rainfall, people often get more water by pumping
groundwater faster than it can be replaced by precipitation. Why is this a problem?
o The water table will drop
• Why don’t we just use ocean water?
o It has to be desalted and also energy must be used to pump it uphill.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Visit your municipal water treatment plant or wastewater treatment plant. Draw a
picture or write a report about your trip.
NOTEBOOK
• Research if groundwater depletion is a problem in your area. If so, what are some things
being done or being considered to address the problem? What do you think a good way to
address the problem might be?

• Look for instances of irrigation. If possible, note the different types (flood irrigation from
surface water like a reservoir and center pivot irrigation from groundwater).
READING
• Kingfisher Science Encyclopedia pg 457 “Water and Its Uses”
• Magic School Bus Wet All Over
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WEEK 48: HOW DO HUMANS AFFECT WATER RESOURCES?
MATERIALS
• Will vary widely depending on the activity chosen
DISCUSSION
• The water cycle connects every environment and living thing on Earth. Therefore anything
that affects the water cycle will have many effects down the line. Can you think of real-life
examples of this?
o Dumping of mercury from illegal gold mining kills fish in the Nangaritza River.
People can no longer get fish for food or bathe in the river.
• When people develop natural woodlands or grasslands, we replace soils that could absorb
water with parking lots, roads, rooftops, etc. What are some of the consequences?
o There will be more runoff, which could cause flooding. Storm drains have to be put
in. (Note that these are (or should be) different than the sewer system.)
o More runoff can cause more erosion of stream banks.
o Less water soaks into the soil and the water table falls.
• Can you think of a way that these damaging effects could be controlled?
o Storm-water retention ponds hold water and allow it to slowly seep into the soil
and original stream bed.
• When water tables fall, what are the effects?
o Springs won’t flow if the water level is too low. Streams that were fed by them will
dry up. People and animals that depended on that water will suffer.
• Many cities rely on reservoirs created by damming streams and rivers. They make a stable
water source above the dam, but what are some effects downstream?
o Less water for the people and ecosystems downriver.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Design and put into practice a small-scale method that manages run off where you live.
Some ideas include: a rain garden/bioretention cell, rain barrels, permeable paving,
green roofs, and bioswales. See the following resource for more information and ideas:
https://www.potomacriver.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/EPALessonPlanBook.pdf
NOTEBOOK
• Explain (with words and/or pictures) how development affects the water cycle.

• Look for storm drains and observe where they exit.
• Visit storm-water retention ponds.
• Look for streams that have gone dry except for storm surges.
• Keep an eye out for related stories in the news, such as reservoirs running low, floods, or
falling water tables.
READING
• Kingfisher Science Encyclopedia pg
83
WEEK 49: WHAT’S THE BIG DEAL ABOUT WATER POLLUTION?
MATERIALS
• Large bowl
• Pollutants such as soil, salt, etc.
• Small heavy dish
• Water
• Plastic wrap
• Large rubber band or tape
• Marble/pebble
DISCUSSION
• More than just having water for people, farming, and ecosystems, we have to have water
that isn’t POLLUTED. What is pollution?
o Any chemical, soil, bacteria, or even heat that makes it unsuitable for a certain
use. Water might be too polluted for one use, but suitable for some other use.
• If we have polluted water, what options do we have?
o Remove the pollution, not use that water, or use the polluted water anyway and
suffer the consequences
• Obviously, it would be better to keep pollutants out of the water in the first place. Where
does pollution come from?
o Smoke and fumes in the air can come down with precipitation, such as in acid rain.
o Surface runoff can carry along eroded soil.
o Anything on the ground, like fertilizer, oil, litter, sewage can be washed away with
runoff.
o Anything buried in the ground, like in landfills, can percolate into groundwater.
o Wastewater treatment plants that don’t do a good job can put sewage into the
water supply.
• How important is water for life?
o Very! We need it to drink, wash, grow plants, etc. Wildlife needs it to live. Water
makes life possible.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Make a solar purification system:
o Add soil, salt, and “pollutants” to water in a large bowl.
o Place a small heavy dish in the center of the bowl.
o Stretch a layer of plastic wrap over the large bowl. Secure it in place.
o Place a marble or pebble on the plastic to push down the center slightly.
o Place the entire thing in direct sunlight.
o After a few hours, test the water in the small bowl. Is it pure?
• What water on Earth is fresh? What water is salty? Why?
• Imagine one single water molecule. Can you describe some cycles this water molecule
might take?
• Where does our tap water come from? How is it treated?
• Where does our wastewater go? How is it treated? Where does it go after it’s treated?
• What is pollution? What are some local pollution problems? What’s being done to address
them?
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• Are there water shortages here? What can be done to address them?
• What are the effects of our use of water on nature here? How does development here
affect the water cycle and the environment?
• What jobs in the area of water management sound interesting to you?
NOTEBOOK
• Draw/explain how and where pollution might enter the water cycle.

• On a nature walk, pick up litter so that it doesn’t pollute our world’s water resources.
• Learn more about pollution and how it affects the environment, plants, animals, and
people worldwide.
READING
85
WEEK 50: WHY DO EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES OCCUR WHERE
THEY DO?
MATERIALS
• Medium-sized cardboard box
• Paper or plastic cup
• String
• Marker
• Scissors
• Paper, or a very long printed receipt from a store
• Tape
• Coins, marbles, small rocks, or other small, heavy objects to use as weights
• Another person to help
DISCUSSION
• Have there been any major volcanic eruptions or earthquakes lately in the world?
• Are all earthquakes big and destructive? What exactly is an earthquake?
o Any movements up, down, or sideways of underlying bedrock, big or small, is an
earthquake.
• How can we detect slight movements in the ground that we can’t actually feel? How could
an instrument that uses inertia be designed to do this?
o Scientists use a pendulum with a heavy bob that is anchored in bedrock. If the
bedrock moves, the bob of the pendulum stays still due to inertia. However, it
seems to move in relation to the earth. A pen attached to the bottom of the bob
can show the movement. This is called a SEISMOGRAPH.
• Why is it important to monitor earthquakes?
o We can know where an earthquake happened to send help, even if we can’t predict
them (yet).
• Look up a real time list and/or map of earthquakes and tremors. Where are most
earthquakes occurring? How often do they occur?
o Most are in a ring around the Pacific Ocean. They happen very frequently.
• Look up a world map of active volcanoes. Where are most active volcanoes?
o Most are in the same ring around the Pacific Ocean.
• Why are volcanoes and earthquakes mostly located in this “Ring of Fire?” Is there a single
cause for both of them?
o The interior of the Earth is made of magma. It’s moving about in convection
currents. The crust (5-50 km thick) rests on the magma. The convection currents of
the magma slowly move pieces of the crust (called TECTONIC PLATES) around and
cause them to grind on each other. The edges of these tectonic plates are where
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions happen.
• Convection currents seem to move things smoothly at an even speed, so why are there
quakes here and there suddenly? Why isn’t the crust moving gently and evenly? (Hint: Press
your thumb firmly down on a tabletop and try to move it slowly sideways.)
o Friction holds the surfaces in place until enough force builds up enough and there is
a sudden jump.
• This theory of tectonic plates only came to be accepted in the last 50-60 years. First,
scientists noticed that the continents seem to fit together like pieces of a puzzle. One
scientist proposed that the continents had been together millions of years ago and had
drifted apart. At first it seemed silly, but then scientists learned about how under Earth’s
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crust is molten magma, and they found identical rock types and fossils of the same plants
and animals on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. Then seismographs showed tremors
happening all the time along these lines. Now we can actually measure, in centimeters,
how much the tectonic plates are moving each year. Show video of continental drift
animation.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Make a seismograph on a table. https://www.sciencebuddies.org/stem-activities/make-a-
seismograph
NOTEBOOK
• Draw a picture of a seismograph and explain how it works.
• On a map of the world, draw the “Ring of Fire.” Explain what it is and why it is the location
of so many earthquakes and volcanoes.

• Periodically check for seismic activity, noting especially larger tremors or any in your area.
READING
• Magic School Bus Blows Its Top
87
WEEK 51: HOW DO TECTONIC PLATES MOVE?
MATERIALS
• Bowl
• Whipped cream
• Graham crackers
• Materials to build model buildings (such as tape, popsicle sticks, skewers, modeling clay,
etc.)
DISCUSSION
• Review tectonic plates from last week’s lesson.
o Tectonic plates slowly move about the Earth, some with continents riding on them,
others as part of the sea bottom.
• Let’s think about where two plates meet. What are some different ways they can move in
relation to each other.
o They can move by each other in opposite directions. They don’t slide by gently
though. This causes earthquakes.
o They can pull apart from one another. This allows magma to well up in a ridge and
makes volcanoes.
o They can crash into each other. This makes mountains and earthquakes as the earth
buckles up into mountains.
o They can crash into one another, but one slide under another. This causes the plate
that is forced down to melt and expand. It can result in volcanoes as magma erupts
from the surface.
• Let’s look at some real life examples of each of these: the San Andreas Fault in California,
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Himalayas, Pacific Northwest volcanoes
• Do you know what to do if an earthquake occurs where you are?
o Drop, Cover, and Hold On. Drop to the ground. Take Cover by getting under a
sturdy table or other piece of furniture. Hold on until the shaking stops.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Model the movement of tectonic plates with graham crackers on whipped cream.
• Build and test model earthquake resistant buildings.
• How do we know where earthquakes happen and how strong they are?
• Why do earthquakes happen in the pattern that they do?
• What is the plate tectonic theory? What is evidence for it?
• How may tectonic plates move with respect to one another?
NOTEBOOK
• Illustrate the four ways in which tectonic plates may interact. Include photographs of land
features that show each of the ways.

• Conduct earthquake drills.
READING
88
WEEK 52: HOW CAN WE ESTIMATE THE EARTH’S AGE USING EROSION?
(Lesson D-11A Part 1)
MATERIALS
• Vinegar
• Limestone
• Modeling clay of 2 or more different colors
DISCUSSION
• Look at a globe. Has the Earth always been as we see it now? Have continents, oceans,
mountains, valleys, and plains always been as they are now? Or has Earth changed? (Think
time.)
• You learned before that erosion washes away pieces of Earth, called sediment. The
sediment is carried along and dumped somewhere, forming sedimentary rock. How can
erosion and sedimentary rock help us estimate how much time has passed?
o If we can figure out how fast rocks or mountains are eroding each year and we
know how much it has eroded, we can estimate how many years old it is. The same
goes for measuring how fast sediments are deposited and how thick the
sedimentary rock is.
• When sediment is dumped, it might bury things and create fossils imbedded in the
sedimentary rock that forms. How can looking at the layers of sedimentary rock give us a
picture of Earth’s past?
o The layers from bottom to top are in the order in which they were laid down. Each
layer will have fossils of living things that were present when that layer was
formed, like a time capsule.
• However… we said “if” we can figure out how fast rocks or mountains are eroding. So we
need to be able to measure how fast they are eroding. We can see dirt in fields and on the
edges of river bank eroding quickly. But what about rock, does it even erode at all? What’s
evidence that it does?
o Of course, otherwise we wouldn’t have sand, silt, and clay, since are made from
broken down rock.
• Rocks being broken down by nature is called WEATHERING. Can you find evidence of
weathering?
o Cracks in rock formations, weathered old tombstones, broken sidewalks, plants like
moss breaking up rock surfaces they grow on
• We can sort forces that weather rocks into 3 categories. First, there are physical forces.
Can you think of any examples of these? (Hint: What happens with heating and cooling of
solids, and especially of water that may freeze in cracks?)
o As rock expands and contracts, the stress causes cracking. Water that freezes in the
cracks expands and cracks it more.
• Another physical force makes stones in streams be smooth. What causes that?
o Rocks hitting and tumbling together
• Finally glaciers are another physical force. How do you think glaciers weather rocks?
o By moving over them and grinding them together under its weight
• I said there are 3 categories of factors. Those were all examples of the first category,
physical forces. There are also chemical factors. An example of this is rain, which is
naturally a little acidic. What does acid do to rocks? (Hint: Put vinegar on a piece of
limestone and watch in fizz.)
o It breaks apart the rock with a chemical reaction.
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• Besides physical and chemical factors, there are also biological factors that cause erosion.
What do you think these might be?
o Roots push apart and break rocks.
• Weathering usually happens with erosion. The sand, silt, and clay around us came from a
PARENT MATERIAL. Do you think the parent material is always close to the soil that it
forms?
o No, erosion can move soil for hundreds of miles.
• How fast does weathering happen?
o It depends on the type of rock and what forces are acting on it to weather it.
• Scientists can measure weathering by anchoring a steel post in rock and measure how much
lower the rock surface is each year. It’s usually less than a millimeter a year. How much
weathering has occurred over the course of Earth’s history? Where could we find evidence
to estimate that?
o How much mountains (such as the Appalachians) have weathered away
• Look up syncline and anticline diagrams. Many mountains have layers like these made of
sedimentary rock. The rock was laid down as sediment and then crumpled up by tectonic
forces. The top part of the rumple is called an ANTICLINE, and the bottom part is called a
SYNCLINE. Often there will be a syncline without the anticline on top. What must have
happened to it?
o It was weathered away.
• Can we approximate how high the top originally was before it was weathered down?
o Scientists can estimate how high the layers would have gone by filling in the upper
bend between two synclines of the same rock type.
• Now we have evidence for the original height of mountains and evidence for how fast they
weather away. With that, we can estimate how long ago the mountains crumpled up. If we
add that estimate with time for the tectonic movement that caused the mountains to
crumple up, plus the time to lay down the sedimentary rocks to begin with, we get an
estimate of billions of years! Do you know how old geologists estimate the Earth to be?
o 4.54 billion years old!
• There must have been a lot of weathering and erosion to wear down all those mountain
anticlines! Where did all that sediment go?
o Into all of the sedimentary rock layers that cover about ¾ of the Earth’s continents.
• Wait a second! Doesn’t erosion usually carry sediment in water? How did sedimentary rock
end up all over the continents? (Hint: Think of plate tectonics and marine fossils.)
o The fossils of fish and shells show that originally the sedimentary rock was under
shallow seas and was pushed up as tectonic plates shifted.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Model synclines and anticlines by bending layers of modeling clay. See how an upward
bend stretches and cracks the upper layers, which causes them to erode faster.
NOTEBOOK
• Draw diagrams of synclines and anticlines. Illustrate and describe how these can be used to
estimate the age of landforms.
• List and/or illustrate different factors that cause weathering. (Stress from heating and
cooling, stones hitting and rubbing in streams, glaciers, acid in rainwater, roots penetrating
into cracks)
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• Go for a geology walk. Look for evidences of weathering where you live, like glacial
landforms, smooth rocks in streams, cracks in pavement, roots breaking sidewalks, worn
down mountain peaks.
• Think about how big a billion is. For example, how long would it take to count to a billion?
How much space would a billion grains of sand or a billion drips of water take up?
• Investigate where the soil in your area came from. Where is the parent material that it
broke down from?
• Watch SciShow Kids: The Grand Canyon.
• Some people believe that the flood in Genesis caused almost all the patterns of weathering,
erosion, and sedimentary rock that we see. Learn about the young earth theory and flood
geology. Contrast this theory to the theory of uniformitarianism. Investigate the evidence
for and against each point of view.
READING
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WEEK 53: WHAT WAS EARTH LIKE IN THE PAST?
(Lesson D-11A Part 2)
MATERIALS
• Will vary depending on the chosen activity:
• Cheerios, pipe cleaners, felt, small feathers
• Printed templates from website, scissors, art supplies
• Wheat bread, white bread, multigrain bread, gummy worms (fossil insects), gold fish,
raisins or lettuce, chocolate chips, straws, Florissant Formation template from website
DISCUSSION
• Look up fossils geologic ages illustrated chart or see in Science Encyclopedia. What sorts of
fossils are found in each layer? Are there mixtures of all types of creatures in each layer?
o No, different types are found in different layers.
• There is an “age of fishes,” “age of reptiles,” and “age of mammals.” But note that the
dividing lines between ages aren’t as clear-cut as the chart might show. And new fossils are
always being found. What do you think this could fit together and be interpreted along with
what you’ve learned about the weathering-erosion-sedimentation process?
o It looks like different sorts of plants and animals have lived on the Earth at
different times.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Make model crinoids with Cheerios or paper models of other fossilized animals.
https://www.usgs.gov/youth-and-education-in-science/trek-through-time-activities-kids
• Make a Stratigraphic Column Formation sandwich. See
https://www.nps.gov/teachers/classrooms/stratigraphic-column-formation-
sandwich.htm
• What’s the difference between weathering and erosion?
• What are synclines? What are anticlines? What forces could cause this rumpling of rock
layers into synclines and anticlines? What is evidence for these forces?
• Imagine we find synclines without their anticlines. What does this tell us?
• Why do scientists think that layers of sedimentary rock are a “time line” of geological
history?
• What do fossils found in the sedimentary rock layers tell us?
NOTEBOOK
• Draw a picture of sedimentary rock layers. Include what fossils have been found in which
layers.

