History Notes Book g10

Advanced History Notes - Grade 10
June 25, 2024
Contents
Unit 1: Development of Capitalism and Nationalism 1815 to 1914 2
Unit 2: Africa & the Colonial Experience (1880s -1960s) 7
Unit 3: Social, Economic & Political Developments in Ethiopia, Mid

19thc. to 1941 12
Unit 4: Society and Politics in the Age of World Wars, 1914-1945 18
Unit 5: Global and Regional Developments Since 1945 25
Unit 6: Ethiopia: Internal Developments and External Influences

from 1941 to 1991 32
Unit 7: Africa Since 1960 37
Unit 8: Post-1991 Developments in Ethiopia 44
Unit 9: Indigenous Knowledge and Heritages of Ethiopia 47
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Unit 1: Development of Capitalism and Nation-

alism 1815 to 1914
1.1 Features of Capitalism
• Capitalism: A dominant economic system in the Western world, charac-
terized by:
– Private Ownership of the Means of Production: Individuals or

companies own and control factories, businesses, and other resources.
– Free Market Economy: Prices are determined by supply and de-
mand, with minimal government intervention.
– Profit Motive: Businesses aim to make profits.
– Competition: Businesses compete for customers and profits.
– Wage Labor: Workers are paid for their labor.
• Evolution of Capitalism:
– Early Capitalism: Emerged during the late Middle Ages, with the
growth of trade and cities.
– Industrial Capitalism: Developed during the 18th and 19th cen-
turies, driven by the Industrial Revolution.
• Industrial Revolution’s Impact:
– New Technologies: Steam power, the factory system, new machinery.

– Rise of New Social Classes: The bourgeoisie (capitalists) and the
proletariat (working class).
– Growth of Cities and Urbanization: People migrated to urban
areas for work.
• Transatlantic Slave Trade and Capitalism: The slave trade and its
associated wealth played a role in funding industrialization in Europe.
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1.2 Features of Nationalism and Formation of Nation-States

• Nationalism: A sense of belonging and loyalty to a nation, often based on
shared:
– Language: A common language.

– Culture: Shared traditions, customs, and beliefs.
– History: A common past and heritage.
– Territory: A shared homeland.
• Nation-State: A state where the population shares a common national

identity.
• Factors Contributing to Nationalism:
– The Renaissance: The revival of classical learning and the develop-

ment of national languages fostered a sense of national identity.
– The Protestant Reformation: Challenged religious unity and con-
tributed to the rise of national churches.
– The Expansion of Commerce: The growth of trade and industry
led to the development of national economies and a sense of shared
economic interests.
– The French Revolution: Spread ideas of liberty, equality, and fra-
ternity, which inspired nationalist movements.
• The Treaty of Vienna (1815): Attempted to restore the old order and
suppress nationalist movements, but ultimately failed.
1.2.1 Unification of Italy

• Obstacles to Unification: Italy was divided into numerous small states
under the control of foreign powers (Austria), the Papacy, and various inde-
pendent duchies.
• Key Figures in the Unification Movement:
– Giuseppe Mazzini: A nationalist leader who advocated for a united

Italy and a liberal republic.
– Count Camillo di Cavour: The prime minister of Piedmont-Sardinia,
who pursued a pragmatic approach to unification, using diplomacy and
alliances.
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– Giuseppe Garibaldi: A nationalist leader who led the “Red Shirts”

in the conquest of southern Italy.
– Victor Emmanuel II: The king of Piedmont-Sardinia who became
the first king of a united Italy.
• Key Events:
– The Revolutions of 1848: Nationalist uprisings throughout Italy.

– The Second Italian War of Independence (1859): Piedmont-
Sardinia, aided by France, defeated Austria and gained control of Lom-
bardy.
– The Expedition of the Thousand (1860): Garibaldi’s forces con-
quered Sicily and Naples.
– The Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy (1861): Victor Em-
manuel II became king of a united Italy.
– The Seven Weeks’ War (1866): Italy acquired Venetia from Austria.
– The Franco-Prussian War (1870-71): Italy seized Rome and de-
clared it the capital.
• Challenges to Unification:
– Regional Divisions: North and south Italy remained economically

and culturally distinct.
– Conflict with the Papacy: The Catholic Church opposed the unifi-
cation of Italy.
– The Mafia: A powerful criminal organization in Sicily, which the new
Italian government struggled to control.
1.2.2 Unification of Germany

