Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Forster1999 Pdf3°
Forster1999 Pdf3°
© Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1999, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and
350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA. Volume 6 Number 2 April 1999
80 GENDER, WORK AND ORGANIZATION
Study objectives and methodology the employee and, where appropriate, their
partners. These were posted 4–6 weeks prior
The data uncovered in these surveys offered a to the move and then four and eight months
unique opportunity to look at a group of 92 after the move. The questionnaire surveys were
expatriate British women professionals and conducted between July 1994 and December
managers from their preparation for the 1995. The questionnaires employed a variety
move, coping with new jobs and new work of measures. Some of these have been used
demands in alien environments and their in previous studies of domestic relocations
general adaptation twelve months after the and others were designed specifically for this
move. It also looks briefly at personnel policies study. Most of these were replicated at each
affecting the management of women on IAs. time point in order to analyse changes over
Where appropriate, comparisons are made time. These data were analysed using a stand-
with the experiences of male expatriates to ard SPSSx statistical package. The paper is
highlight similarities and differences between divided into three main sections reflecting this
the two groups. The impact of attitudinal and research design and reports on the main find-
cultural barriers on work performance is also ings at Time 1, 2 and 3.
examined. However, this paper is not intended The project was designed to look at how
to be a comparison of women managers on IAs these women had coped with the first twelve
with women managers in the UK or a detailed months of an IA in terms of their affective
account of strategic international human well-being, motivation, job (dis)satisfaction
resource management in UK companies. and work performance. We also wanted to
Because of the small numbers involved, we look at how they perceived the effectiveness
were not concerned with looking at any of the training and cultural briefings they had
work/family overlap issues or at male received prior to their move, their adaptation
‘trailing’ partners. to new cultures and how they coped with
The research1 was conducted between different cultural expectations about ‘correct’
March 1994 and March 1996 and involved 36 gender roles. Last, we wanted to look at their
UK-based companies. These were selected personal self-efficacy and general mental
from a mail shot of 200 leading UK-based health throughout this period. The principal
organizations in autumn 1993. Selection was measures we used at each time point to
based on a number of criteria. These included: ascertain this information were:
the range of their international operations
(from multinationals down to companies who • Warr’s 1987 Vitamin Model (alpha = .78)
were relative newcomers to the international was utilized to analyse affective well-
scene); company sector; the number of ex- being and performance. A new (piloted)
patriates who could be contacted during the 27-item job motivation and satisfaction
research and the willingness of the companies scale (alpha = .81) was developed for
to collaborate during the project (as this this study that looked at autonomy and
required sustained administrative assistance discretion (freedom to choose work
over a two-year period). Initially, twenty in- methods, targeting of tasks and inde-
terviews were conducted with personnel/HR pendence of action); opportunities to use
managers in a representative selection of the professional and technical skills; clarity
companies in order to obtain information on (the setting of clear work objectives by
the management of IAs from the company’s their boss and being able to plan effect-
perspective and to elicit the views and opin- ively); perceived workload (and stress
ions of HR and personnel managers dealing levels); social support (from colleagues
with expatriates and IAs. These also provided and senior management) and com-
an opportunity to pilot the questionnaires. munication.
The study employed a multivariate theor- • The General Health Questionnaire
etical model, a longitudinal research design (GHQ). Previous research on domestic
and both quantitative and qualitative data relocation has shown this to be amongst
gathering methods. The longitudinal design the top three most stressful experiences
was employed primarily to look at changes that people are likely to encounter in their
and processes over time rather than relying lives (Munton and Forster 1992). The
on cross-sectional ex post factum analyses stress levels of our respondents were
characteristic of almost every other study in analysed throughout the survey using
this area (see Forster 1992 for a fuller descrip- the GHQ-12 in order to see if these
tion of the research model). The companies women had been experiencing dis-
provided the names and contact addresses ruptive levels of stress during their IAs.
of employees who had been notified of an This is a very reliable instrument that
IA. Separate questionnaires were sent to has been used to detect levels of stress in
Sample characteristics
A total of 1,824 questionnaires were returned Table 3: Company sector
over Times 1, 2 and 3. The return rate at Time
1 was 62%. A breakdown of these question-
Sector %
naire returns over the three time points is
presented in Table 1.