• Explore EarthViewer. This online and interactive resource allows students to observe the
geography, climate, biodiversity, and atmosphere of the different geological periods.
• Compile lists of questions. Investigate more as interested.
READING
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WEEK 54: HOW DO WE USE A MAP WITH A GRID?
MATERIALS
• Globe
• World Map
• Local Map
• White construction paper
• Teabag
• Markers/pens
DISCUSSION
• Imagine we’re lost out at sea and trying to tell rescuers where we are. How could we do
that?
• Imagine you’re on a ship discovering new lands. How could you describe where they’re
located so they could be put on a map?
o Make a grid!
• Our maps today do have grids. Horizontal lines are called LATITUDE and vertical lines are
called LONGITUDE. Do you know any of the lines of latitude or longitude on maps or the
globe?
o Equator, Tropics of Cancel and Capricorn, Arctic and Antarctic Circles
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Find towns or landmarks on a map that has a grid system.
NOTEBOOK
• Make a treasure map:
1. Fold up a piece of white construction paper, and paint/blot it with a teabag to make it
appear old.
2. Once it dries, draw an island with various landforms. Name them pirate-sounding
names: Black Forest, Volcano of Doom, Dead Man’s Cave, etc.
3. Make a legend with a map key in the corner of your map. Are triangles mountains? Is a
dashed line a path?
4. Use a ruler to draw lines vertically and horizontally on your paper to make a grid. About
2 inches apart is a good spacing.
5. Write letters in order A, B, C, etc. across the top and numbers 1, 2, 3, etc. across the
left side.
6. Include a riddle to locate the treasure on the map. Try to make the riddle involve the
grid.
• Use a map while on a trip, at the zoo, or just driving in the car. Take note of the grid and
try to use it to find landmarks.
READING
• Kingfisher Science Encyclopedia pg 46-47 Maps and Mapping
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WEEK 55: WHAT IS LATITUDE?
MATERIALS
• Styrofoam ball, about 6” diameter, or a cabbage (for a more biodegradable, slightly more
challenging option)
• Protractor
• Skewers
• Knife
• String
ACTIVITY
1. Mark the North and South Poles on your sphere.
2. Draw the Equator. Hold the marker still while spinning the sphere.
3. Cut your globe in half through the North and South Poles (with an adult’s help).
4. Draw a cross on the cut side of the sphere, across the equator and from pole to pole.
5. At the points where the lines cross, place the center of a protractor. The Equator will
be at 0 degrees and the North Pole at 90 degrees.
6. Mark on the outer edge of the sphere at 30, 60, and 23.5 degrees. Do the same for the
bottom half.
7. Put the sphere back together with skewers.
8. Draw horizontal lines around the sphere at 30, 60, and 23.5 degrees north and south.
Label the lines.
DISCUSSION
• What do the lines of latitude on a map show?
o The angle between the equator and that point on the globe.
• Is latitude all we need to find a certain location on the Earth?
o No, if you say you’re at a certain latitude you could be anywhere around the Earth
on that line.
• What else do we need to find an exact location?
o Vertical lines, which are called longitude
• How could we make longitude lines? (We’ll find out next week.)
NOTEBOOK
• Draw a picture of your globe. Label important latitudes. Explain how latitudes are assigned
using angles.

• Find the latitude of your home. Look for other locations around the world that are found at
that same latitude.
READING
• Where Am I? by A. G. Smith
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WEEK 56: WHAT IS LONGITUDE?
MATERIALS
• See last week’s list.
ACTIVITY
• Use a string to draw several vertical lines on the sphere. These are called meridians.
• Cut the sphere in half on the Equator.
• Label one of your meridians 0 degrees. Now measure the degrees to your other
meridians and label them.
• Note if they are east or west of the meridian (For example, 30 degrees E.)
• Put your globe back together with skewers.
• Draw your globe in your science notebook. Label the Equator, the Tropics of Cancer and
Capricorn, the Prime Meridian, and any of the other parallels and meridians drawn.
DISCUSSION
• Are the lines of longitude the same distance apart all the way around the globe like the
lines of latitude are?
o No, they’re closer together as you get closer to the poles.
• How did you decide which meridian to call zero degrees? How was it decided on the real
world?
o The student likely just picked a meridian at random.
• It was a problem for mapmakers until England decided that 0 degrees should run through
London. Can you find London on the globe? What degree of longitude is it at?
o 0 degrees
• How did people really figure out latitude and longitude without cutting the Earth in half
and painting grid lines?
o They came up with this method in their heads.
• First, they had to know the Earth was a sphere and rotated on an axis. Then they decided
to make a grid and agree on how to label different parts of the grid. Now we have GPS,
which uses satellites to pinpoint our location and give coordinates of latitude and
longitude. Isn’t it amazing how far science has come?
• What’s the latitude and longitude here? (at different places on a globe)
• Why are latitudes and longitudes in degrees? What do those degrees represent?
• What is the prime meridian? Where is it?
• Suppose there’s a race from longitude 85 degrees W to 95 degrees W. Would it be better to
be in Canada or in the southern US for that race?
• You take one step and go from 0 degrees longitude to 180 degrees longitude. Where on
Earth must you be?
• My location is 120 degrees N latitude. Where am I? (Trick question.)
NOTEBOOK
• Continue to add to your picture of your globe from last week. Label important longitudes.
Explain how latitude and longitude let us pinpoint any location on earth.

• Use a GPS on a nature walk to find your coordinates and see how they change as you walk.
See if there are any geocaching opportunities in your area.
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READING
• Where Am I? by A. G. Smith
96
WEEK 57: WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLIMATE AND WEATHER?
MATERIALS
• Weather data from Week 51 of Volume 1 (or online records)
• Graph paper, pencil, ruler
• Access to climate graphs (see climate-data.org)
• What will the weather be like next week?
• What will the climate be next week? (Trick question)
• What’s the difference between climate and weather?
o Weather is the day-to-day conditions. Climate is the broad picture of what weather
is expected in a region in different times of the year.
• Look at a climate graph for your area. Note the temperature and precipitation. These are
averages from measurements taken every day over the past 30 years.
• Pick another area of the world and compare and contrast the climate graph.
• Although weather changes day to day, our climate stays constant. Why is this important?
o Knowing our climate tells us what types of crops to grow, and when to plant and
harvest. It’s also important for plants and animals in natural ecosystems.
• How do we know if climate change is occurring?
o We could check if the 30-year averages are changing a lot over time.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Make a climate graph for your location. You can use the data that you’ve been
collecting from Week 51 of Volume 1, or you could look up a record of that data online.
o Alternatively, you could make up a climate graph for your ideal climate.
NOTEBOOK
• Imagine you’re planning a vacation to another part of the world at a certain time of the
year. Print and attach a climate graph for that area. Write a paragraph telling what you will
bring based on the expected temperature and precipitation.

• Continue to note the weather and discuss how it fits into your region’s particular climate.
READING
97
WEEK 58: WHY ARE TROPICS WET AND DESERTS DRY?
MATERIALS
• Lazy Susan
• A way to turn the Lazy Susan at a constant rate (such as a Lego motor)
• Large clear circular tub
• Frozen can of ice (Fill an empty can with water and freeze overnight)
• Warm water
• Food coloring
• Look at climate graphs of desert regions and tropical rainforests. How are they different?
How are they similar?
o The precipitation amounts are very different
• Look at a world map colored by biomes, or at a satellite map like Google Earth. Can you
find a pattern of where major deserts and tropical rainforests are located?
o Tropical rainforests are in a belt around the equator. Deserts are roughly in two
belts, at 30 degree N and 30 degree S latitude.
• Why is this so? Hint: Think about what you know about evaporation and condensation, solar
heating of the Earth, and convection currents. (Use leading questions as needed.)
• Where is solar heating greatest on Earth?
o At the equator
• So where is evaporation greatest?
o At the equator
• What happens to warm, moist air?
o It expands and rises, carrying moisture up. When it rises and expands it cools,
condenses, and drops its rain.
• So that’s why tropical rainforests are on the equator, but why are areas north and south of
the equator so dry? What happens to the air next?
o The now dry air spreads to the sides
• By about 30 degree N and S the air has cooled and contracted. What happens to cooler,
denser air?
o It sinks
• The air warms up as it sinks, but it’s still very dry, so these areas are deserts. What
happens to the air next? Does it stay there at that latitude?
o No, it keeps cycling around to fill in the empty space where the warm air rose at
the Equatorial regions
• If it moves over water as it cycles back to the equator, it picks up more water vapor and
makes that equatorial region wetter. But if it moves over land as it returns to the equator
the dryness absorbs more water from the land and makes that area even drier. Can you see
this in the differences between equatorial South/Central America and Kenya, Africa?
• What happens on the rest of the globe, between the 30 degree latitudes and the poles?
We’ll come back to this later, but it’s too far for a single convection current to go all the
way from the equator to the Pole, so there are actually three convection currents that
work together to control weather and climate on each half of the globe.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
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• Hadley cell model: Before attempting to perform this activity, note that this is a more
involved and somewhat finicky model.
o Place the circular tub in the center of the Lazy Susan. Place the frozen can in
the center of the circular tub. Fill the tub a few inches deep with warm water.
o Begin spinning the tub at a constant rate. Wait a minute or so until the water
has settled into a uniform movement. Add a few drops of food coloring to the
water near the frozen can, and observe.
• Watch a short video about Wind Currents and Weather Patterns
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CtH3_nkGe90)
NOTEBOOK
• On a world map, roughly color in the locations of rainforests and deserts in the area
surrounding the equator. Write a paragraph describing what pattern we generally see and
why.

• Take some time to learn more about tropical rainforests and deserts. What types of animals
and plants live there? How are they dependent on the climates in which they live?
READING
• Kingfisher Science Encyclopedia pg 11 “Atmospheric circulation illustration,” pg 68-69
• Magic School Bus All Dried Up
99
WEEK 59: WHAT ARE SAVANNAS LIKE?
MATERIALS
• A globe may be helpful for the discussion
• Documentary about savannas
DISCUSSION
• Between equatorial rainforests and deserts there is a band of SAVANNA. What is a savanna?
o Grassland with few trees
• Look at a climate graph for a savanna region. How is rainfall distributed?
o Almost all of the rain comes in half of the year.
• Savannas have wet and dry seasons. Why do you think this is? Hint: Think of how the Earth
orbits the sun and how this affects the seasons in temperate regions. (Use leading questions
as needed.)
• During the half of the year from April to September, the more direct sun rays are north of
the equator. More solar heating north of the equator during this time causes what?
o More rising air currents and more precipitation, so the wet season
• What happens between October and March?
o The direct sun rays are south of the equator, so savannas in the southern
hemisphere will have their wet season.
• Why does a savanna have a dry season when it’s not receiving direct sun rays?
o Because the convection cycle is shifted a bit due to the tilt of the Earth. A dry
season is caused by the currents of dry air sinking over the savanna in that time
period.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Watch a documentary about savannas. Take note of the dry and wet seasons and how
plants and animals are adapted to this climate.
NOTEBOOK
• On a world map, color in the locations of savannas. What is this biome like? What causes
the wet and dry seasons?

• Take some time to learn more about savannas. What types of animals and plants live there?
How are they dependent on the climates in which they live?
READING
100
WEEK 60: HOW DID SCIENTISTS EVER FIGURE OUT ABOUT THESE
CONVECTION CYCLES?
MATERIALS
• None
DISCUSSION
• How did scientists ever figure out that these convection cycles existed?
• Sailors, beginning in the 1400s, discovered that between 30 degrees N and the equator
there were reliable winds toward the southwest. Very near the equator or at 30 degrees N
latitude, however, there were areas that had almost no wind, the doldrums. These
latitudes became known as the horse latitudes. Why do you think that may be?
o Ships could get stuck here for days until they even had to throw their horses
overboard to conserve water.
• North of 30 degrees N latitude, there were consistent winds blowing northeast. South of the
equator the wind patterns were a mirror image of those above the equator. These wind
patterns were so useful to crossing and trading between the Old World and the New World
that they became known as Trade Winds. Based on what you’ve learned about convection
currents in the atmosphere, can you explain what caused these patterns of winds?
o In the convection current cycle, little wind would be expected where the air is
mostly just moving up (at the equator) or down (at 30 degrees N and S latitude). In
between the equator and 30 degrees N and S latitude wind would be moving back
toward the equator to fill the empty space left by the rising air.
• After 200 years of observations of wind here and no wind there, in 1735, a scientist named
George Hadley proposed this idea of convection currents to explain the data. However, he
didn’t know why the winds didn’t blow exactly north and south back toward the equator.
That was discovered later as more scientists continued to study and make theories. You’ll
learn more about it later, too!
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY/N OTEBOOK

• Draw a picture of the globe, with labeled arrows to represent easterlies, the doldrums,
and the horse latitudes.
• Pretend you are a navigator aboard a ship in the early 1700s. Your ship was blown off
course into the doldrums. Write a journal entry about your day.
• What’s the difference between climate and weather?
• Why do regions on the equator have a lot of rainfall?
• How does climate affect what plants and animals live there?
• What is a savanna? Where are they? What’s the climate like? What plants and animals live
there?
• What causes the wet and dry seasons in savannas?

• Learn more about the trade winds and how they affected civilization over the past several
hundred years.
READING
• See Supplementary book list in Appendix B
101
UNIT 5: FUNGI, BACTERIA, AND MICROSCOPIC
ORGANISMS
WEEK 61: WHAT ARE FUNGI AND HOW DO THEY LIVE?
MATERIALS/ACTIVITY
• Collect specimens of mushrooms and fungi. Remember to wash hands after handling
mushrooms because they can be poisonous.
DISCUSSION
• Set out the fungi specimens collected and additional photos.
• What are these? Are they living things? How do we know if they are living?
o They have orientation, symmetry, fine structure, they die, grow and reproduce.
• Are they plants or animals?
o What’s the difference between plants and animals?
 How they get their food- oxidation or photosynthesis.
o Do fungi seem to be able to do photosynthesis?
 They don’t grow in the sun or have broad leaves or green chlorophyll.
o Where do fungi get their energy? What do you see them growing on?
 Dead, rotting things
• Scientists have found out that fungi have a “root system” made of microscopic threads that
goes into the dead thing it’s growing on. These are called mycelia. They make enzymes that
break up the dead thing into molecules that the fungus can absorb and oxidize for energy.
The rotting of dead things is actually the result of the fungus feeding.
• Watch mycelium growth time lapse video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EufwIRqAHkc
• The mycelia are really the body of the fungus. The mushroom is just the “flower and fruit”
part used for reproduction.
• Should fungi be part of the plant kingdom or the animal kingdom?
o Scientists debated this for over 200 years.
o Carl Linnaeus, a scientist in Sweden in the 1700s, came up with the classification
system we still use today of kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and
species. But he only had 2 kingdoms.
o Finally in the mid 1900s a new kingdom was added for fungi.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Mushroom art or crafts
NOTEBOOK
• Draw some examples of fungi and write a paragraph about what you learned about them.

• Take time to notice fungi. Also note that mold and yeast are fungi.
READING
102
WEEK 62: WHY ARE FUNGI IMPORTANT?
MATERIALS
• Materials to make a diorama (optional)
DISCUSSION
• Why do fungi exist? Do you think God created them to do an important job in nature or
would we be just as well off without them?
o Think about what a woodland would be like if there were no fungi rotting away
dead things.
o Fungi also break down things into parts that can be used again by growing plants—
water, minerals, carbon dioxide.
• Fungi are nature’s recycling system.
o Draw and label a diagram of fungi recycling on the notebook page.
• Is energy recycled like the chemical nutrients?
o No, it is released as heat as things are broken down and escapes to outer space.
• Review the major biomes (Volume 1, Lesson D-4). How do they each fit into this pattern of
recycling nutrients and energy flow?
o They have different plants, animals, and fungi, but all follow the same pattern.
• Sometimes scientists use words to tell an organism’s job in a system rather than what
kingdom it’s in. (Like saying a man is a garbage collector or a woman is a teacher.)
o Producers: all the plants that produce through photosynthesis
o Consumers: all the animals that consume plants directly or through the food chain
o Decomposers: all the fungi (and some animals) that eat dead plants and animals
and cause decomposition
• Some animals like earthworms, termites, and millipedes also eat dead things (DETRITUS)
and are called DETRITUS FEEDERS. They’re still members of the animal kingdom though.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Pick a biome and research some producers, consumers, and decomposers in that biome.
Draw a picture (labeling producers, consumers, and decomposers), write a paragraph,
or make a diorama (with a short description of the producers, consumers, and
decomposers).
NOTEBOOK
• Draw and label a diagram of how fungi recycle. Include nutrients from the air, soil, and
water, plants, fungi, and energy coming in and out.