• Obstacles to Unification: Germany was divided into numerous small
states, including Austria and Prussia.
• Key Figures in the Unification Movement:
– Otto von Bismarck: The Prussian minister-president who played a

key role in unifying Germany under Prussian leadership.
– Wilhelm I: The King of Prussia who appointed Bismarck as his min-
ister.
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• Bismarck’s Policies:
– Realpolitik: A pragmatic approach to politics, focused on achieving

national interests through any means necessary.
– “Blood and Iron” Policy: Emphasis on military strength and the
use of force to achieve unification.
– Zollverein (1834): An economic union between German states, which
promoted trade and economic growth.
• Key Events:
– Danish War (1864): Prussia, aided by Austria, defeated Denmark

and took control of Schleswig.
– Austro-Prussian War (Seven Weeks’ War, 1866): Prussia de-
feated Austria and expelled it from German affairs.
– Franco-Prussian War (1870-71): Prussia defeated France and an-
nexed Alsace and Lorraine.
– Proclamation of the German Empire (1871): Wilhelm I was pro-
claimed German Emperor.
• Consequences of Unification:
– Rise of Prussia’s Power: Prussia became the dominant power in

Germany.
– Nationalism in Germany: The unification of Germany contributed
to a strong sense of national pride.
– Increased Militarism: The unification of Germany under Prussian
leadership led to increased militarization and a powerful German army.
1.2.3 The American Civil War

• Causes:
– Slavery: The most significant cause, with the South dependent on

enslaved labor and the North increasingly opposed to slavery.
– Economic Differences: The North was industrialized, while the South
relied on agriculture.
– States’ Rights: The South defended its right to govern itself indepen-
dently of the federal government.
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• Key Figures:
– Abraham Lincoln: President of the United States during the Civil

War, who led the Union to victory.
– Jefferson Davis: President of the Confederate States of America.
• Key Events:
– Secession of Southern States (1860-1861): Eleven southern states

seceded from the Union to form the Confederate States of America.
– Fort Sumter (1861): The first battle of the war.
– Emancipation Proclamation (1863): Lincoln declared that slaves
in Confederate-controlled territories were to be freed.
– Gettysburg (1863): A turning point in the war, with a major Union
victory.
– Appomattox Courthouse (1865): The surrender of Confederate
General Robert E. Lee.
• Consequences:
– Abolition of Slavery: The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitu-

tion outlawed slavery in the United States.
– Strengthening of the Federal Government: The war strengthened
the power of the federal government.
– Reconstruction: The period after the war (1865-1877), during which
the South was rebuilt and African Americans gained some political
rights.
1.2.4 Nationalism and the “Eastern Question”

• The Eastern Question: A complex diplomatic issue involving the decline
of the Ottoman Empire, the rise of nationalism in the Balkans, and the
competing interests of European powers in the region.
• Balkan Nationalism: Nationalist movements in the Balkans, seeking in-

dependence from Ottoman rule.
• Competing Interests of European Powers:
– Russia: Supported Balkan nationalists to expand its influence in the

region.
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– Great Britain: Supported the Ottomans to prevent Russian expan-

sion.
– Austria-Hungary: Sought to maintain its influence in the Balkans to
protect its own empire.
– Germany: Sought to expand its influence in the Balkans for strategic
reasons.
• Key Events:
– Greek Independence (1829): Greece gained independence from the
Ottomans.
– Crimean War (1853-1856): A war between Russia and the Ottoman
Empire, with Britain and France supporting the Ottomans.
– Serbian Independence (1878): Serbia gained independence from
the Ottomans.
– Balkan Wars (1912-1913): A series of wars between Balkan states
and the Ottoman Empire, which further fragmented the Ottoman Em-
pire.
• Consequences: The Eastern Question contributed to the tensions that led
to World War I.