Banking/finance 21
IT/electronics 16
Energy exploration/distribution 5
Attitudes towards work and Engineering 2
the impending IA at Time 1 Clothing/textiles 1
Retail/marketing 24
Biographical details Chemicals 11
Motor manufacturing 5
Some 89% of the respondents were single Pharmaceuticals 2
(contrasting with 27% of men in the sample). Other 4
Of those in partnerships, only seven women
those UK international companies with long workload was ‘too great’ and 18% reported
experience of expatriate management — ICI, that they felt ‘used up at the end of the
BP, and so forth — were involved. Second, working day’. Finally, very few reported
many of these companies did not have enough worrying about their work while at home or
‘traditional’ expatriates to fill overseas posts reporting any conflicts between their work
(because of downsizing and voluntary re- and personal lives prior to the move abroad.
dundancies amongst older employees in the There was little apparent concern about
1980s and early 1990s). Third, there has been moving away from family and friends and, in
a trend in recent years for some of these com- some cases, partners.
panies to actively push the careers and job
prospects of bright young women recruits in
Selection criteria for IAs
a domestic context (in banking, finance and
marketing, for example). As a result, many Other research has shown that there is great
of their junior and middle management posi- variability in the selection criteria employed
tions are now occupied by women seeking by UK companies when selecting staff for
more senior positions through international IAs. This research confirms that this vari-
experience. ability extends to many UK-based companies.
However, there were noticeable differences Table 5 shows the criteria which respondents
in the relative seniority of male and female reported being used by their company when
expatriates (Table 4). In addition, as a distinct selecting them for IAs.
sub-group, they are much younger than their There are some obvious differences in the
male colleagues (on average — ten years) and criteria used for the men and women in
are in more junior management positions. this sample. Women were expected to have
This shows that a ‘glass ceiling’ also exists in greater language skills but were less likely to
international careers at this moment in time. undergo psychometric testing (perhaps, in
They work in a narrower range of professions the words of one (male) HR Manager, because
and have experienced much less upward ‘we know that most of our younger women
mobility in career terms. They are also much already have a lot of the skills we are looking
less likely to be married and it is very rare for for — particularly in terms of their com-
them to have children. Their partners are munication and learning skills’). Previous
almost invariably in full-time employment.
The data, derived from the measures
described earlier, show that almost all women Table 5: Selection criteria for IAs
staff reported a high degree of satisfaction
with their personal career development, pre- Women % Men %
vious opportunities for career advancement
and their future prospects with their current Job interviews 100 98
employers prior to the IA. Six out of seven Work performance
reported high levels of autonomy and dis- appraisals 95 96
cretion, good opportunities to make use of Domestic work
their professional and technical skills and ad- track-record 90 94
equate to good social support and commun- Professional/
ication (with colleagues and superiors) at educational
work. In short, most staff reported a high qualifications 61 52
level of satisfaction with their jobs, prior to Language proficiency 29 9
their IA. On a less positive note, most of the Knowledge of local
women reported working in high pressure business culture 33 43
and high stress jobs and one quarter reported Familiarity with
local cultures 22 34
that their job often made them feel ‘tense’ or
Psychometric testing 15 30
‘worried’. Some 45% felt that their current Other psychological
tests 12 19
Table 4: Occupational status Previous experience
of an IA 9 35
Family circumstances 6 24
Women % Men % Willingness of spouse/
partner to move 6 43
Spouse/partner’s
Executive/Director 2 18
employment status 3 10
Senior Management 14 40
Middle Management 37 28
Junior Management 47 14 Note: Percentage of respondents reporting each item as
having been used in their case.