• Bring up nature’s great cycle and how it runs on solar energy. Discuss how any given plant,
animal, or fungi fits into the cycle.
READING
• Magic School Bus Meets the Rot Squad
103
WEEK 63: WHAT ARE BACTERIA? HOW DO FUNGI AND BACTERIA
REPRODUCE?
(Lesson B-16 Parts 3&4)
Note that this week’s lesson (discussions and activities) will need to happen over the course
of a few days.
MATERIALS
• Microscope
• Mushroom
• White paper
• Bowl
• Cups
• Tea (without sugar)
DISCUSSION
• Fungi aren’t the only decomposers; bacteria decompose too.
• Bacteria are another whole kingdom of living things.
o Most live harmlessly in the environment, feeding on dead plants and animals.
o Some are helpful to humans ( like those that live in our intestines).
o A few can cause disease.
• They are very tiny, only specks under 400x magnification.
o They are made of single cells.
o They grow and divide, but have a very different structure than plant and animal
cells.
• Look at photos of bacteria under an electron microscope.
DISCUSSION: FUNGI
• Any biological material in a place with the right moisture and temperature (like food, dead
animals, or leaves) starts to decompose. Why?
o Decomposers must be feeding on it.
• How did they get there?
ACTIVITY
• Remove mushroom stems and place gill side down on a sheet of paper. Cover with an
inverted bowl and leave for a day.
• Lift the bowl and mushroom and record observations.
• Look under a microscope at the particles.
DISCUSSION
• What are these?
o SPORES- like seeds for mushrooms
• Re-watch mycelium growth time-lapse video if interested.
• What caused this pattern to form?
o The gills are where spores form and they drop out as they ripen.
o If not covered, these spores would be blown around by air currents. They’re all
around us all the time.
ACTIVITY
104
• Make a few cups of tea (without sugar). Have one covered, one uncovered, and any
other variables the students want to test.
• Leave undisturbed for a few days. Then observe and record results.
DISCUSSION
• How did these mold COLONIES get there?
• Scientists have studied spores and found that they just form through cell division and
differentiation, with no sperm, egg, or fertilization. What does this mean about them
genetically?
o They are clones of the parent.
o They do also have a egg-sperm-fertilization phase of their life cycle.
DISCUSSION: BACTERIA
• A bacterium cell grows, then divides into 2, then 4, 8, etc. individual single-celled bacteria.
o They do also have a egg-sperm-fertilization phase of their life cycle.
• With the right food, water, and temperature, it can grow and divide every 20 minutes.
o How many bacteria could one bacteria turn into in an hour?
• If they reproduce that fast, why isn’t the world totally buried under bacteria?
o They run out of food, the temperature or moisture isn’t right, and they excrete
toxic waste products that kill some of them off.
• Since there are fungus spores and bacteria around us all the time,
o What do we have to do to keep food, homes, and other things from decomposing?
o How do we protect ourselves from fungi and bacteria that carry disease?
o These questions are addressed later.
• How do fungi live? Where do they get their energy and nutrients?
• How are they like plants? Like animals? Different from both?
• Why are they considered neither plant nor animal?
• Is the mushroom the whole fungus? What else is there? What does the mycelium do? What
does the mushroom part do?
• What causes plant and animal materials to rot?
• What would happen in nature if fungi and bacteria didn’t exist?
• How are living things classified according to their job in nature?
• Are all bacteria harmful? What do most species of bacteria do?
• Any plant or animal material left unprotected starts to decompose. How do the
fungi/bacteria get there to cause decomposition?
NOTEBOOK
• Observations and interpretations of the mushroom spores
• Experimental lab report of mold growing in tea

• Discuss why food got moldy and where the spores came from.
READING
105
WEEK 64: HOW SHOULD WE STORE AND PRESERVE FOOD AND WOOD?
(Lesson B-17 Parts 1&2)
MATERIALS
• Packaged food items (canned, frozen, refrigerated, dry, salted, preserved, and pickled
foods)
• Bread (preferably homemade)
• Plastic baggies
DISCUSSION: FOOD PRESERVATION

• Looking at packaged food items (at home or at a grocery store), discuss how it keeps fungi
and bacteria from entering or from growing.
o Canned food- heating the food kills any fungal spores or bacteria, and sealing keeps
more from entering
o Frozen food- fungal spores and bacteria need liquid water to grow. They don’t die
when frozen but they can’t grow.
o Refrigeration- a cold temperature above freezing slows down the growth but
doesn’t stop it, so eventually food will go bad.
o Dry foods- dried and sealed so there won’t be enough moisture for fungi/bacteria
to grow
o Salting- lots of salt keeps fungi/bacteria from being able to absorb enough water
o Preserves- lots of sugar keeps fungi/bacteria from being able to absorb enough
water
o Pickling- the acidity of vinegar keeps fungi/bacteria from growing
o Adding preservatives- for some foods, like bread and dairy, preservatives are added
that slow down the growth of fungi/bacteria that don’t hurt humans in small
amounts.
o Fresh fruit and vegetables still have living cells that have their own defense against
fungi and bacteria. As they age and die, their defense breaks down and fungi and
bacteria can decompose them.
• Why is it important to keep cooking and eating areas and dishes clean? Why do we put
leftovers in the fridge quickly? Why do we wash hands before making food and eating?
• What can happen if we eat spoiled food that has started to mold or rot?
o Never eat anything that looks, smells, or tastes “off”. Our bodies can sense rot as
bad smell and taste.
o Notice “use by” dates and discuss inspection laws
DISCUSSION: W OOD PRESERVATION

• What do we use wood for?
• What happens to wood in nature? How do we keep that from happening to homes made
with wood and other wooden things, like furniture?
o Keep the wood dry. That’s why good roofs and having no leaks are important.
Lacquer also keeps water out.
o Preservatives can help. These are very toxic!
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Put slices of bread in plastic baggies, and record how many days until mold appears or
draw the bread after 5 or so days.
o Experiment with different variables: store bought vs. homemade bread, counter
vs. fridge, exposed to different conditions before being placed in the bags.
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NOTEBOOK
• Read about and write a paragraph on the history of food preservation.
• Experimental lab report of bread mold experiment

• When preparing or cleaning up after a meal, discuss the risks of unsanitary practices like
not washing dishes well or not putting the food in the fridge.
• Discuss how different types of food are preserved at the grocery store.
• Draw attention to food that has gotten moldy.
• Notice instances of food poisoning in the news.
• Keep an eye out for rotting wood structures and discuss why they rotted.
READING
107
WEEK 65: DO ALL MATERIALS ROT?
MATERIALS
• Cornstarch
• Water
• Vegetable Oil
• Plastic baggie
• Food coloring (optional)
• Compost
• Small plastic items
• Composting bin/pit
DISCUSSION
• What about plastic items? Have you ever seen plastic bottles or other plastic items rotting
away? Why don’t they rot?
• What is good and bad about this?
• Plastics and other materials like this are called NON-BIODEGRADABLE. Non means not, bio
means life, and degrade means decompose. So these materials can’t be broken down by
nature’s decomposers.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Make a bio-plastic.
o https://elementalscience.com/blogs/science-activities/make-bioplastic-kitchen
• Long term decomposition activity:
o Mix a small handful of compost and a few small plastic items into about a quart
of soil. Place in a open container or compost pit. Keep moist but not wet. After
a month or so sift through the contents.
NOTEBOOK
• Investigate and write a paragraph about the danger of non-biodegradable materials to
wildlife. Include what non-biodegradable means and some common objects that are non-
biodegradable.

• Point out biodegradable versus non-biodegradable packaging.
• Look for problems caused to nature and wildlife by non-biodegradable items.
READING
108
WEEK 66: HOW CAN PEOPLE USE FUNGI AND BACTERIA?
MATERIALS
• ¼ cup store-bought plain yogurt
• 2 quarts milk
• Instapot, enameled Dutch oven, or other way to keep the milk warm
DISCUSSION
• Re-emphasize the importance of fungi and bacteria in nature.
• There are also ways fungi and bacteria are used directly by humans. Can you think of any?
o Edible mushrooms
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QNTn_sRCwA4
o Yeast to make bread, alcoholic beverages, and other products
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZXYZYKfjNBg
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iOvrq6ssy2Y
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iOvrq6ssy2Y
o To make cheese, sour cream, yogurt, vinegar
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pnw-XwCctYY
o Antibiotics are mostly made from certain fungi, especially molds.
 Discovery of penicillin: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZAGY36JYQlg
o Bacteria are used to decompose and clean up toxic waste spills.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VXoz8xpwJbU
o Fungi and bacteria are used to break down sewage.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Make yogurt. (Add ¼ cup of store-bought plain yogurt to about 2 quarts of milk and
keep it warm for about 8 hours to make your own yogurt.)
• What can happen to food between when it is harvested and when it is eaten? How is this
prevented?
• Why do we keep meat refrigerated, frozen foods frozen, etc?
• Looking at a picture of a rotting wood structure: Why is this happening? What could have
been done to prevent it?
• What does non-biodegradable mean? What are some things that are non-biodegradable?
What are advantages and disadvantages to non-biodegradable products?
• What are some ways that fungi and bacteria are commercially useful?
• What causes food poisoning? How can we prevent it?
NOTEBOOK
• Research and write a paragraph on a commercial use of fungi/bacteria, such as:
o how Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin,
o how bacteria are being used in toxic waste cleanup,
o how fungi and bacteria are used to treat sewage.

• Draw attention to foods that use fungi or bacteria like yogurt and cheese.
READING
• See Supplementary Book List in Appendix B.
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WEEK 67: HOW CAN FUNGI AND BACTERIA MAKE US SICK?
MATERIALS
• Cardboard boxes (optional)
• Art and craft supplies
DISCUSSION
• Have you ever seen a rotting dead animal? What was causing it to rot?
o Decomposers and detritus feeders
• Why doesn’t the body rot while it’s still alive? Do decomposers know and decide to wait?
(Remember that fungus spores and bacteria are always ready to go to work when conditions
are suitable.)
o The body has NATURAL DEFENSE MECHANISMS that protect against almost all of the
decomposer organisms in the environment.
• There are still a few that can break through the defense mechanisms, start feeding and
reproducing, and make us sick.
o “Germs” is a slang word for these disease-causing organisms, better known as
PATHOGENS or INFECTIOUS ORGANISMS.
o Note that diseases can be caused by other things like viruses or malfunctioning of
certain organs (NONINFECTIOUS DISEASES). Give a few examples of each type.
• The body is like a castle or fort, and it must protect against attackers. What is built into a
fort to protect it? What do the defenders do if attackers break through?
o Make a two-column table in notebook with castle features on the left and natural
defenses of the body on the right.
• First line of defense: Keeping attackers outside
o The wall and moat
o The skin covers the body, and other protective coatings and mucus protect the
inside of the nose, lungs, mouth, throat, etc.
• Second line of defense: Immobilize and kill attackers
o If there’s a breach in the wall, defenders will hold the attackers at that location,
kill them, and repair the wall.
o If there’s a break in the skin, the body isolates the area and destroys any invading
microorganisms. We can see this as redness, puffiness, and puss (dead attackers
and defenders). The wall is closed with a scab.
• Third line of defense: Seek out and kill attackers who sneak in
o Enemy attackers sneak in and try to cause trouble, so defenders need to search the
fort and kill any invaders. They need special training for this job.
o IMMUNE SYSTEM- made up of cells that constantly search the body and destroy
anything foreign. We are born with a pretty amazing immune system (innate
immunity), but with “training” it can do even better.
• People observed that after getting some types of diseases they wouldn’t get the disease
again. Scientists in the 1800s developed a way to inject dead or very weak disease-causing
organisms in order to train the body’s immune system how to fight that disease without
actually getting the disease. These are called vaccines.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Make a model of a castle with the 3 lines of defense and write an explanation of how
the parts of the castle correspond to the body. (or draw a picture in the notebook
pages)
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NOTEBOOK
• Table with castle features on the left and natural defenses of the body on the right.
• Draw a picture of a castle with the 3 lines of defense and label the parts as they correspond
to the body.

• Note what’s happening as skin keeps out dirt or as a small cut begins to heal.
READING
111
WEEK 68: HOW CAN WE HELP KEEP OURSELVES HEALTHY?
MATERIALS
• None, but you may want to take a field trip to the water treatment plant, sewage
treatment plant, and/or garbage dump
DISCUSSION
• What else is important to determining who wins when the castle is attacked? Does it matter
how many attackers are outside?
o How does this relate to the body?
• Why are operating rooms, clothing worn, and instruments all STERILIZED (heated to kill any
living thing)?
o Opening the body gets past the first and second lines of defense and the third line
of developing immunity wouldn’t be able to act in time.
• Why don’t we sterilize everything as clean as an operating room?
o Not practical.
o Most microorganisms are important to nature and for our health.
• When someone is sick with a CONTAGIOUS disease they have lots of infectious particles
coming out of them when they cough, sneeze, poop, etc. Both the sick person and the well
person need to be responsible to avoid spreading illness.
• What are some things that we can and should do to prevent spreading illness? Make a table
in the notebook of personal hygiene and public health actions and how they are effective.
o Use this list of personal hygiene measures to guide:
 Washing hands before touching food or eating and after using toilet
 Showering
 Staying away from people with contagious illnesses
 Washing dishes
 Not sharing cups or silverware
 Washing clothes and sheets
 Covering mouth and nose with inside of elbow when coughing/sneezing
 Washing out cuts with soap and water, antibiotic ointment, bandage
 Wearing a mask when sick or near sick people
 Keeping in good health by eating well, exercising, and resting so your body
is prepared to fight illness
 Getting vaccinated
 Note: antibacterial soaps/antimicrobial products aren’t helpful in reducing
disease, and they’re actually harmful because they get rid of good microbes
and cause bad ones to become resistant
• One of the government’s jobs is to protect people. Police and firefighters do this, and so do
PUBLIC HEALTH MEASURES—ways to protect against the outbreak and spread of disease.
What are some public health measures?
o What does our town to do to make sure we have clean water for drinking, cooking,
and washing?
 Filter, treat, and inspect water at the water treatment plant
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tuYB8nMFxQA
o What would happen if our toilet water went straight into nearby streams and rivers?
 Instead we have sewage treatment plants to kill pathogens before allowing
the waste water to go back into the rivers or oceans.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r6ycWxw-nZI
o What if we didn’t have garbage men to take away our trash?
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 It would grow fungi and bacteria. Flies, rats, and mice would feed on it and
get pathogens on them. They could spread those pathogens to our homes
and us. Animals that carry a pathogen from one place to another are called
DISEASE VECTORS.
o How can we know that the food we buy is safe to eat?
 Governments have rules and do inspections of markets and restaurants.
• The most important factors protecting health are personal hygiene and public health, as
well as vaccination.
o Medicines are helpful, but they don’t keep you from getting sick. They just help you
get better.
o ANTIBIOTICS stop bacteria from growing and reproducing and save many lives.
However, if prescribed needlessly antibiotic-resistant strains develop.
• Animals also get sick with infectious organisms, which is why we vaccinate them and have
vets.
• Plants have infectious diseases, certain fungi known as rusts, blights, and mildews. These
can destroy crops and cause famine. The American chestnut tree (the largest and most
abundant tree in eastern US forests) was almost totally wiped out by blight.
o Certain fungi attack certain plants while others have a natural resistance.
o Since we don’t yet have a way to vaccinate plants we instead breed types that are
disease resistant.
o We can also use chemical sprays to kill fungus spores and insect pests, but this puts
toxic materials into the environment and has to be done sparingly.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Take a field trip to the water treatment plant, sewage treatment plant, and/or garbage
dump.
• What’s the difference between all the decomposers in the environment and disease causing
organisms?
• What prevents decomposers from decomposing living bodies?
• What should you do to avoid infectious disease?
• What public health measures help protect you from disease?
• How are people who choose not to be vaccinated protected by those who are vaccinated?
• What are the dangers, to self and others, of not being vaccinated?
NOTEBOOK
• What are some things that we can and should do to prevent spreading illness? Make a table
of personal hygiene and public health actions and how they are effective.
• Write a paragraph about the history of vaccination OR the history of public health measures
OR a contrast of public health measures in the developed and developing world and how it
affects health.

• Differentiate between contagious and non-contagious diseases.
• Look out for proper or improper hygienic behaviors and discuss how these are important to
reduce the spread of pathogens.
READING
• Magic School Bus Inside Ralpie
113
WEEK 69: HOW COMMON ARE MICROSCOPIC ORGANISMS?
MATERIALS
• Pond scum (or a hay infusion made a week in advance)
ACTIVITY
• Collect pond scum. Alternatively, make a hay infusion a week in advance.
o How to make a hay infusion: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O-TUGOG43RM
• Prepare a slide. Be sure to include some “gunk”. Observe under microscope 100x.
• Draw, make up a name, describe briefly, and keep a tally of various creatures.
DISCUSSION
• How abundant are these creatures—rare or very common?
o Estimate how many organisms were in the drop of water they looked at, roughly
multiply by the number of drops in the jar, the number of jars to fill the pond, the
number of ponds, etc.
• Where do these fit in food chains/webs? How do they relate in food chains to insects, frogs
and toads, fish, shellfish, land animals, birds, humans?
o The tiny specks, rods, and corkscrews are bacteria feeding on detritus. Then the
larger microscopic organisms eat them. Those are then eaten by insect larva,
tadpoles, baby fish, clams, oysters, filter feeders. Those are then eaten by larger
fish, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and mammals.
o Also note ALGAE, green single cells, thread-like, or clusters. These are also eaten
by other organisms.
• Are these microscopic organisms important to life on Earth? How?
o They break down detritus and are at the bottom of many food chains.
• What does this tell us about needing to purify our water before using it?
• These samples were from “gunky” water. Clear water would have many less microscopic
organisms. Why?
o They can’t swim far so they stay near the food source—detritus.
• Organisms that can do photosynthesis can grow in open water since they only need light,
carbon dioxide, water, and chemical nutrients.
o The LIMITING FACTOR there is usually the nutrients.
o Sometimes fertilizer, manure, or sewage gives too many nutrients so that
photosynthetic microorganisms (phytoplankton) overgrow. This is called
EUTROPHICATION, and we’ll study it in a few years.
NOTEBOOK
• Drawings, names, descriptions, and tallies of creatures

• When you see a natural waterway, consider the microscopic organisms which may be
present. Especially consider those overgrown with algae and why that may be the case.
READING
• Magic School Bus In a Pickle
114
WEEK 70: HOW WERE MICROSCOPIC ORGANISMS DISCOVERED?
MATERIALS
• Pond scum (or a hay infusion made a week in advance)
ACTIVITY
• Continue to look at samples of pond scum or dirty water from different locations as
desired.
DISCUSSION
• How would you like to drink water that contained all those creatures? Do animals drink it?
• What about humans before they knew that microscopic organisms existed? How long ago
was that?
o The microscope was invented in 1665, in the time of the pilgrims.
• Most animals and people didn’t die from bad water, so we know that most of these
microscopic organisms are harmless and just get destroyed and digested in the digestive
system.
o Some are pathogenic (disease-causing) especially if the water is contaminated with
animal or human poop.
o This is why water treatment is a very important public health measure.
• Do you think that all microscopic organisms have been seen and identified? With so many
types and being found all over where there is water, there still may be some types
scientists haven’t discovered yet.
• The person who “discovers” something new isn’t usually the first person who saw it. To
discover something there are 3 steps:
o Observing the creature
o Researching to find that there are no published reports of this creature
o Writing and publishing a report
• Imagine how exciting the scientists must have been first discovering all these new
microscopic creatures.
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BN2-n04CCcI
o Much is still unknown about their behavior, life cycles, adaptations.
• As interested, look up resources to identify microscopic organisms. (See next week’s lesson
also.)
o https://www.biologycorner.com/worksheets/identifypond.html
o http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/index.html?http://www.microscopy-
uk.org.uk/pond/
• Note the different ways they use to move around.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Sketch these microorganisms. Work on drawing and observing skills. Make a piece of
artwork with various microorganisms.
• How do microscopic organisms fit into the great cycle of nature that we talked about a few
weeks ago?
• Give examples of how structure relates to function, even in single-celled creatures.
• What is phytoplankton? How can it become overgrown?
• Why do we have to treat water supplies? How is water treated?
115
NOTEBOOK
• Paragraph on the history of the discovery of microorganisms and drinking water treatment.