Unit 2: Africa & the Colonial Experience (1880s

-1960s)
2.1 General Background to Colonialism
• Colonialism: The direct and total domination of one country by another.
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– Characteristics: A foreign power establishes control over a territory,

exploits its resources, and often imposes its culture and political system.
• Historical Context:
– Early Colonialism: Practiced by ancient civilizations, such as the

Greeks, Romans, and Ottomans.
– European Colonialism: Expanded significantly from the 16th cen-
tury onward, driven by the Age of Discovery and the desire for wealth
and power.
• ”Legitimate” Trade: Trade in commodities between Africa and European

merchants, which emerged after the abolition of the slave trade in the 19th
century. It led to increased European economic influence and paved the way
for further colonization.
2.2 The Motives of European Colonialism

• Economic Motives:
– Raw Materials: Demand for raw materials to fuel European indus-

tries, such as rubber, diamonds, gold, and agricultural products.
– New Markets: Seeking new markets for manufactured goods.
• Political and Strategic Motives:
– Power and Prestige: Competition between European powers for colo-

nial territories to increase their global influence.
– Military Bases: Establishing strategic military bases.
• The Civilizing Mission and the White Man’s Burden:
– Belief in European Superiority: Europeans believed they had a

duty to ”civilize” Africans by introducing Christianity, Western educa-
tion, and other European values.
– ”The White Man’s Burden”: A concept that argued white people
had a responsibility to rule over non-white people for their benefit.
• Religious Motives:
– Missionaries: Some missionaries supported colonialism, believing it

would create opportunities for spreading Christianity.
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2.3 Scramble for Africa and the Berlin Conference

• Scramble for Africa (1880s-1914): A period of rapid European coloniza-
tion of Africa.
• Causes:
– Economic and Political Rivalry: Increased competition between

European powers for African resources and influence.
– Technological Advancements: Improved transportation and com-
munication technologies made it easier to colonize Africa.
• The Berlin Conference (1884-1885):
– Purpose: To regulate European colonization of Africa and avoid con-

flict between European powers.
– Key Decisions:
∗ Effective Occupation: European powers could only claim terri-
tory if they effectively occupied it.
∗ Sphere of Influence: European powers could claim exclusive
trading rights in certain regions.
∗ Congo Free State: The Congo Free State was granted to King
Leopold II of Belgium as a personal colony.
• Consequences of the Scramble for Africa:
– Partition of Africa: Nearly the entire continent was divided into

European colonies.
– Loss of African Independence: African states lost their sovereignty
and were subjected to European rule.
– Disruption of Traditional Societies: European colonialism dis-
rupted traditional economies, social structures, and political systems.
2.4 Colonial Policies and Administration

• Methods of Colonial Administration:
– Company Rule: Private companies were granted large territories to

administer, often with exploitative practices (e.g., the British South
Africa Company).
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– Direct Rule: European officials directly administered colonies, replac-

ing indigenous governments (e.g., French colonialism in much of West
Africa).
– Indirect Rule: European powers used existing African leaders and
institutions to govern, often maintaining a system of ”divide and rule”
(e.g., British colonialism in parts of Africa).
– Settlers’ Rule: European settlers established colonies in regions with
fertile land and resources, often displacing indigenous populations (e.g.,
South Africa, Kenya).
• Impact of Colonial Administration:
– Underdevelopment: Colonial policies often exploited African resources

and prevented industrialization, contributing to long-term economic un-
derdevelopment.
– Political Instability: Artificial boundaries and ”divide and rule” poli-
cies sowed the seeds of future conflicts.
– Social Disruptions: Colonialism disrupted traditional social struc-
tures, cultural practices, and identity.
2.5 Early African Resistance Movements Against Colonial-

ism
• Forms of Resistance:
– Armed Resistance: Uprisings and guerrilla warfare.

– Nonviolent Resistance: Protests, boycotts, and the use of traditional
institutions.
• Key Resistance Movements:
– West Africa:
∗ Ahmadu Seku Toure (Tukulor Empire): Resisted French rule.
∗ Samori Toure: Resisted French rule in West Africa.
∗ Asante Kingdom (Ghana): Resisted British rule.
– East Africa:
∗ Maji Maji Uprising: A rebellion against German colonial rule
in Tanganyika.
– Southern Africa:
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∗ Herero and Nama Rebellions: Uprisings against German rule

in South-West Africa.
– North Africa:
∗ Urabi Pasha’s Revolt: A rebellion against British and French
control in Egypt.
• Challenges to Resistance:
– Military Superiority of European Powers: European powers had

superior weapons and technology.
– Lack of Unity Among African Groups: Often fragmented by colo-
nial policies and ethnic divisions.
2.6 Impacts of Colonial Rule on Africa

• Political Impacts:
– Loss of Independence: African states lost their sovereignty.