experience of an IA was usually not consid- only be as good as the people doing the
ered important for women, nor were family interviews … We are a long way from
circumstances. sensitizing senior management that this is
Another significant fact that became clear an issue which has to be faced — soon.
from our interviews with HR managers was
that very few of these companies had any Later in the interview she commented:
clear, long-term rationale underpinning either
the kinds of competencies they were looking As regards the position of women, we are
for in their (potential) international managers an equal opportunities employer [laughs],
(women or men) or precisely what other no, we do take this very seriously but even
criteria they should employ in order to ensure though we do have more women coming
that they were getting the best person for in to the company, we are not specifically
the job. This is not to say that they were not targeting them for overseas postings. In
actively working on these issues. All had some fact, I would say that our younger women
ideas about the need for identifying ‘good are probably more reluctant to put them-
communicators’, ‘culturally sensitive staff’, selves forward for these and I’m not
‘highly motivated staff’, ‘people who are able absolutely sure why … but, it may well
to think on their feet’, and so forth. The inter- be something we may have to address in
view data shows that they were all trying to the future as the number of potential male
develop, either in-house or through the use expatriates declines.
of consultants, more rigorous and uniform
methods of selecting and developing ex- Across the 36 companies, there was also great
patriate managers. While there was very little variability in the level of support and training
evidence that companies were actively dis- provided by the companies for these women
criminating against women, some of our (as there was for their male colleagues).
interviewees were candid enough to confirm Obviously, this provision is dependent on
that women were simply not considered the nature of each IA and the knowledge and
for postings to what can be broadly described experience of the individual expatriate. In
as ‘traditional’ patriarchal societies in, for some IAs neither language training nor cross-
example, the Middle East. Furthermore, none cultural briefings may be necessary. Table 6
of these companies had any explicit formal shows the types of training received by our
policies for specifically targeting more respondents.
women for IAs. The official line in all of
the organizations was ‘the best person for
Attitudes towards the impending IA
the job’.
Despite this, there are obvious attractions These women were almost universally enthu-
for companies in selecting younger single siastic about the impending IA, with over
women (and men) for IAs, as the following 90% reporting being ‘very’ or ‘extremely
quote from an interview with an HR man- enthusiastic’ about this. Some 90% saw it as
ager in an energy exploration company something that would involve ‘a significant
illustrates. change in their lives’ and 98% saw it as ‘a
positive challenge’. In order to assess how
Q. When you select people for IAs, what well respondents felt they would cope with
are your selection criteria? the IA, a ten-item measure was used to rate
A. [Laughs] Are you available, are you perceived self-efficacy (the ability to cope with
single, preferably, and can you go tomor- new situations, dealing with uncertainties in
row!? And, I’m not being flippant about life, adaptability to new challenges, and so
this. At the present time there is no stand-
ard way of selecting people for foreign
assignments … The bottom line is that if Table 6: Training and support provided by the
people are told to go, they go … and line companies for staff
managers have the final say in this … All
the other stuff which we have talked about Women % Men %
like psychological suitability, the family
and so on has not gone into the equation —
Cultural familiarization
yet … Some managers are better than
training 81 77
others, and we do a good job but it’s Induction programmes 73 60
unofficial and erratic. We are hoping to Language training 61 49
introduce a minimum set of criteria into Mentor in the new job 72 48
interviews for foreign assignments but Job-related training 70 40
without support from the top, this will
forth). Their average score was high at 4.7 (on some IAs, because of cultural barriers in some
a five-point scale). These scores were actually countries (particularly in Africa, the Middle
marginally higher than those of their male East and parts of East Asia). However, it
colleagues (4.5). They were also overwhelm- appears that younger women have an edge
ingly enthusiastic about their forthcoming over their male colleagues (of all ages) when
move. When compared with their single male it comes to postings to European countries.
colleagues, they had similarly low levels of The interviews with HR managers indicate
concern about the social/family aspects of the that this is because more of their women
move but slightly greater worries and graduates have studied one or more Euro-
concerns about the new job in terms of how pean languages at university, had study
they would perform and how they would get placements at European universities or had
on with a new boss and colleagues. This is not experience of working in Europe (or, in a few
a surprising result given the relative inexperi- cases, all three).
ence of this group in terms of IAs.