• Discuss where the water in our town comes from, the microorganisms that may be present
in it, and how water treatment removes or kills them. Compare to other sources of drinking
water in other communities.
READING
116
WEEK 71: WHAT ARE THESE MICROSCOPIC ORGANISMS? HOW MANY
CELLS DO THEY HAVE?
MATERIALS
• Plastic baggie
• Hair gel/Jell-o
• Various objects to represent things inside the microorganism’s membrane (beads, string,
beans, etc.)
• Microscope and slides (or use the drawings from previous weeks)
DISCUSSION
• Today we’re going to classify the creatures we saw in the last 2 weeks.
• We’re going to organize into single-celled or multi-cellular creatures.
o We can tell by their size and complexity (different organs or distinct parts)
o Write in the notebook page.
• Identify the single-celled organisms as paramecium, Euglena, and amoeba.
o Watch videos or look at photomicrographs.
• Observe that even though they are complex for a single cell, there are no internal
membranes/walls separating their insides into separate cells. All the things inside the cell
are free to move around.
• So a single cell can be an entire organism. This gives more evidence that a cell is the basic
unit of life.
• What’s the difference between a cell of a multi-celled organism, and the cell of a single-
celled organism?
o They both have to feed, absorb oxygen to oxidize food, excrete carbon dioxide and
other wastes.
o In a multi-celled organism the cell only has to absorb food and oxygen from the
circulatory system, and the cells are differentiated for a certain job.
o A single-celled organism has to fend for itself and do all the jobs.
• What’s an important thing it has to be able to do to fend for itself?
o Move around to search for food or light.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Make a model of one of these organisms with a plastic baggie as the outside membrane
and gel and various things inside.
NOTEBOOK
• List the organisms seen in the previous 2 weeks as single-celled or multi-celled.
• Draw a picture of a paramecium, Euglena, and amoeba.

• Bring up how we are different from and similar to single celled organisms.
READING
117
WEEK 72: HOW DO SINGLE-CELLED ORGANISMS MOVE?
MATERIALS
• Modeling clay
• Jell-o or cake to make models
DISCUSSION
• How do the three kinds of single-celled organisms move from one place to another?
o View videos of paramecium, Euglena, and amoeba.
• Paramecia have tiny hairs called cilia. They wave them to move smoothly in a direction.
• Euglenas have one or two long hairs called flagella at the end of the cell. They use them to
move jerkily or as a propeller to glide.
• Amoebas have very flexible cell membranes to flow around. They engulf food the same way
(amoeba feeding video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W6rnhiMxtKU).
• Discuss how complex these cells are.
o The paramecium has cilia, so it must have information (DNA) to tell how to make
the cilia, position them in the membrane, and use them together to move.
o They also must have some way to sense where food is so they can move toward it.
o Continue discussing the complexity of the paramecium, Euglena, and amoeba.
• These types of movement are also in some cells of multi-celled organisms, even humans!
o Cilia in the trachea and bronchia move mucus and dirt out of respiratory system.
 Note that smoking disables these cells and puts smoke into the lungs.
o Flagella on sperm cells.
o Amoeba-like cells in the immune system to engulf foreign particles.
o Euglenas (and chloroplasts) have an eyespot (red spot near base of flagellum) to
sense light and move toward it.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Continue viewing organisms under the microscope to try to see how these organisms
move.
• Make models of the structural features that single-celled organisms use to move. This
could be done with clay or with edible Jell-o/cake models.
NOTEBOOK
• Draw diagrams of the 3 different single-celled organisms (paramecium, Euglena, and
amoeba) moving and label how it works.

• Discuss parallels between how these microscopic organisms move compared to cells in other
organisms.
READING
118
WEEK 73: HOW DO WE CLASSIFY ORGANISMS SUCH AS PARAMECIA,
EUGLENA, AND AMOEBA?
MATERIALS
• Art and craft materials to make a poster or display
DISCUSSION
• What kingdom should these organisms go into: Plant, Animal, Fungi, or Bacteria?
• In the mid-1900s, along with the Fungi and Bacteria kingdoms, scientists decided to put
these single-celled organisms into their own kingdom, PROTISTA.
o It also includes some organisms that live in colonies of similar cells attached
together in certain ways.
o Protista can be divided into phyla, classes, orders, genera, and species.
• Are scientists making new species or just organizing what they see?
• Do you think the organization will ever need to change again as scientists discover more?
• Watch video on Kingdom Protista: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mNsFk2OZi3Q
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Make a poster or display of the 5 kingdoms.
• What can single-celled organisms do that tell us
about what cells can do?
• What do single-celled organisms tell us about
cells being the basic unit of life?
• Do multi-celled organisms move in similar ways
to single-celled organisms?
• What information must be contained in the DNA
of a single-celled organism?
• What are the similarities and differences
between Protista cells and cells of animal bodies?
• Why didn’t scientists put protists in with another kingdom? What did they do instead?
• How do our lungs clean themselves? What can smoking do?
• Why is it important to study microorganisms?
NOTEBOOK
• A paragraph about how protists are similar and different from members of the other 4
kingdoms.

• Bring up and identify living things in the 5 kingdoms, even if they’re too small to see.
READING
119
UNIT 6: SIMPLE MACHINES
WEEK 74: WHAT ARE LEVERS?
MATERIALS
• A desk or table that is too heavy for the student to lift (it can be made heavier by the
weight of someone sitting on it)
• Two-by-four (or other strong pole) 6 to 8 feet long
• Some of the following: bottle opener, fingernail clippers, scissors, nutcracker, pliers,
wheelbarrow, claw hammer
• Try to lift a heavy desk or table. (Sit on it to make it heavier if needed.)
• How could you use a tool to help you do this?
o Place a study object, such as a stack of books, near the table. Place the two-by-
four over the object and under the edge of the table. Push down on the other
end of the two-by-four to lift the table.
• You lifted the table using LEVERAGE. When you use the board this way, it’s called a LEVER.
o The point that the lever pivots on (the sturdy object or stack of books) is called the
FULCRUM.
o The two ends of the lever are called the LONG ARM and the SHORT ARM.
o The object you lift is called the LOAD and your pushing is called the EFFORT. These
are both forces.
o Can you explain how your level worked using some of these words?
• A smaller effort force on the long arm lets us lift a greater load on the short arm.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Analyze some everyday tools, such as a bottle opener, fingernail clippers, scissors,
nutcracker, pliers, wheelbarrow, claw hammer, fishing pole, even your elbow or knee
joint.
o Note that there may be some variations on levers (scissors- 2 levers hinged at
the fulcrum; claw hammer- bent lever to apply force at a right angle to the
load; wheelbarrow- fulcrum at the end; fishing pole- lever to amplify distance,
rather than force)
NOTEBOOK
• Diagram an everyday lever in action. Label the fulcrum, long arm, short arm, effort, and
load.

• Look for levers in use in everyday life. Analyze their use and try to use some of the new
vocabulary.
READING
120
WEEK 75: DO LEVERS PRODUCE ENERGY?
MATERIALS
• 20 paperclips
• Tape
• Ruler
• String
• Fine thread
• Some of the following from last week: bottle opener, fingernail clippers, scissors,
nutcracker, pliers, wheelbarrow, claw hammer
• Seesaw
• Scale
• Tape measure
• Does a lever create energy? It does increase the force at a certain point, but does that
mean that more energy comes out than is put in? (Think time.)
• Energy can be measured as the amount of force applied over a certain distance. So pushing
harder (with more force) requires more energy. Also pushing farther (over a greater
distance) requires more energy.
o So we can say the amount of energy is the force multiplied by the distance
something moves.
• For a lever, can we measure the force for the load and the force of our effort?
o Yes, we can measure the weight of the load and the weight of pushing down.
• Can we measure the distance the load and effort move?
o Of course, with a ruler!
• Make a lever to test if a lever creates energy.
o Tape a paperclip exactly halfway along the ruler so that a loop of the paper clip
extends off the ruler. Thread a string through this loop to suspend the ruler
horizontally.
o Balance it by adding bits of tape to the lighter end until it is perfectly
horizontal.
o Make 3 loops of fine thread that can be slipped over the ends of the ruler.
o On these loops, put weights of two, four, and eight paperclips, respectively.
• How is this ruler a lever? Where is the load to be raised? Where is the effort pushing down?
Where are the long and short arms of the lever?
o The load is the weight on one side, and the effort is the weight pulling down on the
other side. The long and short arms are however far the weights are from the
center, which is the fulcrum.
• Conduct tests using your lever. Be sure to keep the ruler well balanced and to conduct
your tests neatly to avoid error.
o Place a 8 paper-clip-weight on one end, 6 cm from the fulcrum. This is the load.
o Can you raise that load with the 4 paper-clip-weight as the effort on the other
end? (They should find that it balances 12 cm away from the fulcrum.)
o Do you see any relationship between these numbers? (Hint: Try multiplying the
weight times the distance on one side (8x6) and the weight times the distance
on the other side (4x12).)
o Let’s see if this pattern continues. Use the data sheet from the notebook pages
to record results.
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• Since weight is a force (the force of gravity), we can say: Force x Distance on one side =
Force x Distance on the other side. Did you see this to be true in your experiment?
o Yes, the product always matched on the load side and the effort side. (Unless there
were errors or sloppiness in the experimentation.)
• Our original question was: Does a lever create energy?
o With your findings, we now know the answer. Force applied over a distance is a way
of measuring energy. So if force times distance on one side is the same as force
times distance on the other side, what does that tell us about the energy on both
sides?
 It’s the same. There’s no new energy being made. There’s just a tradeoff
between either more force or more distance on both ends of the lever.
• Go back through the tools you analyzed last week. How does this principle apply?
You may not be able to measure it as exactly, but can you see that on one side
force is greater and on the other side distance is greater?
• Seesaw lever: Weigh the student and someone else on a scale. Bring a tape measure
to the playground. Balance the two people on the seesaw and measure how far
away they each are from the fulcrum. (Pay attention to where their center of
gravity is.) Multiply force x distance on each side. Is it equal?
• Imagine a time when you had to lift a heavy load. How could you have used a lever to do it?
• Why does a tool like tin shears have long handles and a short “nose?”
• Does a lever create energy? What does it do then?
• How do levers relate to the human body?
NOTEBOOK
• Data sheet and Conclusion: Do levers produce energy or no?
• Math problems related to the lever equation.

• Learn about the history of levers, specifically the Greek scientist Archimedes who once
said, “Give me a lever long enough and a place to stand and I can move the Earth.”
• At a doctor’s office, examine the balance on which patients are weighed. How does this
lever work?
• Point out other simple machines, like ramps, pulleys, gears, and hydraulic jacks. Ask if
these things use the same principle: force x distance = force x distance. (This will be
covered later in this unit.)
READING
• Archimedes: Mathematical Genius of the Ancient World
• Lever, Screw, and Inclined Plane: The Power of Simple Machines
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WEEK 76: WHAT ARE INCLINED PLANES?
MATERIALS
• Relatively large toy truck (or attach a load to make it weigh more)
• Board
• Stack of books or cinder block
• Pulley
• Weight-can
• Rope
• Scale
DISCUSSION
• In the last two weeks, you learned about levers. Do levers create energy?
o No, they just do a trade off with force and distance.
• In the next 4 weeks we’ll be learning about some other simple machines. Let’s start with
ramps. Imagine you need to raise a wheelbarrow full of dirt up a step. There are two basic
ways to do this, right?
o Lift it straight up, or push it up a ramp.
• Which is a shorter distance? Which is an easier push (less force)?
o Lifting it straight up is shorter, but pushing it up a ramp requires less force.
• Last week we saw that the force multiplied by the distance on one side of the lever is the
same as the force multiplied by the distance on the other side of the lever. Do you think
it’s true for a ramp, too? Is it the same amount of energy to lift the wheelbarrow straight
up vs. pushing it up a ramp? How could we test it?
ACTIVITY
• Here’s an idea you can use to test.
o Make a ramp with a board on a stack of books or a cinder block. Make sure it
won’t slip.
o Position a pulley at the top of the ramp. There should be space for the rope to
go down from the pulley beyond the ramp to hold a weight.
o Now, let’s imagine the first scenario: lifting the truck straight up. We’ll call this
the load. What’s the force times distance in that case?
 Weigh the truck to find the force you’d need to be able to lift it up
against the force of gravity.
 Then measure the distance from the ground to the top of the ramp.
 Multiply this force and distance to get the load.
o Next, let’s see the ramp scenario. We’ll call this the effort. Set the truck on the
ramp and attach the rope to the truck. The other end of the rope goes through
the pulley and attaches to the weight-can. Attach weight-can to the string
(maybe in a small bag) until the truck just balances, even when bumped a bit.
 Weigh the weight-can. This is the force for the effort to raise the truck
over the ramp.
 Measure the length of the inclined board. This is the distance that the
force must be applied over to lift the truck the same amount.
 Multiply this force and distance to get the effort.
o Continue with different loads on the truck or different angles of ramps.
DISCUSSION
• What did you find? Was the force times the distance equal for the load and the effort?
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o Yes (or nearly so because of error)
• What does a ramp do? Does it save energy?
o No, it’s a tradeoff between distance traveled and how hard you have to push for
that distance. The energy used is the same either way.
• Where are ramps in everyday life?
o Wheelchair ramps, wedges used to split wood, screw caps on bottles or jars, screws
and bolts (just inclined planes wound around a shaft)
NOTEBOOK
• Experimental lap report with conclusions: What does a ramp do?

• Look for ramps in everyday life and analyze them in terms of force and distance.
READING
124
WEEK 77: WHAT ARE PULLEYS?
MATERIALS
• 15-20 foot piece of rope with a broomstick tied to each end
• 2 people
• Demonstration pulley set
• String
• Weight-cans
• Marbles/pebbles
ACTIVITY
• Tug of war
1. Each person will take a broomstick at the end of the rope. Pull until there is
a winner.
2. Now untie one of the broomsticks. Tie that end of the rope to a solid
stationary object.
3. Hand the untied broomstick to the person who won. Have him/her stand
about 10 feet away from the solid stationary object where the end of the
rope is tied. Take the rope and loop it over their broomstick.
4. The loser from the first round will hold the other broomstick, still tied to
the other end of the rope.
5. Begin the pulling contest again until there is a winner.
DISCUSSION
• What happened in the second tug of war contest?
o The person who had the broomstick with the rope pulled over it had to pull twice as
hard to be even with the other person. The person with the end of rope tied to the
broomstick had to move back twice as far.
ACTIVITY
• Experiment with demonstration pulley sets. First with a single pulley.
1. Use two weight-cans with marbles/pebbles for the load and the effort.
Attach a weight-can to each end of the string looped over the single pulley.
2. Adjust the weights so the cans
balance. Weigh both the load and
the effort.
3. Now measure the distance the
effort moves as the load is raised
a certain amount.
4. Draw conclusions: What did the
pulley do?
• Add a second pulley (see b or c in the
diagram) and repeat the test.
• Add more pulleys if available. (See d or e in
the diagram)
• Multiply force and distance of each the load side and the effort side. Are the products
the same?
NOTEBOOK
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• Draw the set-ups of each tug of war game. Explain how there is a tradeoff in force and
distance in pulleys.
• Data from experimenting with demonstration pulley sets.