– Artificial Boundaries: European powers drew boundaries that often
ignored existing ethnic and cultural divisions.
• Economic Impacts:
– Underdevelopment: Exploitation of resources and limited industri-

alization.
– Dependence on European Markets: African economies became
dependent on exporting raw materials to European markets.
• Social Impacts:
– Cultural Disruption: European colonialism undermined traditional

cultures, languages, and social practices.
– Introduction of Western Education: While education was intro-
duced, it often served colonial interests and undermined traditional
knowledge systems.
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Unit 3: Social, Economic & Political Develop-

ments in Ethiopia, Mid 19thc. to 1941
3.1 Long Distance Trade in the 19th Century and the Cot-
tage Industry
• Long-Distance Trade in Ethiopia: A vital aspect of Ethiopia’s economy
in the 19th century, connecting different regions and peoples.
– Key Trade Routes:

∗ Route 1: Bonga (Kafa) - Hirmata (Jimma) - Soddo (Shewa) -
Rogge - Aliyu Amba (Shewa) - Harar - Zeila (Somalia)
∗ Route 2: Bonga - Hirmata - Soddo - Harar - Berbera (Somalia)
∗ Route 3: Bonga - Hirmata - Saqa - Asandabo - Basso - Gondar -
Chilga - Matamma (Gallabat)
∗ Route 4: Bonga - Hirmata - Saqa - Asandabo - Basso - Gondar -
Adwa - Asmara - Massawa (Red Sea)
– Key Trade Items: Ivory, civet musk, salt bars (amole), slaves.
– Medium of Exchange: Salt bars (amole) and Maria Theresa Thalers
(MTT).
– Traders: Local people, Muslim merchants (Jabarti and Afkala), Ar-
goba merchants.
• The Role of Cottage Industries: Small-scale, handcraft-based industries

played a significant role in Ethiopia’s economy.
12
– Key Industries: Metalworking, pottery, tannery, carpentry, masonry,

weaving, jewelry, basket making.
– Importance: Provided essential goods and services, including agricul-
tural implements, household items, and weapons.
3.2 The Making of Modern Ethiopian State 1855-1913

• Unification of Ethiopia: The process of bringing different regions and
principalities under a single rule, culminating in the establishment of a mod-
ern Ethiopian state.
• Key Figures:
– Tewodros II (Kassa Hailu, 1855-1868): The first emperor to at-

tempt unification, known for his modernization efforts and his tragic
downfall.
– Yohannes IV (Kassa Mircha, 1872-1889): Emperor who consol-
idated the Christian provinces and sought to end religious disputes
within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
– Menilek II (1889-1913): Emperor who oversaw significant territorial
expansion and further consolidation of the Ethiopian state.
• Reforms of Tewodros II:
– Modernization: Introduced modern military titles, reorganized the

army, established an arms factory at Gafat.
– Administrative Reform: Attempted to create a centralized admin-
istration.
– Social Reform: Confiscated church land and reduced the number of
priests.
– Downfall: His reforms met with resistance, leading to conflict with the
British and his tragic death at the Siege of Maqdala.
• The Rule of Yohannes IV:
– Decentralized Administration: Permitted regional rulers to exercise

autonomy.
– Religious Reform: Sought to end religious disputes within the Ethiopian
Orthodox Church.
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– Defense of National Sovereignty: Successfully resisted Egyptian

expansion.
– Downfall: Died in battle against the Mahdists of Sudan.
• Territorial Expansion of Menilek II:
– Expansion into Southern and Southwestern Ethiopia: Incorpo-

rated regions like Hararghe, Arsi, Wolaita, Gamo, Gofa, Sidamo, Bale,
and Benishangul.
– Defeat of the Italians at Adwa (1896): A decisive victory for
Ethiopia, securing its independence and international recognition.
– Boundary Agreements: Delimitation of borders with neighboring
colonial powers.
• Modernization of Ethiopia:
– Establishment of a Modern Bank: The Bank of Abyssinia (1905).

– Modern Education: Establishment of modern schools, including Me-
nilek II School (1908).
– Modern Infrastructure: Construction of the Addis Ababa-Djibouti
railway, introduction of electricity, telephone, and telegraph systems.
– Coinage: Introduction of a new Ethiopian coin.
3.3 External Aggressions and the Unity of Ethiopian People

in Defense of National Sovereignty, 1871-1896
• The Napier Expedition (1867-1868):
– Cause: The imprisonment of European diplomats and missionaries by

Tewodros II.
– Outcome: The British defeated Tewodros II, leading to his suicide and
the end of his reign.
• Egyptian Aggression (1875-1876):
– Cause: Egypt’s ambition to control the source of the Nile and expand
its influence in the Horn of Africa.
– Key Battles:
∗ Battle of Gundat (1875): An Ethiopian victory.
∗ Battle of Gura (1876): Another Ethiopian victory.
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– Outcome: Egypt was defeated and withdrew from Ethiopian territory.
• Italian Encroachment (1880s):
– Cause: Italy’s ambition to colonize Ethiopia.