Relocation support provided by the
Attitudes towards the new job and companies for women on IAs
motivation and performance after A significant predictor of successful out-
four months (Time 2) comes to domestic relocations is the provision
of comprehensive and flexible relocation
The Time 2 questionnaire, received three packages (Munton and Forster 1992) and
months after starting the IA, repeated many there is every reason to suppose that this will
of the measures used at Time 1 and also apply in an international context. Not sur-
looked specifically at how our respondents prisingly, all the companies provided these
were coping with their new jobs, their rat- women with written information on the new
ings of the training and cross-cultural brief- area and relocation expenses guides. Most
ings they had received and how they were provide generous disturbance allowances,
coping with new cultures and languages. foreign-service allowances and cost of living
One of the most notable early findings from premiums (in a variety of permutations). The
the Time 2 survey were differences in the respondents in this survey were overwhelm-
location of the IAs which men and women ingly positive about these. For example, a
embarked on (Table 7). single item measure at Time 2 asked employees
It is noticeable that most of these women to rate how helpful, overall, they were find-
were posted to areas that have either well ing the advice, information and support being
established expatriate communities or to provided by their employer; 95% reported that
cultures where their gender would not be this had been either ‘quite’ or ‘very helpful’.
regarded as an issue in terms of actually
getting their work done or in interacting with Evaluations of the pre-departure
host country nationals. This confirms the find-
ings of the studies cited earlier that potential
briefings and training
women high-flyers are being precluded from At Time 2, respondents were asked to give
retrospective assessments of the preparation
and briefings that they had received prior to
Table 7: Location of women expatriates’ IAs the move. Their answers are summarized in
Table 8. These data show generally positive
opinions about the support and training
Region Women % Men % received prior to and immediately after the
start of an IA. But a worrying minority of
Western Europe around 20% gave consistently negative
(EU and non-EU) 44 21 ratings to these. As well as these difficulties,
USA/Canada 25 16 the data show changes at work compared to
East Asia Time 1. The 27-item work satisfaction meas-
(Japan, Hong Kong, ure employed at Time 1 was again used to
Malaysia, Singapore,
assess changes over time and revealed few
Vietnam, China, Thailand,
Burma and Indonesia) 21 37 significant changes in the content of their jobs
Australasia 6 3 in terms of autonomy and discretion and
Middle East 2 11 opportunities to make full use of their pro-
Eastern Europe/Russia 2 6 fessional and technical skills. However, one
India/Pakistan 0 4 in five reported greater problems in terms
North Africa 0 2 of their relationships with their immediate
superiors and work colleagues and one in
Table 8: Ratings of the training and support provided by the companies prior to the IA
Rating (valid %)
Job previews:
Verbal (100) 51 29 20
Written (73) 9 68 22
Job-related training (70) 36 43 21
Language training (29) 28 61 21
Cultural briefings (77) 28 47 25
Induction programmes (60) 31 56 13
Mentor in the new job (48) 23 44 33
four reported greater communication prob- think that this is changing but not quickly
lems at work and more difficulties with work enough to affect the rest of my time here …
overload. Across the board, there was a notice- Their attitudes are very bound up with
able increase in reported stress levels amongst their culture, er, women should be sub-
women employees; 58% of respondents now missive and if you confront them [male
believed that their current workload was ‘too colleagues] they simply do not know how
great’ (compared to 45% at Time 1). A slightly to cope … I would advise any women
larger number (25%) felt ‘used up at the end professional to think twice about coming
of the working day’ (18% at Time 1). Over over here to work. It has been an amazing
two-thirds now reported that their job had experience and I have learnt a lot about
made them feel ‘tense’ or ‘worried’ in the last different ways of doing business but it has
four months. Very few reported any clashes also been a real bloody struggle and any
between their work and home lives. Being other overseas posting would be a doddle
largely single, many of the traditional concerns after this one! (Marketing executive —
of relocating families (disruption to family motor manufacturer)
life, children’s education, effects of the move
on a partner’s career and so forth) simply did Another commented:
not affect most of these women.