• Learn more about block and tackle on ships.
• Brainstorm other places where pulleys could be useful. (Cranes, rescue operations)
READING
126
WEEK 78: WHAT ARE GEARS?
MATERIALS
• Bicycle with gears
ACTIVITY
• Watch a video of gears animation. Where have you seen gears?
1. On a bike
• Bike gears demonstration
1. Put the bike in lowest gear. Put the pedals straight up and down. Mark the
location where the real wheel touches the ground.
2. Move the pedals forward exactly one revolution. Stop the bicycle at this
point. Measure how far the back wheel has moved.
3. Now, put the bike in highest gear and repeat.
DISCUSSION
• What happened?
o In both the highest and lowest gear, we kept the effort constant. The pedal
turned the same distance and used the same force.
o On the load side, a lower gear moved less distance, but it moved the bike with
more force.
o A higher gear moved farther, but it didn’t push with as much force.
• Why does low gear give you more power to go up hills? (Hint: Think about the force and
distance trade-off.)
o The distance the bike moves is less, but the force to push the bike forward is
more.
• Do gears create or produce energy?
o No, they only make a tradeoff with force and distance.
• What exactly is the tradeoff? (See the notebook page.)
o For low gear, find the ratio of the cogs on the gears on the front sprocket to
the cogs on the low sprocket. Now find the ratio when the bike is in high gear.
These ratios tell us the distance the bike will go with a turn of the pedals. So if
the high gear’s ratio was twice as high as the low gear’s, the distance traveled
would be twice as far. What does that tell us about the force? (Remember force
x distance stays the same.)
NOTEBOOK
• Count the cogs on each of the gears of your bike. Calculate the ratios between the front
and back sprocket for different gear combinations. What’s the tradeoff between force and
distance?

• Discuss gears in a car. When are lower gears used and when are higher gears used? Can you
hear when the car shifts gears? Learn more about how car transmissions work.
• Open the hood of your family’s car to observe the belt drives. (With caution and safety!)
Discuss how pulleys and belts are like sprockets and chains on bicycles. Measuring the
diameters of the pulleys will tell us how they trade off force and distance.
READING
127
WEEK 79: WHAT ARE HYDRAULIC LIFTS?
MATERIALS
• 12 large popsicles sticks
• Drill with a bit the same size as the skewers
• 8 skewers
• Cardboard
• Scissors
• Heavier duty clippers to cut through skewers
• Hot glue gun
• Super glue
• 12 pony beads
• 8 paper straws
• Water
• Food coloring
• 2 large syringes
• Tubing to connect the syringes
DISCUSSION
• Have you ever seen dump trucks or back hoe loaders with a shiny steel bar extending from
a sleeve and pushing on some other part of the machine to make it move?
o Show pictures of hydraulic equipment if not.
• Hydraulics lifts exert a lot of force to be able to lift huge loads! How do these things work?
o This video contains helpful diagrams and explanation.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KEs_h-ucJEs
o A hydraulic system has 2 cylinders and pistons. The smaller one is the effort. Let’s
say it has a cross-sectional area of 1 cm2. The larger one is the load. Let’s say it
has a cross-sectional area of 100 cm2.
o Fluid is pushed from the smaller to the larger cylinder. As fluid is squeezed,
pressure is distributed equally throughout the liquid. So if we push on the small
cylinder with 1 kg of pressure, there will be 1 kg of pressure on each of the 1 cm2
of the fluid. That would be 100 kg of pressure that the large cylinder pushes up.
• What’s the tradeoff though?
o If the small piston moves 10 cm, it will push 10 cm3 of fluid into the large cylinder.
Since the large cylinder has a 100 cm2 cross-sectional area, those 10 cm3 of fluid
will only move the larger piston 0.1 cm.
• If we multiply the force times the distance for each the load and the effort piston, will they
be the same?
o Yes
• Are machines unable to produce energy because the laws of thermodynamics don’t allow
them to?
o No! People came up with the laws of thermodynamics after seeing this general
principle in nature. They aren’t laws that machines have to follow.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Make a model hydraulic lift.
o See Steampoweredfamily.com
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EZG5LxDnBhg)
o Or teachbesideme.com
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• How does a ramp help you lift?
• Why do roadways and trails up mountains often switch back and forth?
• How does a lever help you lift?
• How do pulleys help you lift?
• How do gears help us?
• What sizes of gears would you want in the front and the back wheels of a bike if you’re
climbing a hill? Why? What if you want to go fast on a flat stretch? Why?
• How do hydraulic systems work in machines?
• Why do we say that force x distance on both the load and effort side must be equal? What
does it mean that this is a natural law?
• Some problems with the force x distance principle.
NOTEBOOK
• Label a diagram of a hydraulic lift and explain how it works.
• Calculations for hydraulic lifts

• Keep an eye out for hydraulic lifts in real life this week. Notice that usually the effort
cylinder is out of view near the engine, but you can probably see the load piston (with the
shiny steel bar coming out of the top) and the tube connecting from its base to the effort
cylinder.
READING
129
UNIT 7: LIFE OF PLANTS
WEEK 80: LET’S GROW SOME PLANTS!
(Lesson B-21 The Life of Plants I: Growing Plants for Fun, Food, and Learning)
This week is to begin planning for, preparing, purchasing seeds and plants, and
possibly planting your garden. Growing, weeding, watering, and harvesting will
continue for several months.
MATERIALS
• Small garden plot (3x3 ft or slightly bigger)
o Raised beds or a “tub garden” made from a child’s wading pool are ideal
• Seed catalog for vegetable and/or flower seeds
• Garden tools
• Soil sample
• Clear glass container, like a 100 ml graduated cylinder or a jar
DISCUSSION
• The first step in gardening is to prepare the soil. We dig and turn up the soil to bury and kill
weeds. Farmers with large fields often do this by plowing. Why don’t we want weeds to
grow with our plants?
o They’ll overtake and crowd out the plants we want to grow.
• Digging and turning the soil also loosens the soil and provides air spaces for the roots. Why
do roots need air spaces?
o To get oxygen and let off carbon dioxide so they can grow. Plant cells in the roots
(just like animal cells) use oxygen to break up sugars to use for energy.
• Plants need water. How does that affect what type of soil they need?
o It needs to be loose enough for water to soak in, but not too sandy or rocky so
water drains through too quickly.
• Plants also need certain elements (nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, calcium, and others).
Usually these are found in soil, but as the plants take them up and then are harvested the
soil runs out of them. How can they be replaced?
o Compost, mulches, manure, fertilizers
• We could also go to a wooded natural area to get soil. How is this soil that nature
produces so perfect for growing?
o It’s constantly getting compost from rotting dead leaves. These detritus feeders
also break up the soil and make it loose and perfect for growing.
• What do you want to grow? How much space will you need for your plants? Do those plants
grow well in this climate? How long do they take to grow before they are harvested?
o Make a plan and a map of your garden plot.
• Do you notice any plants in the seed catalogs starred as “New?” What does this mean? How
can there be new types of plants?
o They’ve been selectively bred from other varieties to be better in some way. All
crops that we have now have been selectively bred from wild species.
ACTIVITY
• Observe the sand, silt, and clay content of your soil.
o Place a small amount of soil in water in a clear glass container, like a 100 ml
graduated cylinder or a jar.
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o Shake the container vigorously until the clumps are broken up.
o Set the container aside and observe settling. The sand will settle first,
followed by silt, and it may take overnight for clay to settle.
NOTEBOOK
• Include your map of your garden plot, a list of what you’ve planted, and a record of notes
such as what day you planted, when plants germinated, when you harvested, etc.

• Draw attention to the fact that nearly everyone on Earth depends on the growth of plants.
• Discuss what organic gardening is, along with its benefits and its drawbacks. You could go
to a home and garden store to see what organic gardening isn’t by browsing the aisles of
herbicides, pesticides, and artificial fertilizers. Look for organically grown food as you do
your grocery shopping, and compare it to conventionally grown produce.
• Visit local farms and farmer’s markets to learn more.
READING
• Kingfisher Science Encyclopedia pg 56-57, 66-67
• Magic School Bus Gets Planted
• Corn is Maize by Aliki
• We Are the Gardeners
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WEEK 81: LET’S ADD SOME MULCH!
MATERIALS
• Will vary, depending on the method of composting chosen
DISCUSSION
• Good garden soil has two parts. The first is sand, silt, and clay. Where do these come from?
o Rocks that have broken down and eroded.
• The best soil for farming and gardening is called LOAM. It’s about 40% sand, 40% silt, and
20% clay. Why do you think this is the best?
o To hold the right amount of water. Too much sand lets water drain right through.
Too much clay becomes sticky and muddy, or rock-hard when it’s dry.
• The first part of garden soil was the INORGANIC part, the sand, silt, and clay. The second is
the ORGANIC part. (Not organic as in not using pesticides.) This is the well-rotted plant
material and/or manure. How does it become well-rotted?
o Detritus feeders, fungi, and bacteria feed on it and break it down into HUMUS.
• Humus makes soil better to work with, better at holding water, and gives it more nutrients.
You can’t add too much humus. What will happen if we add humus now, but never again,
even after a few years of gardening?
o Bacteria and fungi will continue to feed on it until it is totally reduced to CO2,
water, and the chemical nutrients. The humus will be used up!
• In natural environments, there is usually TOPSOIL and SUBSOIL. What’s the difference
between the two?
o The topsoil is where the decomposers work and where there’s humus. The subsoil is
lighter and more compact because it doesn’t have humus or decomposers/detritus
feeders working in it.
• A good way to do what nature does on its own in your garden is to add mulch, a layer of
rotting organic material covering the soil. What are some benefits of mulch?
o It reduces evaporation, keeps weeds from growing, provides essential nutrients,
and reduces erosion.
ACTIVITY
• Begin composting. There are many ways to do this that can be found online. Here
are some guidelines:
o Place yard wastes and kitchen scraps in a pile or a bin with composting
worms.
o Use only plant material, since meat can attract vermin.
o Turn the pile from time to time to re-introduce oxygen.
• If you want to be able to observe composting in action, you can use a small
aquarium or gallon glass jar with earthworms.
NOTEBOOK
• Write a paragraph to convince someone why they should use compost in their garden. Write
a second paragraph explaining how they should make and use compost.

• Take a field trip to visit a municipal composting facility.
READING
132
WEEK 82: CAN PLANTS GROW WITHOUT SOIL?
MATERIALS
• Purchased or DIY hydroponic system (optional)
DISCUSSION
• What do plants need from the soil?
o Chemical elements, water, and air
• So do plants really need the soil? Could they grow in water with dissolved air and nutrients
in it?
o Yes,
• It’s called HYDROPONIC GARDENING. Much fresh produce for US supermarkets is grown this
way. Do you think that this will replace farming on soil? (Hint: Think of how much
equipment, labor, and energy are needed to run hydroponic systems.)
o No, it wouldn’t be cost efficient for major crops like wheat, rice, and corn.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Design or purchase a hydroponic system and grow plants, such as lettuce, in it. See
this website for various types: https://www.thespruce.com/diy-hydroponic-systems-
5093454
• Why do farmers plow and till the soil?
• What are the pros and cons of conventional vs. organic agriculture?
• What is compost? How can we make compost?
• How can you grow plants without soil? What is hydroponics?
• What are some differences and similarities between how humans farm and how nature
grows and recycles?
• The world’s population is growing by tens of millions of people each year. What does this
mean for agriculture? What are some challenges the world will face? What are some
opportunities for careers?
NOTEBOOK
• Draw a diagram of hydroponic gardening with an explanation.

• Watch a video of commercial hydroponics operations.
READING
133
WEEK 83: HOW DOES A PLANT GROW ITS STEMS AND LEAVES?
MATERIALS
• A plant with a straight, twining, or branching stem (sunflowers, peas, beans, tomatoes,
squash, cucumbers, etc.)
• Ruler
DISCUSSION
• Remember that all living things are made of cells. So for any living thing, like your plants,
to grow, its cells must grow and divide. Where in the plant do cells divide, grow, and
differentiate? Everywhere? At a certain location? How could you find out?
• Choose and focus on one specific part of the plant at a time. Start with examining how
stems lengthen. Then continue with any other areas of interest, such as:
o Leaves
o Origin of stem and leaves
o Side branches
o Flower buds
o Fruit development
• Allow students to design experiments. Some may be beyond the resources they have and
will need to be modified. (This happens to scientists all the time.) Some may not give an
answer to the question. (But they may be a good learning opportunity.)
• Here are some suggestions to help students along as needed:
o Stems- Mark off 1 inch intervals from the base to the tip of the stem with a
permanent marker. Measure these intervals daily.
o Leaves- Mark or crosshatch leaves at a certain measurement. Measure the
markings daily.
o Origin of stem and leaves- Observe and dissect the stem’s tip. You may need to
look up photomicrographs of the APICAL MERISTEM. Notice how cells at the tip
divide, then grow and differentiate to become the stem and leaves.
o Side branches- Observe how between the main stem and the stem of each leaf is
a bud. They can grow into their own stems or remain dormant. Try cutting off
the main growing shoot of the plant. Observe what happens to the buds lower
down.
o Flower buds- Observe how the apical meristem stops growing in length and
switches from makes stems and leaves to growing a bud.
o Fruit development- Observe the parts of the flower, pollination, and fruit with
seeds inside. Note what type of fruit and seeds are produced by the plant, and
what this tells us about cell DNA, growth, and division.
 Note that grains like corn, wheat, and rice are actually grasses. Grasses
have highly modified flowers without petals
ACTIVITY
• Carry out the designed experiment over the next week or so.
NOTEBOOK
• Lab Report
• Drawing or diagram of apical meristem. Label regions of cell division, cell growth, and cells
differentiating to form leaves or stems.
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• Daily observing of garden plants, along with other plants on nature walks or during daily
life. Compare and contrast types of plants that you see.
READING
• The Reason for a Flower
Note: You may want to begin germinating the bean seeds for next week’s experiment
this week.
135
WEEK 84: HOW DOES A PLANT GROW ITS ROOTS?
MATERIALS
• A few bean seeds germinated in moist paper towel in a gallon bag (You may have begun this
last week to be ready to begin the experiment this week.)
DISCUSSION
• Based on what you’ve seen when you’ve pulled weeds or dug up plants, how do a plant’s
roots grow? Do they grow along with the top of the plant? Or do they stay small when the
top of the plant starts to grow?
o They grow in proportion to the top of the plant.
• Why do you think this is the case?
o Because as the plant gets bigger it needs more water and nutrients from the root
system.
• How exactly do roots grow? Do you think they grow like stems from the tip or from the
uppermost part or do they extend equally along the whole length? How could we find out?
o Germinate bean seeds on moist paper in a gallon bag. After the roots have
grown about an inch, mark them off in intervals. Measure how the intervals
change in length daily over the next week.
• As the experiment is ongoing or after it has been completed, look at photomicrographs of
root tip sections undergoing mitosis. Notice the protective root cap at the tip, actively
dividing cells right after it, larger cells further up, and differentiated cells even further up
(some to carry water or sugars, some for root hairs, etc.) Can you use these observations to
make a hypothesis on how the root grows?
o Cells are constantly dividing at the tip. Just behind that, the cells don’t divide, but
instead they grow and push the root tip further into the soil. Once they are full size
they can differentiate into a certain type.
• How is it that every cell in the plant, whether from the root hair, xylem and phloem,
leaves, or stem, all have the same DNA yet they develop so differently?
o All cells have the same “book” of information (DNA), but cells in different locations
“read from different pages.”
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Long term (10 week) root tracing: Plant a single seed of the same kind in a series of
10 small pots. Each week pull up one to observe how the root system has grown.
You could measure the length of the roots in relation to the length of the stem, or
you could trace each plant and its roots.
NOTEBOOK
• Lab Report of Root Growth

• Take a nature walk to examine or dissect growing stem tips and flower buds. Discuss what’s
happening with cell division, growth, and differentiation.
• Examine flowers. Review the parts and the roles of each part.
READING
136
WEEK 85: HOW DOES A PLANT GROW IN DIAMETER?
MATERIALS
• Tree
• Hammer and nail
• 1 toilet tissue tube (or half of a paper towel roll tube)
• ¼-inch wooden dowel rod cut to 4-inch length
• 15 plastic drinking straws cut to 4-inch lengths
• 34 plastic coffee stirrers (or small straws) cut to 4-inch lengths
• 1 piece of colored card stock paper
• 1 rubber band
• Ruler
• Scissors
• Scotch tape
DISCUSSION
• If plants grow at the tips of stems and roots, how do plants get bigger around (i.e. grow in
diameter)? Do the cells farther down start growing again later on? How could we find out?
o Drive a nail into a tree. Over a few months or years, keep a record of its height
from the ground as well as the circumference at that point.
• How is it that stems increase in diameter without increasing in length? Look at
photomicrographs of “2 year woody stem cross sections.” Do you see the division between
the woody central part and the outer bark part?
• There is a layer of cells here that meristematic, which means they can divide, grow, and
differentiate. This layer is the VASCULAR CAMBIUM. A cell here could divide, sending a new
cell inward to be one of the central woody cells. In this section there are cells that form
tubes for water and nutrients, and cells that are fibers that support the stem. Meanwhile,
the original meristematic cell can still divide again. Maybe next time, it divides to send a
cell outward to make up the bark. What is bark for?
o Protection and phloem tubes to transport sugar from the leaves to the other cells.
• Why do you think a tree will die if you peel its bark off all the way around?
o The sugars can’t get to the roots, so they starve and die.
• How do different cells all coming from this same meristematic cell know how to turn into
different kinds of cells?
o They read instructions on different “pages” of their DNA.
• You’ve seen that cells grow in diameter by pushing new cells toward the sides, not up or
down. Why do you think that many old trees (at least those that don’t shed off their bark)
have very deep ridges?
o Bark only grows at the inner layer. Outer bark can’t grow to become bigger around.
As a tree expands in circumference, the outer layer of bark splits and makes ridges.
• In some plants, we can cut off a stem and plant it to form a whole new plant with roots and
everything. Or some plants can grow new leaves and everything even from just a section of
their roots. How can this happen?
o Those meristematic cells can form cells of any type that the plant needs right
them.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Make a model of a cross-section of a stem or trunk with straws and a toilet paper tube.
https://www.plt.org/educator-tips/diy-model-to-explain-inner-tree-parts
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• How does a plant grow its stems? Leaves? Roots? etc.
• Would you ever see a single leaf by itself emerging from a bud or growing tip? Why not?
(Apical meristems make stems and leaves together.)
• What is the pattern of how both stems and roots grow?
• Why is the bark of most mature trees deeply ridged?
• Why does girdling (cutting the bark down to the wood all the way around the tree) kill the
tree?
• How are meristematic cells like human stem cells? (They both are able to develop into any
tissue or part of the living thing.)
• List different directions a plant cell might take as it divides and differentiates from a
meristematic cell. What do you think might be a signal to the cell to differentiate in that
way?
NOTEBOOK
• Look at a cross section of a tree trunk. Count how many years old the tree is based on its
rings.
• Observations that show that mature stems grow in diameter but not in length.