– Key Events:
∗ Italian acquisition of Assab (1869) and Massawa (1882):
Established Italian bases on the Red Sea.
∗ Battle of Dogali (1887): A decisive Ethiopian victory, halting
Italian advance.
• The Mahdist Invasion (1885-1889):
– Cause: The Mahdist uprising in Sudan, seeking to overthrow Egyptian

rule.
– Hewett Treaty (1884): An agreement between Ethiopia and Egypt,
in which Ethiopia agreed to allow Egyptian troops to withdraw from
Sudan through Ethiopian territory.
– Key Battles:
∗ Battle of Kufit (1885): An Ethiopian victory.
∗ Battle of Sar Wuha (1888): A Mahdist victory.
– Outcome: Emperor Yohannes IV died in battle against the Mahdists
in 1889.
• The Battle of Adwa (1896):
– Cause: The Italian invasion of Ethiopia, fueled by the desire to avenge

their defeat at Dogali and to colonize the country.
– The Treaty of Wuchale (1889): A treaty signed between Ethiopia
and Italy, which contained conflicting interpretations, leading to a dis-
pute.
– Outcome: A decisive Ethiopian victory, securing the country’s inde-
pendence and international recognition.
• Consequences of External Aggressions:
– National Unity: The resistance against foreign aggression helped to

foster national unity.
– International Recognition: Ethiopia’s victories against European
powers strengthened its international standing.
15
– Modernization: The need to defend against modern armies led to

modernization efforts, including the establishment of a new army and
the introduction of new technology.
3.4 The Inception of Power Struggle among the Ruling Elites,

1906 to 1935
• Succession Crisis: The death of Emperor Menilek II in 1913 led to a power
struggle between different factions.
• Key Figures:
– Lij Iyasu: Grandson of Menilek II, who was appointed as his successor.
– Empress Zewditu: Daughter of Menilek II, who became Empress of
Ethiopia in 1916.
– Ras Tafari Makonnen: Later Emperor Haile Selassie I, who emerged
as a powerful figure during this period.
• The Reign of Lij Iyasu (1911-1916):
– Reforms: Attempted to introduce some modern reforms.

– Political Intrigue: His policies and alleged pro-Muslim leanings sparked
opposition, leading to his deposition in 1916.
• Diarchy (1916-1930): A period of dual rule between Empress Zewditu

and Ras Tafari Makonnen.
– Power Struggle: Ongoing tensions and conflict between the two rulers.
– Consolidation of Ras Tafari’s Power: Ras Tafari gradually in-
creased his influence and consolidated his position.
• The Coronation of Haile Selassie I (1930): Ras Tafari became Emperor

of Ethiopia, marking the beginning of his autocratic rule.
• Consolidation of Autocratic Power:
– The 1931 Constitution: Established a system of government with

the emperor as the supreme authority.
– Centralization of Power: Reduced the power of regional lords and
centralized authority in the hands of the emperor.
– Military Modernization: Created a national army and strengthened
the military.
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3.5 Fascist Italian Aggression and Patriotic Resistance

• The Second Italo-Ethiopian War (1935-1936):
– Causes: Italian fascism, the desire to avenge the defeat at Adwa, and
ambition to colonize Ethiopia.
– The Walwal Incident (1934): A border clash between Ethiopian and
Italian forces in the Ogaden, which Italy used as a pretext for invasion.
– Italian Invasion: Italian forces invaded Ethiopia in October 1935.
– Key Battles: Amba Aradom, Maychew, and other battles.
– Italian Use of Chemical Weapons: The Italians used poison gas, a
violation of international law, against Ethiopian forces.
– Ethiopian Resistance: Ethiopian forces fought bravely but were ul-
timately overwhelmed by the Italian military superiority.
– Italian Occupation: The Italians occupied Ethiopia in May 1936, and
Emperor Haile Selassie fled into exile.
• The Patriotic Resistance (Arbegnoch): Ethiopians organized resistance
movements against Italian rule.
– Key Leaders: Ras Emeru Haile Selassie, Ras Desta Damtew, She-
wareged Gedle.
– Guerilla Warfare: Patriots fought against the Italians using guerrilla
tactics, often in rural areas.
– The Graziani Massacre (1937): A brutal reprisal by the Italians
after an assassination attempt on the Italian viceroy.
• British Intervention (1940-1941):
– Cause: Italy’s entry into World War II on the side of Germany.
– Liberation of Ethiopia: The British, aided by Ethiopian resistance
fighters, liberated Ethiopia in 1941.
17