The data show few differences between I know it sounds like a cliché, but you
single men and women in terms of general really do have to be twice as good as the
adaptation in areas such as Europe and North blokes working here. When I first arrived
America. However, they did show that women here it was clear some of the British em-
expatriates working in China and Japan were ployees resented me being there — it
much more likely to report difficulties with seemed to break up this boys club thing
this. As in other East Asian cultures, women they had and, of course [laughs], I was the
managers faced specific obstacles and pre- only single woman in the office which in
judices, as this interviewee revealed: some ways was quite enjoyable … but, the
really infuriating thing was dealing with
My sex was never an issue until I came out the local employees and businesses because
here — I simply did my job and got re- they would always go to one of my male
warded by results … And, I’ve got to say colleagues first or assume I was a secretary
that the Training Centre really did not and ask for one of the men they knew when
prepare me for the problems I have had they got me on the phone even though I’m
since coming here because their basic line quite senior here. It probably took me a
was that at the worst I would be treated as good six months before I was treated as
an honorary man or would not be treated some kind of an equal here. (Senior Soft-
like a Japanese women … But, basically, if ware Programmer — computer company.
you are not a bloke it is extremely difficult She was the first woman posted to the
to be taken seriously by the Japanese company’s Beijing Office)
because a lot of them, particularly the older
ones, see women as largely ornamental. Some of these results may appear to be
Sure, a lot of them work, but this is usually slightly worrying both for the individual
seen as a prelude to marriage and there expatriates and their companies. However,
are only a tiny handful at my level … I with the noticeable exception of women on
IAs in some Far Eastern countries, they are Table 9: Work time taken up in dealing with
largely consistent with other academic re- aspects of the move
search on job changes in a domestic context
(cf. Munton and Forster 1992). For example,
most staff report higher stress levels and Amount % Amount %
increased demands at work immediately
following a job move. The reasons for this None at all 0 2–3 days 17
are well known: staff may have to learn new , 4 hours 0 3–4 days 18
skills or acquire new knowledge in a very 4–8 hours 10 4–5 days 12
short space of time; they may have been 1–2 days 28 More than 15
brought in to ‘sort out’ specific problems 5 days
which may require very long hours at the
outset of an IA; they may want to be seen to
be visibly performing well (‘presenteeism’)
and, in most cultures, they will have to build Table 10: Days absent from work due to the
up friendships and informal networks of in- move or anything connected with it
fluence. The key questions are (a) were these
women well prepared for these eventualities
prior to the move and, (b) what effects have Amount % Amount %
these changes had on their personal lives and
work performance some eight months after None at all 8 4 days 8
starting the IA? These questions are discussed 1 day 18 5 days 7
2 days 20 6 days 6
in the next section.
3 days 22 7+ days 10
Psychological well-being,
motivation and performance and
cultural adaptation eight months had been on their working lives and career
after the move (Time 3) prospects (see Table 11).