• Look for rings in wood in furniture or boards. Discuss why wood has these rings.
READING
• Eyewitness: Plant
138
UNIT 8: ELECTRICITY AND LIGHT
WEEK 86: HOW DO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND SWITCHES WORK?
MATERIALS
• Flashlight bulb (make sure it will illuminate with just one battery)
• Small board (6” x 6” or so)
• Hot glue
• Electrical wire
• AA Battery
ACTIVITY
• Flick a flashlight on and off. How does this work? Let’s build a flashlight to find out.
o Fasten/hot glue the battery and bulb to the board with a few inches
between them.
o Now try to make connections to light up your bulb.
DISCUSSION
• What connections made the bulb light up?
o Those that made a loop from the battery to the bulb and back again.
• Why are electrical hookups called CIRCUITS?
o A circuit is like a circle that the electricity goes through.
• Electricity is a flow of very tiny particles called ELECTRONS through the circuit. Look
closely at the filament in the light bulb. Do the electrons (which are matter) turn into light
(which is energy) when they go through the filament?
o No, matter doesn’t turn into energy. The same electrons keep flowing around. It’s
just that the filament resists the electrons’ flow, which makes friction, which
makes the filament glow.
• If the electrons go back to the battery, why can’t they be recycled and the battery last
forever?
o It’s like water behind a dam. The water high up behind the dam has high potential
energy. After it goes over the falls, it has low potential energy. Once all the water
(electrons in the analogy) is at low potential energy, the water stops falling (or the
battery is dead).
• What about electrical devices that are plugged in? How do they work? Is it similar to how
battery operated devices work? (Hint: Why do you think that a plug always has 2 main
prongs and slots? Note that we’ll talk about the third prong later in this unit.)
o One of the prongs is for current going in, and the other for current going out. All
electrical appliances use circuits for energy to flow through.
• What happens when you plug something in? Does electricity just come out of the plug? Is
there a big battery behind the wall?
o No, there are wires that carry electricity from a power station and back again.
• Turn the lights on and off. How do light switches work? (Hint: Think back to the bulb and
the battery. When did the light go off?)
o The switch breaks the connection to turn the light off, and re-makes the connection
to turn it back on.
NOTEBOOK
139
• Make diagrams showing the connections tried. Note whether they work or not.

• Watch SciShow Kids: The Power of Circuits!
• If interested in learning more about batteries, watch SciShow’s Batteries: A Big Idea that
Turned on the World. (Note that this is geared for older students.)
• Talk about electrical safety, such as never touching plugs, electrical boxes, or climbing
telephone poles.
• Take the opportunity to point out power stations of hydroelectric dams in your area, as
well as major power lines that carry electricity from them.
• Take apart any old discarded switches to see how they work.
READING
• Magic School Bus Gets Charged
• Switch On, Switch Off (Let’s Read and Find Out Science)
140
WEEK 87: WHICH MATERIALS WILL CONDUCT ELECTRICITY AND WHICH
WON’T?
MATERIALS
• Battery-bulb circuit from last week
• Various materials, such as aluminum foil, iron nail, copper penny, spoons (wooden, metal,
and plastic), plastic straw, rubber, paper, thread, crayon, pencil, etc.
ACTIVITY
• What materials will electricity flow through? What materials won’t it flow through? How can
we test to see?
• Use the battery-bulb circuit from last week to test various materials.
• Fill out the notebook page as you test.
o Note that CONDUCTORS conduct electricity to light the bulb. NON-CONDUCTORS
don’t conduct electricity, so the bulb won’t light.
DISCUSSION
• What types of materials conduct electricity? What types don’t?
o Metals, like iron, copper, and aluminum do. Rubber, plastic, glass, and non-metallic
materials don’t.
• (If students know about atomic structure…) Let’s think about why this is. Metal atoms have
a lot of electrons around their nucleus. In a piece of metal, you can imagine it like little
nuclei with a sea of electrons all around them. Electrons in this sea are free to flow around
the circuit. What about non-conductors, why don’t you think electricity flows through
them?
o They don’t have as many electrons and they hold them tighter, so they can’t flow.
• What if there is a gap in the wires? Even if they are metal and conductors, will electricity
flow?
o No, it has to be a closed circuit.
NOTEBOOK
• Table with 4 columns: Item Tested, Material from which it is made, Electrical Conductor,
Electrical Non-conductor

• Look for opportunities to talk about conductors and non-conductors. For example, discuss
why prongs on a power cord are made of metal, and why the casing of the cord is made of
plastic/rubber. Talk about electrical safety, such as never touching plugs, electrical boxes,
or climbing telephone poles.
READING
• Electrical Wizard: How Nikola Tesla Lit Up the World
• You Wouldn’t Want to Live Without Electricity!
141
WEEK 88: WHAT ARE VOLTS AND WHY IS HIGH VOLTAGE DANGEROUS?
MATERIALS
• None
DISCUSSION
• Why are electrical wires normally covered with plastic or rubber?
o Plastic and rubber are non-conductors. They keep the electricity in the wire instead
of going places we don’t want it.
• This covering is called INSULATION. Any non-conductor can be used for insulation. Air is a
non-conductor. Why are wires sometimes suspended in air, like on the way from a power
plant?
o To insulate them so the electricity doesn’t flow somewhere that we don’t want it.
• So why do wires in our house have to be insulated, but we can handle these flashlight
battery circuits with our bare hands? (Think time.)
• It’s like air pressure. If there’s too much air pressure in a balloon it pops. With electricity,
we call this pressure VOLTS. Will high or low voltage currents need more insulation?
o High voltage currents.
• A low voltage current can’t push its way through a material that doesn’t conduct electricity
or that doesn’t conduct it well. However, a high voltage current can. A flashlight battery
delivers energy with a pressure of 1.5 volts. A household circuit is 110, 120, or even 220
volts. Why is one dangerous, and one not?
o The human body isn’t a very good conductor. Low voltage from a flashlight battery
isn’t enough to push through it. But higher volts from household circuits can push
electricity through the body.
• If you touch something carrying high voltage, the current can push through your body and
return to the source through the ground. This makes you part of the circuit! What can
happen if electricity goes through your body?
o You’ll feel a shock. You could get burned or even die.
• Very high voltage can push current through non-conductors, even through air! Do you know
what this looks like when current jumps through air?
o A spark
• More volts will need more insulation. Look up power lines photographs. What do you think
these pancake looking discs that separate the wire from the tower are?
o Insulation to keep the current from jumping to the tower and being conducted to
the ground.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Since it’s hard to do activities with high voltage (unless you have access to a Van de
Graaff generator), instead watch the following physics lesson.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubZuSZYVBng
o Most of the lesson follows along nicely with this lesson. However, at the end it may
get confusing as he says (and demonstrates) that having 200,000 volts run through
your body isn’t necessarily dangerous. Explain that there is another factor, namely
how many electrons are passing through at a time. In this demonstration, there
were very, very few electrons passing through the man’s body, so even at a high
voltage it didn’t hurt him.
• What is an electric current?
142
• What is evidence that electrical devices have current going in one wire and coming out the
other in a circle?
• What is the difference between the current going in and the current coming out?
• Why is an electrical circuit basically a circle?
• How does a switch turn something on and off?
• Is this a conductor or a non-conductor? (Ask for various materials.)
• What is voltage? What is dangerous about high voltage? Why age high voltage currents
insulated?
• What are the things that look like stacks of pancakes used to suspend major power lines?
Why are they there?
NOTEBOOK
• Research a particular discovery or scientist related to electricity. Examples include:
Thomas Edison, Nikola Tesla, Benjamin Franklin, the light bulb, electric motors, electric
cars, Volta, Faraday, and Ohm. Write a paragraph about what you learn.

• Talk about electrical safety, such as never touching plugs, electrical boxes, removing
insulation, or climbing telephone poles. Look for signs that say “Danger: High Voltage.”
READING
• Electrical Wizard: How Nikola Tesla Lit Up the World
• You Wouldn’t Want to Live Without Electricity!
143
WEEK 89: WHAT CAUSES STATIC ELECTRICITY?
(Lesson C-13A Part 1)
N OTE : T HIS LESSON IS BETTER CONDUCTED DURING DRY WEATHER , LIKE IN THE WINTER .
MATERIALS
• 2 balloons
• Piece of wool or fleece
• String
DISCUSSION
• Have you ever reached for a doorknob after rubbing your feet on carpet and gotten
shocked? Have you ever been shocked after sliding down a slide and touching the ground?
Have you ever felt clothes stick together after you pull them from the dryer?
• This is called static electricity. It’s the same as lightning, but on a much smaller scale. So
what causes this static electricity? Is it the same as we learned before about electric
currents?
o No, currents are a flow of electrons in a loop. The electrons drop from high to low
potential energy when they do work in a device. There isn’t a loop here.
• STATIC means not moving (like stationary). It’s a crowd of electrons, not flowing, but
waiting for the opportunity. It’s like people in front of a big store or theater, waiting for it
to open.
• Electrons have a negative charge, so the object with the crowd of extra electrons has an
overall negative charge. Something with a shortage of electrons will have a positive charge.
What do positive and negative charges do when they’re near one another? (Hint: Think of
static cling from clothes removed from the dryer.)
o They attract.
• If the buildup of electrons is enough, electrons can jump across the gap from negative to
positive. It’s like the crowd suddenly breaking down the door and rushing in. What does this
look, sound, and feel like?
o A spark, snap, and shock
• Can you explain how rubbing your feet on carpet and then touching something metal gives
you a shock?
o Rubbing your feet on carpet moves electrons from the carpet into your feet. Your
body has a negative charge. When you reach to touch something, the electrons
jump to it first, giving you a shock.
o (Note that the object the electrons jump to can have a positive charge even if it
didn’t lose any electrons. As your negatively charged finger draws near, it pushes
away the electrons on the nearby surface, giving the object a positive charge in
that spot.)
• Remember that voltage is the pressure pushing electrons through something. The 1.5 volts
of a battery or the 120 volts of a household circuit aren’t enough to make electrons jump
through the air like this. So how much voltage is there behind a spark of static electricity?
o Quite a lot!
• But static electricity doesn’t really do any damage. That’s because it’s not very much
electricity-- only a few electrons, not a whole current. Some discharges of static electricity
can be very dangerous. Can you think of an example?
o Lightning! Clouds rub together and build up huge “crowds” of electrons. When they
jump to the ground or to another cloud, the giant spark is lightning.
• Lightning bolts are around 100 million volts, and have enough current to do damage! After
lightning comes the thunder. What do you think causes the thunder?
144
o The lightning heats the air so quickly that it expands and sends a very strong sound
wave through the air.
ACTIVITY
• Sticky balloon trick:
o Stroke an inflated balloon on a wool sweater or piece of fleece. Observe how it
sticks to the wall or ceiling.
o Stroke a second balloon. Now tie each charged balloon to strings 2-3 ft long.
What happens when you bring them near one another?
o Continue to play and experiment with the balloons.
NOTEBOOK
• Choose one of the following to draw a diagram of and explain how it works:
o Shocks from clothes fresh out of the dryer
o Rubbing your feet on carpet and getting a shock on a doorknob
o Getting a shock on the ground after sliding down a slide
o Lightning
o Sticky balloon trick

• Watch SciShow Kids: The Sticky Balloon Trick.
• Rewatch the Van de Graaf generator video lesson from last week. Talk about what causes
the professor’s hair to stand on end.
• After pulling clothes out of the dryer, turn off the lights and pull some of the clothes apart
that seem clung together. (This works best with fleece-type fabrics.) What do you feel,
hear, and see?
• Keep an eye out for lightning. Talk about lightning safety.
READING
• Kingfisher Science Encyclopedia pg 358-359 “Lightning”
• Magic School Bus Gets Charged
• How Ben Franklin Stole the Lightning
145
WEEK 90: HOW CAN WE USE STATIC ELECTRICITY IN TECHNOLOGY?
(Lesson C-13A Part 2)
MATERIALS
• Aluminum Foil
• Wax Paper or freezer paper
• Scissors
• 2 AA batteries
• Thick rubber band
• 2 office fasteners
• 2 paper clips
• Tape
• 2 wires with alligator clips
• Capacitor
• Multimeter
DISCUSSION
• Can people make devices that store static electricity, let it build up, and then suddenly let
it go to do some sort of useful work?
o Yes, we can have 2 surfaces, one positive and one negative, near each other but
insulated so that the charge doesn’t flow.
o One side is connected to the positive side of a power source and the other to the
negative side, to build up a charge. The sides will still hold this charge even after
the power source is disconnected.
o If the two surfaces are connected, the static charge will be released in a quick
“flash.”
• Think about the flash of a camera. Could a regular battery circuit light up the bulb so
bright? Why do you have to wait a few seconds between taking pictures with a flash?
o There’s a device (called a CAPACITOR) that stores charge from the battery as static
electricity. When you take a picture, it closes the circuit and high-voltage current
surges through the bulb to make a flash.
• A capacitor is usually made of two strips of aluminum foil separated by a strip of waxy
paper. This sandwich is rolled up into a tight space to make it smaller.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Make your own capacitor at home
o https://sciencewithkids.com/Experiments/Energy-Electricity-Experiments/how-
to-make-a-capacitor.html
• How is static electricity similar to usual electrical current? How is it different?
• Why do you get a shock sometimes when you touch a doorknob?
• When two things are rubbed together, what causes them to be attracted and repelled from
one another?
• What causes lightning?
• What is a capacitor? How is it made? How can it be used?
NOTEBOOK
• Diagram of capacitor and example of how they are used
146
• Take apart and observe old discarded capacitors.
• Watch https://thekidshouldseethis.com/post/86217177557
READING
147
WEEK 91: WHAT ARE SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS?
MATERIALS
• Battery-bulb circuit from weeks 86 and 87
• Extra battery
• Extra bulb
• Extra wires
• What will happen if we have two batteries in a circuit and we try connecting them different
ways?
• Draw out the different ways you could connect two batteries to a bulb. Here are some
that should be suggested if the student doesn’t try them on their own.
o In series (The circuit goes from the negative pole of one battery to the positive
pole of the next.)
o In parallel (The batteries are lined up parallel. The negative poles are
connected, the circuit goes through the bulb, and then back to the connected
positive poles.)
o Putting the batteries backwards (“nose to nose” or “bottom to bottom”)
• What happened and why?
o In series, the voltage of the 2 batteries adds together. The higher voltage (pressure
of the flow of the current) makes the bulb light up brighter.
o In parallel, the bulb glows the same as with 1 battery. The only difference is that it
will last longer since there are more chemicals to be used up in 2 batteries than in
1 before the energy runs out.
o Putting the batteries backwards doesn’t work because current only flows in one
direction through a battery.
• What will happen now if we have two bulbs in a circuit and we try connecting them
different ways?
• Draw out the different ways you could connect two bulbs to a battery. Here are some
that should be suggested if the student doesn’t try them on their own.
o In series (The circuit goes through one bulb, then through the next, before
returning to the battery.)
o In parallel (Each bulb is connected independently to the battery, like rails on a
ladder.)
• What happened and why?
• Each bulb has RESISTANCE to the current’s flow. You can think of it like friction. This is
what makes the bulb light up.
o In series, the bulb isn’t as bright. The resistance of the bulbs adds up and slows the
current, so the bulb is dimmer.
o In parallel, the bulbs glows the same as with 1 bulb. (If it doesn’t you’ll need to use
a bigger battery. A small battery won’t be able to deliver enough power output for
both at one time.) Each bulb has its own circuit from and back to the battery.
• Are the lights and outlets in our house wired in series or in parallel?
o In parallel, because if they were in series there’d be no way to turn any light on or
off without turning them all on or off at the same time! A break in the circuit would
turn everything off.
• What about switches? Are they wired in series or in parallel with the light bulb (or
whatever) they turn on and off?
148
o They have to be in series, so that the current flow is blocked from the appliance
when the switch is off.
NOTEBOOK
• The set-ups and results of your different configurations with 2 batteries and with 2 bulbs.