Unit 4: Society and Politics in the Age of World

Wars, 1914-1945
4.1 The First World War: Causes and Consequences
• Causes:
– Mutual Defense Alliances: A complex web of alliances between Eu-

ropean powers, creating a climate of mutual suspicion and a chain re-
action of war declarations.
– Imperialism: Competition between European powers for colonies,
leading to tensions and conflict.
– Militarism: A build-up of military forces and a glorification of the
military.
– Nationalism: Strong nationalist sentiments in many European coun-
tries.
– The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1914): The
immediate trigger, leading to Austria-Hungary’s declaration of war on
Serbia.
• Key Military Alliances:
– Triple Alliance (Central Powers): Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy

(Italy switched sides in 1915).
– Triple Entente (Allied Powers): France, Russia, Great Britain.
• Course of the War:
– The Schlieffen Plan: Germany’s plan to attack France through Bel-

gium.
– The Western Front: A long, bloody stalemate in the trenches.
– The Eastern Front: More mobile warfare between Russia and Ger-
many.
– The United States Enters the War (1917): American involvement
shifted the balance of power in favor of the Allies.
18
• Consequences:
– Devastating Casualties: Millions of soldiers and civilians died.

– Collapse of Empires: The Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman,
and Russian empires collapsed.
– Redrawing of European Borders: The peace treaties redrew the
map of Europe.
– Rise of New Nations: New nations emerged from the former empires,
such as Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.
– The Treaty of Versailles (1919): The treaty that officially ended
the war, imposing harsh penalties on Germany.
– The League of Nations: An international organization established to
promote peace and cooperation, but ultimately failed to prevent World
War II.
– The Russian Revolution (1917): The First World War contributed
to the unrest that led to the Russian Revolution.
– The Spanish Flu Pandemic (1918-1919): The war helped to spread
the deadly influenza pandemic, which killed millions of people world-
wide.
4.2 The October 1917 Russian Revolution: Causes and Re-

sults
• Causes:
– Tsarist Autocracy: The absolute rule of the Tsar, which suppressed

political and social reforms.
– Economic Inequality: A wide gap between the wealthy elite and the
poor peasantry and working class.
– Social Unrest: Frequent strikes, protests, and peasant unrest.
– The Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905): Russia’s defeat by Japan,
which sparked a wave of unrest and protests.
– The Bloody Sunday Massacre (1905): Tsarist troops fired on
peaceful demonstrators, further fueling revolution.
– World War I: Russia’s involvement in the war led to significant eco-
nomic hardship, military defeats, and widespread public discontent.
• Key Figures:
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– Tsar Nicholas II: The last Tsar of Russia.

– Vladimir Lenin: The leader of the Bolsheviks, who led the October
Revolution.
– Leon Trotsky: A key Bolshevik leader and the first commissar for
foreign affairs.
– Joseph Stalin: Lenin’s successor, who consolidated his power as a
totalitarian dictator.
• Key Events:
– The February Revolution (1917): Overthrew the Tsarist regime

and established a provisional government.
– The October Revolution (1917): The Bolsheviks seized power in a
violent uprising, leading to the establishment of the Soviet Union.
– The Russian Civil War (1918-1922): A bloody conflict between
the Bolsheviks (Reds) and anti-communist forces (Whites).
– New Economic Policy (NEP, 1921): A temporary economic policy
that allowed for some private enterprise.
– The Formation of the USSR (1922): The establishment of the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, a socialist state.
– Stalin’s Era: Stalin’s rule was characterized by totalitarian dictator-
ship, forced collectivization of agriculture, and industrialization.
• Consequences:
– End of the Tsarist Regime: The end of the Romanov dynasty.