These data show that most staff have
This section of the paper examines the data adapted well to their IAs and regard them as
from the third time-point of the survey. We career-enhancing experiences. Analysis of the
also look back to some earlier data to give an repeat 27-item job satisfaction scale also
overall picture of how the process of expatri- shows that six out of seven were now report-
ate assignments has unfolded over time. Re- ing improvements or no change to the quality
spondents were first asked to assess how of their working lives and in their working
much of their work time had been taken up relationships with their colleagues and im-
in dealing with aspects of their moves. The mediate superiors. However, these data also
data presented in Tables 9 and 10 show that show that a small minority of women con-
they had to spend some time dealing with tinue to experience difficulties even after eight
relocation issues that could have been better months. The data also show that most have
spent focusing on the demands of their new adapted well to the demands of working in
job. At Time 3, respondents were also asked different business cultures around the world
to assess what the general effects of the IA — although this does take longer in countries
Table 11: The general effects of current IA on respondents’ working lives and career prospects
Rating %
because of the changes that all of these organ- These criticisms were common amongst
izations have experienced over the last five women in new markets (particularly in
years, they will all continue to have problems East Asia). This also implies that training
with the management of repatriation in the companies could involve more women
future (Forster 1994, pp. 196–8). One signific- with previous experience of IAs in their
ant finding of this study is that all of these briefing sessions in the future.
companies expect their overseas operations 2. Recognizing that, while there are
to grow, while their home operations will growing opportunities for women in
continue to shrink. While a few companies, international careers, they are still con-
notably in the oil sector, have embraced the centrated largely in junior and (some)
notion of the career expatriate, most UK ex- middle management positions. They are
patriates still return to their country of origin also concentrated in a narrower range
at the end of their IA. This does not bode well of professions when compared to their
when these women return to work in the UK male colleagues. They are rarely en-
over the next few years. trusted with major project work in new
markets and they face greater restric-
tions in terms of the range of countries to
which they are posted — although they
Improving international career do seem to have an advantage over their
opportunities for women male colleagues in terms of European
in the future postings. Obviously, cultural barriers
and ‘traditional’ views about gender
Many of the principles of the effective man- roles are largely out of the control of
agement of (male) expatriates also apply companies. However, most companies
equally well to women and a detailed discus- are in a position to promote the interests
sion of policy recommendations for improv- of women by, for example, insisting on
ing opportunities for expatriates can be found the ‘best person for the job’ principle —
elsewhere (see, for example, Adler and Israeli regardless of gender — and by pro-
1987; Brewster 1991; Forster 1996; Handler moting the interests of women in more
and Lane 1994; Tung 1988a). However, this informal ways. This is essential if com-
research reinforces the suggestions, made over panies are really committed to recruiting
the last decade, by Adler in particular, that the best managerial talent in increasingly
there are still specific steps that companies diverse work forces.
could take to improve international career 3. Involving, at an inter-organizational
opportunities for women. level, organizations like the International
Labour Organization who are constantly
1. Re-evaluating the training and cross- seeking to improve the position of
cultural briefing sessions provided for women in international labour markets.
potential overseas staff. Many of the Improvements can and should be made
courses run at training centres focus to international opportunities for women
largely on the experiences of male ex- employees in the future. Up to this
patriates. This means ensuring that pre- moment in time, all of the companies
move cultural briefings are up to date, in this study have been able to rely on
relevant and catered specifically for either younger single women and men
the needs of women expatriates — with, or employees in ‘traditional’ families to
for example, appropriate coping and fill a relatively small number of expatri-
behavioural strategies in highly patri- ate positions. As the size of expatriate
archal societies, appropriate protocol, work forces increases (as most comment-
customs and dress codes. There is little ators argue), only a supreme optimist can
doubt that the right sort of pre-move believe that this situation will continue
cultural briefings can benefit women indefinitely and, in the future, greater
expatriates, but most of the women in cognizance will have to be taken of dual-
this study had some criticisms of the career couples in terms of the manage-
briefings that they received either in- ment of IAs (Price-Waterhouse 1993).
house, from consultants or at training ‘Trailing’ male partners will become
centres. Their main criticisms were (a) the more of an issue in the next few years —
lack of up-to-date knowledge concerning for both individual employees and
local business environments, (b) the very companies (Greenbury 1996). It is clear
short duration of most of these courses, companies need to take greater cog-
and (c) the lack of advice on coping with nizance of both these changing demo-
problems of isolation during the IA. graphics and of ‘alternative’ personal
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