• Look for opportunities for discussion when turning on or off lights or appliances. Discuss and
imagine how the wiring throughout your home is connected.
READING
149
WEEK 92: WHAT ARE SHORT CIRCUITS, FUSES, AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS?
MATERIALS
• Battery-bulb circuit from weeks 86 and 87
• Fuse
• Set up a circuit with one bulb and one battery. With the ends of the wires still
maintaining contact with the bulb, briefly touch the two wires together.
• What happened? Why?
o A SHORT or SHORT CIRCUIT. The bulb went out because the current just flowed
through the shortcut circuit back to the bulb. It took the path of least resistance.
• In a flashlight battery circuit, this will only cause the battery to run out after a while. In a
household circuit, what could happen if you make your body a short circuit between two
wires?
o You will get shocked and could die.
• Short circuits can also cause fires. How?
o Electricity flowing through anything will make heat because of the resistance. With
a strong current this can cause a fire.
• If too many lights and appliances are plugged into the same circuit and all used at the same
time, the main wires bringing electricity to them can become so hot they can cause fires.
How could a safety feature be put into a circuit to protect against this?
o You’d need a way to disconnect the circuit as soon as there’s a short/overload.
• How could this be done?
o A FUSE or CIRCUIT BREAKER.
• Look at a fuse. How does it work?
o A fuse is just a piece of metal put in series with the rest of the circuit. If it gets too
hot from too much current flowing through it, the fuse melts. This breaks the
circuit. The fuse then needs to be replaced for the circuit to work again.
• How is a circuit breaker like a fuse? How is it different?
o A circuit breaker does the same thing, except too much current just makes a metal
bar expand and flips a switch to open the circuit. It only has to be switched back on
to make the circuit work again. After the short or overload is fixed, of course.
• Fuses and circuit breakers don’t protect against shocks or electrocution, and fires from
shorts or overloads can still happen, so we do still need to be careful!
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Make a poster of a wiring diagram of a household circuit showing where 2 or more
lights, switches, and a fuse should be connected. Include more as desired. (Week 1 of 2)
NOTEBOOK
• Should they be connected in series or in parallel?

• Talk about the danger of worn or frayed power cords, as well as damaged plugs or sockets.
• Look at your family’s circuit breaker or fuse box and discuss its importance.
READING
150
WEEK 93: WHY DO WE GROUND ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT?
MATERIALS
• Home wiring diagram poster from last week
DISCUSSION
• Have you ever seen a GROUND WIRE? The third prong on most plugs, power cords, and
sockets? What do you think it’s for?
• The Earth’s ground can absorb or give up huge amounts of electrons. So a short circuit can
be made between the power source and the ground. This is especially dangerous if your
body is short circuiting between the power source and the ground. Can you think of some
ways this could happen?
o Frayed casing on a wire, especially if your body has a good connection to the
ground. Plumbing always has a good connection to the ground, so you should never
use anything electrical in a bathtub or while touching plumbing.
o It can also be dangerous using electrical equipment standing outside or on a metal
ladder.
• This is where a ground wire comes in. A ground wire is connected to metal that goes into
the ground. In an appliance it connects to its case. Normally a ground wire doesn’t do
anything. But if there’s a short between the wiring and the case of the equipment, where
will the current go?
o Just through the ground wire and into the ground, instead of through someone’s
body who touches it.
• Can ground wires protect if they aren’t properly connected?
o No
• Can ground wires protect you if you work on electrical equipment that is still plugged in
and you short yourself across the wires?
o No, which is why you should always be sure that any electrical equipment is
unplugged before messing with it.
ACTIVITY
• Add a ground wire to your home wiring diagram from last week. Continue to expand as
desired.
• What’s the difference between series and parallel arrangement of batteries? What’s the
difference between series and parallel arrangement of lights in a circuit? How will each
arrangement affect voltage, current flow, and how bright the lights are?
• What’s the danger of using an electrical device in a bathtub?
• What is a “short” or short circuit? What is the danger? What is the device used to protect
against this danger?
• What’s the purpose of a ground wire? How is it connected?
NOTEBOOK
• Diagram how ground wires are connected. Explain why they are important.

• Draw attention to the ground wire on plugs, sockets, and power cords.
• Look for any worn or damaged electrical equipment in your home, and demonstrate how to
safely fix it.
151
READING
152
WEEK 94: WHAT IS LIGHT?
MATERIALS
• Mirror
• Darkened room with a sunny window
• Lamp/sunny window
• Hold a small mirror by a window or lamp. Use it to try to reflect light to different parts
of the darkened room.
• Now stand in the darkened corner. Use the mirror to try to reflect darkness out the
window or onto the lamp.
• What does light come from?
o A source, like the sun or a lamp.
• What does darkness come from?
o Blocking the light
• What is darkness? Is it something? Or is it just where something isn’t?
o Where there is no light
• What is light?
o A form of energy
• Energy can make things go, change, or work. What are some ways that light can make
things go, change, or work?
o Sunlight makes wind blow, photosynthesis, solar powered calculators and other
devices
• How can you make a shadow?
o Block the light
• What does this show about how light travels?
o It travels in straight lines out from the source.
• Why does light get dimmer as you get further away from a
lamp? (Hint: look how close the light rays are at a point
close to the center of the drawing compared to a point near
the edge of the circle.)
o The light rays are more spread out as you get
further away from the source. That means there are
less light rays hitting those places further away,
making them darker.
• How do our eyes use light to see?
o Light rays hit nerve cells in our eyes that send a message to the brain
• What has to go into our eyes so they can see?
o Light rays
• Can our eyes get images from light rays that don’t enter our eyes? Is there some way for our
eyes to reach out and capture an image of light rays that aren’t going towards our eyes?
o No
• Why can’t we see in the dark?
o There aren’t any light rays entering our eyes to hit the nerve cells and send a
message to our brain.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Have fun making shadow puppets with your hands in the evening.
NOTEBOOK
153
• How does light travel? Give evidence.

• Draw attention to shadows. Look for the light source and the object blocking the light rays.
READING
• Kingfisher Science Encyclopedia pg Light pg 260-261, Vision, Optical Illusions, pg 276-277,
Speed of Light pg 284
• Magic School Bus Gets a Bright Idea
• Eyewitness: Light
154
WEEK 95: WHAT HAPPENS WHEN LIGHT HITS SOMETHING?
(Lesson C-15 Parts 2 & 6)
MATERIALS
• Rubber ball
• Bowl of water
• Mirror, magnifying glass, cardboard, plastic wrap, tinfoil, a piece of colored plastic, and
any other materials of interest
DISCUSSION
• We see when light rays come into our eyes. So if we look at a lamp, light rays go from the
lamp into our eyes. But what if we’re looking at something that’s not a light source? How
can we see it?
• Demonstrate by dropping a rubber ball onto a hard surface, and then into a bowl of
water. How is this like what light rays can do?
o They can bounce or REFLECT off, or they can sink in and be ABSORBED.
• Do only mirrors reflect light? Or do other objects reflect light even if we can’t see our
reflection in them?
o Other things reflect light, too; otherwise we wouldn’t be able to see them at all.
The only things that we can see are those that reflect light rays into our eyes.
Mirrors just reflect the light in a very orderly way back to our eyes. Other rougher
surfaces reflect light in all directions.
• Some objects absorb some light rays and reflect others. Think about why we can see black
letters on a white page. What makes them look different?
o They reflect the light rays differently, and those differences in light rays are
translated into seeing black letters on a white page.
• What happens to light rays that are reflected but miss our eyes?
o They continue to bounce around the room. This is called DIFFUSE LIGHTING.
• Light rays can reflect, absorb, and a third thing that they can do is TRANSMIT, or go through
something. Can you think of a material that does this?
o Glass or clear plastic.
• Things that transmit light are called TRANSPARENT. (Those that don’t are OPAQUE.)
Sometimes people call them see-through. Why isn’t this technically correct?
o Our eyes don’t see through things. Light rays travel through the transparent object
and into our eyes.
• Let’s go back to light rays that are absorbed. What happens to them? Are they destroyed or
turned into matter? (Hint: Think about how black pavement feels in the sun, or how a solar
calculator works, or photosynthesis.)
o No, energy can’t be destroyed or turn into matter, but it can change forms.
Absorbed light rays usually turn into heat. Special solar cells can turn them into
electrical energy, and chloroplasts in plant cells can turn them into chemical
energy.
• Seeing is also an example of light rays being absorbed and turning into another form of
energy. The light energy triggers nerve impulses that go to our brains.
ACTIVITY
• Hypothesize what will happen to the beam of a flashlight with a mirror, magnifying
glass, cardboard, plastic wrap, tinfoil, a piece of colored plastic, and any other
materials of interest. Experiment to find out.
NOTEBOOK
155
• Results of the activity, indicating which materials allowed light to transmit, reflect, or be
absorbed

• When outside on a hot day, notice how wearing black clothing is hotter than wearing white
clothing. Discuss why this is.
• Call attention to transparent and opaque objects.
• Learn about how black lights work. How do they show that absorbed light isn’t destroyed?
READING
• Kingfisher Science Encyclopedia pg 262-267, 282-283
• Magic School Bus Gets a Bright Idea
156
WEEK 96: WHERE DO COLORS COME FROM?
MATERIALS
• Prism
• Sunny location
• 4 small mirrors
• 4 different colors of cellophane wrap (enough of each to cover a mirror)
• White surface or paper
• Play with a prism in direct sunlight. Where do the colors come from? Does the prism color
the light? Or does the prism just separate out the colors that are already in the sunlight?
How could we find out?
• Cover small mirrors with different colors of cellophane wrap. Then reflect sunlight
using the mirrors. Focus the reflected light from each mirror together onto a white
surface.
• What did you see? What does this tell us about light?
o The colored cellophane only let one color pass through (for example red only lets
red light through) but when we put all the colors together in a spot it turns white
again. This tells us that white light is made up of all different colors of light.
• A prism just spreads out the different colors of light rays so we can see them individually.
How many different colors are in a rainbow? Can we separate a rainbow right on the lines
between one color and the next?
o While we might recognize 6 or 7 main colors in the rainbow, they all blend into one
another, so we can’t really count a specific number of colors.
• Are colors in rainbows, including the one made by the prism, always in the same order?
o Yes!
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Continue experimenting with light, prisms, and colored cellophane wrap.
NOTEBOOK
• Draw a diagram to show how sunlight passes through a prism and spreads into a spectrum of
colors.

• When mixing paint, notice how adding many colors turns the paint brown or black. Discuss
how this is different from light. Adding more colors of pain absorbs and subtracts light from
the spectrum. When combining light rays of different colors each one adds energy to the
spectrum.
• Keep an eye out for natural rainbows. Reinforce that rainbows show about sunlight being
made up of all colors.
READING
• Magic School Bus Makes a Rainbow
157
WEEK 97: HOW DO WE SEE COLORS? WHAT ARE BLACK, WHITE, AND
GRAY?
(Lesson C-15 Parts 4&5)
MATERIALS
• Prism
• White surface/paper
• Black surface/paper
• Optical illusions (on internet or in a book)
• What have we learned so far about light?
o Light travels out from a source in a straight line until it hits something. When it hits
something, light can be absorbed, reflected, or transmitted.
o We can only see light rays that enter our eyes.
o Sunlight is made up of light rays of all colors of the rainbow.
• Why do we see something as a certain color, say red for example? Is it because it absorbs
red light?
o NO! It’s because it reflects red light back into our eyes. All of the other colors are
absorbed so that we only see red.
• Colored substances that absorb certain colors and reflect others are called PIGMENTS. The
rays that are reflected by these pigments can enter our eyes. What makes us perceive them
as different colors?
o Our brain interprets them as different colors.
• What about white? Why do we see something as white? (Hint: Think of how you can see all
of the colors of the spectrum when you shine a prism onto a white surface.)
o We see something as white when all colors of light reflect from the surface and
enter our eyes.
• What about black? What does the spectrum look like when shine a prism onto a black
surface?
o You can’t see any of the colors on a black surface. This means that black is
absorbing all colors and reflecting none, or almost none.
• Can you reason what causes something to look gray? Experiment with a prism, as desired.
o All colors and reflected and absorbed equally. The less they are reflected, the
darker the gray looks.
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
• Have fun with optical illusions. Look on the internet or find a book at your library with
optical illusions.
• What is some evidence that sunlight is made of all different colors of the rainbow?
• How does a prism cast a rainbow?
• Why does mixing paints make brown, but combining colors of light makes white?
• Sometimes cartoons show someone seeing by beams or arrows coming out from their eyes.
What’s wrong with that?
• When white light shines on different colored objects, why do they appear black, white,
gray, red, or any other color?
• Do light rays actually come in different colors? How do we see different colors?
• What happens to the energy of light rays that are absorbed?
158
• If you’re not in the direct line of a light source (such as reading a book under a tree), how
can you still have light to see?
• As you go into a cave, it gets darker and darker. Why?
• Certain animals that live in deep caves don’t have eyes. Why not?
NOTEBOOK
• Draw an item that you see nearby. Label its colors. Now describe why you see it as those
colors in terms of light rays that are reflected and absorbed.

• Continue to draw attention to different colors and why we see colors as we do.
READING
• Magic School Bus Makes a Rainbow
159
APPENDIX A: SUPPLY LIST BY WEEK
1 Microscope and slides; objects to view (a feather, butterfly wing, hair, salt crystals)
2 Microscope, 1 tsp homogenized whole milk, water
3 Water, food coloring, clear glass
For activity 1: watercolors, cardstock or watercolor paper, spray bottle of water
For activity 2: water soluble materials (salt, sugar, colored drink powder)
4 Water, food coloring, 2 clear glasses, access to refrigerator
5 1 cup crushed ice, water, saucepan, thermometer that can measure 0-100⁰ C, access to a
stove, rubbing alcohol, ice cube
6 Mug of hot chocolate/tea, water, thermometer that can measure 0-100⁰ C, 1 cup crushed ice, 2
saucepans, access to stove and refrigerator
7 Nutrition labels
8 Bike or ball pump, high pressure tire or ball for inflation
9 Baseball bat and ball, marbles, various sized containers
10 2 coffee cans or same size/material containers with lids, 2smaller containers that will fit inside
of the larger ones, ice cubes, a timer or a clock , various materials that you think can work
well to keep things cold, such as water, rags, shredded paper, etc.
11 Water bottle (square one is best), 1 straw, 1 skewer, scissors, 4 plastic caps, 4 pony beads,
glue gun or other glue, duct tape, vinegar, baking soda, tissue paper
12 Chemistry molecular models, or modeling clay of various colors and skewer pieces, or Legos
13 a 9-volt battery, a battery clip with alligator clamps attached to the end of each wire, 2
number 2 pencils, a small glass, water, a small piece of cardboard, and baking soda or salt
14 Microscope; wet slides with plant materials such as onion membrane, membranes of tropical-
type houseplants, individual leaves of moss, leaves of the aquarium plant Elodea, and thin
cross sections of stems or bark cut with a scalpel; wet slides with animal materials: cheek
epithelial cells by gently scraping inside of cheek with a toothpick, blood collected sterile-y
with a lancet
15 Cookie dough, sprinkles/chocolate chips/other decorations
16 Licorice sticks (or other thin, long candy), gumdrops or colored baby marshmallows, toothpicks
17 Cutting from a plant (such as a spider plant or other houseplant), pot with soil
18 Large piece of paper (big enough to fit the outline of the student’s body), markers/art supplies
19 Masking tape outline of the body on the floor (or the picture of the body’s organs from last
week), markers/art supplies, stethoscope (or a paper towel roll)
20 Small jar, 2 bendy straws, balloon, tape/glue, water, red food coloring
21 Assorted items of various densities (such as wood blocks, nails, plastic toys, rocks and pebbles,
foam, cork, coins, marbles, etc.)
22 Objects from last week, graduated cylinder, straw, balance or scale
23 Graduated cylinder, balance or scale, large tub of water, various household objects (that can
get wet)
24 Large clear measuring cup or other transparent bowl or container; cooking oil; scale; water;
household objects and foods such as: carrot sticks, other fruits/vegetables, or an egg; various
liquids, such as: salt water, dish soap, rubbing alcohol, honey, etc; food coloring; granola
ingredients
25 Gallon or half gallon milk jug, scissors, small container, water, scale, tinfoil, small weights
such as marbles/coins
26 Gallon or half gallon milk jug from last week, small container, water, salt, scale, tinfoil, small
weights such as marbles/coins
27 Drill, plastic bottle cap, drinking straw, sand, permanent marker, water and other liquids of
known density
** Gallon or half gallon milk jug from weeks 25-26, small container, water, scale, spring scale ,an
object that sinks in water, string
28 Sticks or dowels, plastic bag, string, masking tape
29 Several sheets of paper (recycled or scrap paper is fine)
30 Tub of water
31 Straightedge, medium-sized potato, 2 metal table forks, broom, marker
32 Paper plate, markers of 2 different colors, large butterfly paper clip, pencil
33 Straight-backed chair without armrests
160
34 Paper, glass of water
35 Marbles, other materials as needed for a designed experiment
36 Length of rope, stone and puddle (optional), vibrating string (such as on a guitar or a taut
rubber band), salt, cup, balloon, speaker (a small one is fine)
37 Tub of hot water, tub of ice water, glass bottle (narrow necked if possible), balloon, marker
38 Ice water, warm/hot water, food coloring, 4 ice cubes, matches, stick/paper to burn
39 Coin, metal tongs, adjustable crescent wrench
40 Glass jar with secure lid, 2 paper bags, access to freezer
41 Stove-top safe large flat dish, ice cube, water, food coloring, access to stove, paper, scissors,
string, hot lamp/pot of boiling water, materials for tin can pinwheel (optional)
42 Access to your home’s heating and cooling systems, paper and pencil
43 Flashlight, paper and pencil
44 Globe on stand, strips of paper and a marker/pen, tape/sticky tack, lamp or light bulb that’s
positioned in the middle of the room
45 None
46 Large wide-mouth jar, pebbles or marbles to fill jar 2/3 full, cotton batting, paper towels,
drinking straw, potted plant, clear plastic bag large enough to cover the plant
47 None, but try to visit your municipal water treatment plant or wastewater treatment plant
48 Will vary widely depending on the activity chosen
49 Large bowl, pollutants such as soil, salt, etc., small heavy dish, water, plastic wrap, large
rubber band or tape, marble/pebble
50 Medium-sized cardboard box, paper or plastic cup, string, marker, scissors, paper, or a very
long printed receipt from a store, tape, coins/marbles/small rocks/ other small, heavy objects
to use as weights, another person to help
51 Bowl, whipped cream, graham crackers, materials to build model buildings (such as tape,
popsicle sticks, skewers, modeling clay, etc.)
52 Vinegar, limestone, modeling clay of 2 or more different colors
53 Will vary depending on the chosen activity:
Cheerios, pipe cleaners, felt, small feathers
Printed templates from website, scissors, art supplies
Wheat bread, white bread, multigrain bread, gummy worms (fossil insects), gold fish, raisins or
lettuce, chocolate chips, straws, Florissant Formation template from website
54 Globe, world map, local map, white construction paper, teabag, markers/pens
55 Styrofoam ball, about 6” diameter, or a cabbage (for a more biodegradable, slightly more
challenging option), permanent marker, protractor, skewers, knife, string
56 Same materials as last week
57 Weather data from Week 51 of Volume 1 (or online records), graph paper, pencil, ruler, access
to climate graphs (see climate-data.org)
58 Access to climate graphs (see climate-data.org), lazy Susan, away to turn the Lazy Susan at a
constant rate (such as a Lego motor), large clear circular tub, frozen can of ice (Fill an empty
can with water and freeze overnight), warm water, food coloring
59 Access to climate graphs (see climate-data.org), globe, documentary about savannas
60 None
61 Specimens of mushrooms and fungi (can be collected during lesson)
62 Materials to make a diorama (optional)
63 Microscope, mushroom, white paper, bowl, cups, tea (without sugar)
64 Packaged food items (canned, frozen, refrigerated, dry, salted, preserved, and pickled foods),
bread (preferably homemade), plastic baggies, permanent marker
65 Cornstarch, water, vegetable oil, plastic baggie, food coloring (optional), compost, small
plastic items, composting bin/pit
66 ¼ cup store-bought plain yogurt; 2 quarts milk; Instapot, enameled Dutch oven, or other way
to keep the milk warm
67 Cardboard boxes (optional), art and craft supplies
68 None, but you may want to take a field trip to the water treatment plant, sewage treatment
plant, and/or garbage dump
69 Pond scum (or a hay infusion made a week in advance), microscope and slides
70 Pond scum (or a hay infusion made a week in advance), microscope and slides
71 Plastic baggie, hair gel/Jell-o, various objects to represent things inside the microorganism’s
161
membrane (beads, string, beans, etc.), microscope and slides (or use the drawings from
previous weeks)
72 Microscope and slides, modeling clay, Jell-o or cake to make models
73 Art and craft materials to make a poster or display
74 A desk or table that is too heavy for the student to lift (it can be made heavier by the weight of
someone sitting on it); two-by-four (or other strong pole) 6 to 8 feet long; some of the
following: Bottle opener, fingernail clippers, scissors, nutcracker, pliers, wheelbarrow, claw
hammer
75 20 paperclips; tape; ruler; string; fine thread; some of the following from last week: bottle
opener, fingernail clippers, scissors, nutcracker, pliers, wheelbarrow, claw hammer; seesaw;
scale; tape measure
76 Relatively large toy truck (or attach a load to make it weigh more), board, stack of books or
cinder block, pulley, weight-can, rope, scale
77 15-20 foot piece of rope with a broomstick tied to each end, 2 people, demonstration pulley
set, string, weight-cans, marbles/pebbles
78 Bicycle with gears
79 12 large popsicles sticks, drill with a bit the same size as the skewers, 8 skewers, cardboard,
scissors, heavier duty clippers to cut through skewers, hot glue gun, super glue, 12 pony beads,
8 paper straws, water, food coloring, 2 large syringes, tubing to connect the syringes
80 Small garden plot (3x3 ft or slightly bigger)- raised beds or a “tub garden” made from a child’s
wading pool are ideal; seed catalog for vegetable and/or flower seeds; garden tools; soil
sample; clear glass container, like a 100 ml graduated cylinder or a jar
81 Will vary, depending on the method of composting chosen
82 Purchased or DIY hydroponic system (optional)
83 A plant with a straight, twining, or branching stem (sunflowers, peas, beans, tomatoes, squash,
cucumbers, etc.), ruler, permanent marker
84 A few bean seeds germinated in moist paper towel in a gallon bag (You may have begun this
last week to be ready to begin the experiment this week.)
85 Tree, hammer and nail, toilet tissue tube (or half of a paper towel roll tube), ¼-inch wooden
dowel rod cut to 4-inch length, 15 plastic drinking straws cut to 4-inch lengths , 34 plastic
coffee stirrers (or small straws) cut to 4-inch lengths, 1 piece of colored card stock paper, 1
rubber band, ruler, scissors, Scotch tape
86 Flashlight bulb (make sure it will illuminate with just one battery), small board (6” x 6” or so),
hot glue, electrical wire, AA Battery
87 Battery-bulb circuit from last week; various materials, such as aluminum foil, iron nail, copper
penny, spoons (wooden, metal, and plastic), plastic straw, rubber, paper, thread, crayon,
pencil, etc.
88 None
89 2 balloons, piece of wool or fleece, string
90 Aluminum foil, wax paper or freezer paper, scissors, 2 AA batteries, thick rubber band, 2 office
fasteners, 2 paper clips, tape, 2 wires with alligator clips, capacitor, multimeter
91 Battery-bulb circuit from weeks 86 and 87, extra battery, extra bulb, extra wires
92 Battery-bulb circuit from weeks 86 and 87, fuse
93 Home wiring diagram poster from last week
94 Mirror, darkened room with a sunny window, lamp/sunny window
95 Rubber ball; bowl of water; mirror, magnifying glass, cardboard, plastic wrap, tinfoil, a piece
of colored plastic, and any other materials of interest
96 Prism, sunny location, 4 small mirrors, 4 different colors of cellophane wrap (enough of each to
cover a mirror), white surface or paper
97 Prism, white surface/paper, black surface/paper, optical illusions (on internet or in a book)
162
APPENDIX B: SUPPLEMENTARY BOOK LIST BY WEEK
Lesson Book supplements Author First Author Last
A-11 The Particle Model of Matter Roberta Baxter
& 12 Adventures with Atoms and Molecules: Chemistry Experiments for Robert C. Mebane
Young People, Books I-V
Atoms Chris Oxlade
Experiments with Solids, Liquids, and Gases Salvatore Tocci
A-13 Experiments with Heat and Energy Lisa Magloff
see books listed for A-11
A-14 Mixtures and Solutions Molly Aloian
Fizz, Bubble & Flash! Element Explorations & Atom Adventures for Anita Brandolini
Hands-On Science Fun
Elements and Compounds Lynnette Brent
The Periodic Table: Elements with Style! Adrian Dingle
The Properties of Elements and Compounds Lisa Hill
Elements and Compounds Chris Oxlade
The Periodic Table Salvatore Tocci
It's Elementary! Robert Winston
A-15 What Floats? What Sinks? A Look at Density Jennifer Boothroyd
Experiments with Water: Water and Buoyance Chris Oxlade
Experiments with Water Salvatore Tocci
A-16 Ships Anne Jankeliowitch
Boat Eric Kently
Why Do Ships Float? Susan Meredith
Markowitz
A-17 Experiments with Heat and Energy Lisa Magloff
Heat Ian F. Mahaney
Experiments with Heat Salvatore Tocci
Heat Sally M Walker
A-18 Solar Power Christine Petersen
See books listed for A-17
B-13 Microcosmos: Discovering the World Through icroscopic Images Brandon Broll
from 20X to Over 22 Million X Magnification
Hidden Worlds: Looking Through a Scientist's Microscope Steven Kramer
A World in a Drop of Water: Exploring with a Microscope Alvin Silverstein
B-14 Mighty Animal Cells Rebecca L Johnson
Powerful Plant Cells Rebecca L Johnson
B-15 Germ Zappers Fran Balkwill
Your Body Battles a Broken Bone Vicki Cobb
Your Body Battles a Cavity Vicki Cobb
Your Body Battles a Cold Vicki Cobb
Your Body Battles a Skinned Knee Vicki Cobb
Your Body Battles a Stomachache Vicki Cobb
Your Body Battles an Earache Vicki Cobb
Daring Cell Defenders Rebecca L Johnson
Ultra Organized Cell Systems Rebecca L Johnson
The Human Body Seymour Simon
Sneeze! Alexandra Siy
B-16 Bacteria Lynn Brunelle
Protists and Fungi Katie King
Molds, Mushrooms & Other Fungi Steve Parker
Fungi Elaine Pascoe
Fungi Robert Snedden
B-17 Molds, Mushrooms, & Other Fungi Steve Parker
163
Fungi Elaine Pascoe
Invisible Allies: Microbes that Shape our Lives Jeanette Farrell
B-18 Vaccinations Alvin Silverstein
(other books in series) Alvin Silverstein
Epidemic Brian Ward
Invisible Allies: Microbes That Shape Our Lives Jeanette Farrell
B-19 The Invisible ABC's: Exploring the World of Microbes Rodney P. Anderson
Hidden Worlds: Looking Through a Scientist's Microscope Stephen Kramer
The Bood, the Bad, the Slimy: The Secret Life of Microbes Sara L Latta
Micro Monsters: Life Under the Microscope Christopher Maynard
Pond Gordon Morrison
B-20 Not a Drop to Drink: Water for a Thirsty World Michael Burgan
Protists and Fungi Katie King
A World in a Drop of Water: Exploring with a Microscope Alvin Silverstein
One Well: The Story of Water on Earth Rochelle Strauss
Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek: First to See Microscopic Life Lisa Yount
B-21 Gardening with Children Monika Hanneman
Grow Your Own Pizza: Gardening Plans and Recipes for Kids Constance Hardesty
Kids' Container Gardening: Year-Round Projects for Inside and Out Cindy Krezel
Shoots, Butckets & Boots: Gardening Together with Children Sharon Lovejoy
Sunflower Houses: Inspiration from the Garden - A Book for Sharon Lovejoy
Children and Their Grown-Ups
B-22 Flowers John Farnadon
Leaves John Farnadon
Roots John Farnadon
Seeds John Farnadon
Stems John Farnadon
Powerful Plant Cells Rebecca L Johnson
(various titles) Gail Saunders-
Smith
C-8 The Wright Brothers for Kids: 21 Activities Exploring the Science Mary Kay Carson
and History of Flight
The Wright Brothers: How They Invented the Airplane Russell Freedman
The Story of Flight: Early Flying Machines, Balloons, Blimps, Dan Hagedorn
Gliders, Warplanes and Jets
The Story of Flight: Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum Judith Rinard
Airplanes Darlene R. Stille
The Klutz Book of Paper Airplanes Doug Stillinger
C-9 Awesome Experiments in Force & Motion Michael DiSpezio
Force and Motion John Graham
Gravity Lisa Hill
Issac Newton and Physics for Kids: His Life and Ideas with 21 Kerrie Logan Hollihan
Activities
Experiments with Friction Salvatore Tocci
Experiments with Gravity Salvatore Tocci
Experiments with Motion Salvatore Tocci
Experiments with Force and Motion Colin Utterley
For younger children:
Forces Make Things Move Kimberly Bradley
Brubaker
For older children:
The Spinning Blackboard and Other Dynamic Experiments on Paul Doherty
Force and Motion
C-10 Forces and Motion John Graham
Forces and Motion Casey Rand
164
Forces and Movement Peter D. Riley
Experiments with Motion Salvatore Tocci
for older children:
Awesome Experiments in Force & Motion Michael A. DiSpezio
The Spinning Blackboard and Other Dynamic Experiments on Paul Doherty
Force and Motion
C-11 Levers Angela Royston
Simple Machines: Forces in Action Buffy Silverman
Level, Screw, and Inclined Plane: The Power of Simple Machines Gare Thompson
Experiments with Simple Machines Salvatore Tocci
How Do You Lift a Lion? Robert E Wells
C-12 Pulleys and Gears Angela Royston
Ramps and Wedges Angela Royston
Wheels and Cranks Angela Royston
Lever, Screw, and Inclined Plane: The Power of Simple Machines Gare Thompson
Experiments with Simple Machines Salvatore Tocci
C-13 Benjamin Franklin, American Genius: His Life and Ideas with 21 Brandon Marie Miller
Activities
Electricity Steve Parker
How Ben Franklin Stole the Lightning Rosalyn Schanzer
Lightning Seymour Simon
C-13A Benjamin Franklin, American Genius: His Life and Ideas with 21 Brandon Marie Miller
Activities
Electricity Steve Parker
How Ben Franklin Stole the Lightning Rosalyn Schanzer
Lightning Seymour Simon
C-14 Thomas Edison for Kids: His Life and Ideas with 22 Activities Laurie Carlson
The Science of Electricity & Magnetism: Projects and Experiments Steve Parker
with Electricity and Magnets
Battery Science: Make Widgets that Work and Gadgets that Go Doug Stillinger
Experiments with Electricity Salvatore Tocci
Experiments with Electricty and Magnetism Chris Woodford
for older children:
The Cool Hot Rod and Other Electrifying Experiments on Energy Paul Doherty
and Matter
C-15 Animal Eyes Dawn Cusick
Experiments with Light and Color Tom Jackson
Eyes and Ears Seymour Simon
Experiments with Light Salvatore Tocci
for older children:
The Magic Wand and Other Bright Experiments on Light and Color Paul Doherty
The Cheshire Cat and Other Eye-Popping Experiments on How We Paul Doherty
See the World
C-9 Explore Spring: 25 Great Ways to Learn About Spring Maxine Anderson
Explore Winter: 25 Great Ways to Learn About Winter Maxine Anderson
Day and Night Jason Cooper
Season to Season Jason Cooper
The Four Seasons: Uncovering Nature Annie Jones
Seasons Paul and Diane Sipiera
M
for younger children:
Sunshine Makes the Seasons Franklyn M Branley
The Reason for Seasons Gail Gibbons
D-10 Common Ground: The Water, Earth, and Air We Share Molly Bang
Not a Drop to Drink: Water for a Thirsty World Michael Burgan
165
A River Ran Wild: An Environmental History Lynne Cherry
Down the Drain: Conserving Water Anita Ganeri
One Well: The Story of Water on Earth Rochelle Strauss
Water Pollution Rhonda Lucas Donald
Did a Dinosaur Drink this Water? Robert E. Wells
D-11 Earthquakes Franklyn Branley
Volcanoes Franklyn Branley
Plate Tectonics Charlotte Luongo
Earthquakes Seymour Simon
Mountains Seymour Simon
Volcanoes Seymour Simon
for younger children:
How Mountains Are Made Kathleen Zoehfeld
Weidner
D-12 Sea Clocks: The Story of Longitude Louise Bordon
The Longitude Prize Joan Dash
Tools of Navigation: A Kid's Guide to the History & Science of Rachel Dickinson
Finding Your Way
The Man Who Made Time Travel Kathryn Lasky
Carry On, Mr. Bowditch Jean Lee Latham
Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Dava Sobel
Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time
D-13 Desert:
Discover the Desert: The Driest Place on Earth Kathryn Ceceri
Discovering the Tropical Savanna Janey Levy
Eyewitness: Desert Miranda MacQuitty
Deserts Seymour Simon
Desert Tom Warhol
Tropics:
Discover the Amazon: The World's Largest Rainforest Lauri Berkenkamp
Journey into the Rainforest Tim Knight
The Most Beautiful Roof in the World: Exploring the Rainforest Kathryn Lasky
Canopy
Discovering the Rain Forests Janey Levy
Rainforest Thomas Marent
Torpical Rainforests Seymour Simon
Savanna:
The Prarie Builders: Reconstructing America's Lost Grasslands Sneed B. III Collard
Grasslands: Sweeping Savannas Jeri Freedman
Discovering the Tropical Savanna Janey Levy
Savannas: Life in the Tropical Grasslands Laurie Toupin
Grassland Tom Warhol
166

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SCIENCE 3-5: LESSON PLANS

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY (13 WEEKS)

UNIT 2: CELLS (7 WEEKS)

UNIT 3: BOATS AND PLANES (16 WEEKS)

UNIT 4: EARTH SCIENCE, SEASONS , AND WEATHER (24 WEEKS)

UNIT 5: FUNGI, BACTERIA, AND MICROSCOPIC ORGANISMS (13 WEEKS )

UNIT 6: SIMPLE MACHINES (6 WEEKS)

UNIT 7: LIFE OF PLANTS (6 WEEKS)

UNIT 8: ELECTRICITY AND LIGHT (12 WEEKS)

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

DISCUSSION: D IRECTION OF MOVEMENT IN D IFFUSION

DISCUSSION: D IFFUSION IS AN ESSENTIAL PROCESS IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

INTERACTIVE DISCUSSION: EVAPORATIVE COOLING

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

INTERACTIVE DISCUSSION: HEAT RELEASE ON CONDENSATION, COOLING, AND FREEZING

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

DISCUSSION: LIQUID GASES

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

• Magic School Bus Gets Ready, Set, Dough

DISCUSSION: W HAT DO STUDENTS SEE?

DISCUSSION: STUFF OUTSIDE OF CELLS

DISCUSSION: HOW BIG OR SMALL ARE CELLS?

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

DISCUSSION: W HERE DOES THE PROCESS START?

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

DISCUSSION: STEM CELLS

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

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TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

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TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

INTERACTIVE DISCUSSION AND EXPERIMENT

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

ACTIVITY- BUILD THE HYDROMETER

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK

TEACHABLE MOMENTS THROUGHOUT WEEK