– Establishment of the Soviet Union: The creation of a communist
state in Russia.
– Spread of Communism: The Russian Revolution inspired communist
movements worldwide.
– Global Conflict: The Cold War, a period of tension and conflict be-
tween the Soviet Union and the Western powers, was a significant con-
sequence.
4.3 The League of Nations

• Establishment: An international organization founded in 1920 following
World War I, aiming to promote international cooperation and prevent future
wars.
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• Key Goals:
– Collective Security: Members were obligated to come to the aid of

any member that was attacked.
– Disarmament: Reducing arms and military forces.
– Settlement of Disputes: Peacefully resolving disputes through nego-
tiation and arbitration.
• Key Features:
– The League Covenant: The League’s founding document, outlining

its principles and goals.
– The General Assembly: A body of representatives from all member
states.
– The Council: A smaller body of permanent and non-permanent mem-
bers responsible for making decisions.
– The Secretariat: The administrative branch of the League.
• Successes: The League achieved some successes in mediating disputes and

promoting international cooperation.
• Failures: The League ultimately failed to prevent World War II, primarily
because:
– Lack of Enforcement Power: The League had no standing army and

depended on member states to enforce its decisions.
– The United States Did Not Join: The United States, a major world
power, refused to join the League, weakening its authority.
– Appeasement: European powers, seeking to avoid war, adopted a
policy of appeasement towards aggressive powers like Germany.
4.4 The Worldwide Economic Crisis

• The Great Depression (1929-1939): A severe global economic downturn
that followed the stock market crash of 1929.
• Causes:
– Overproduction: Overproduction of goods led to falling prices and

decreased demand.
21
– Unequal Distribution of Wealth: A large gap between the rich and

the poor.
– High Tariffs and Protectionism: Countries imposed tariffs to pro-
tect domestic industries, which hindered international trade.
– The Collapse of the Banking System: Bank failures led to a loss
of savings and investment.
– The Collapse of the World Trade System: International trade
plummeted, further deepening the crisis.
• Consequences:
– High Unemployment: Massive job losses worldwide.

– Economic Decline: Significant drop in industrial production and agri-
cultural output.
– Social Unrest: Protests, riots, and political instability.
– Rise of Fascism and Nazism: The economic hardships of the Great
Depression contributed to the rise of fascist and Nazi movements in
Europe.
4.5 The Rise of Fascism in Italy, Nazism in Germany, and

Militarism in Japan
• Fascism: A far-right, authoritarian ideology that emerged in Europe after
World War I.
– Key Features: Nationalism, militarism, a strong centralized state,

suppression of opposition, and a cult of the leader.
• Nazism (National Socialism): A form of fascism that emerged in Ger-

many.
– Key Features: Extreme nationalism, racism, anti-Semitism, and a

totalitarian state.
• Causes of the Rise of Fascism and Nazism:
– Post-World War I Disillusionment: The war had a devastating

impact on Europe, creating widespread economic hardship, political
instability, and a sense of betrayal.
22
– The Treaty of Versailles: The peace treaty that ended World War
I imposed harsh penalties on Germany, which fueled resentment and
anger.
– The Great Depression: Economic hardship created a climate of fear
and uncertainty, which fascist and Nazi movements exploited.
– Appeals to Nationalism and Fear: Fascism and Nazism appealed
to nationalist sentiments and promised to restore national pride and
strength.
• Militarism in Japan: The belief in the importance of a strong military

and the use of force in foreign policy.
– Causes: Desire to expand Japan’s empire and influence.
4.6 The Second World War: 1939-45

• Causes:
– Aggression of the Axis Powers: Germany, Italy, and Japan, fueled

by fascist and militarist ideologies, embarked on a path of conquest and
expansion.
– Appeasement: The policy of appeasement adopted by Britain and
France towards Germany, hoping to prevent war.
– Failure of the League of Nations: The League’s inability to deter
aggression by the Axis powers.
– The Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939): A non-aggression pact between Nazi
Germany and the Soviet Union, which allowed Germany to invade
Poland without fear of Soviet interference.
• Key Military Alliances:
– Axis Powers: Germany, Italy, Japan.

– Allied Powers: Great Britain, France, the United States, the Soviet
Union.
• Course of the War:
– German Invasion of Poland (1939): The beginning of the war.

– The Blitzkrieg: Germany’s strategy of rapid, mechanized warfare,
leading to the swift conquest of Poland and France.
23
– The Battle of Britain (1940): A major air battle between Germany

and Great Britain.
– The Battle of Stalingrad (1942-1943): A turning point in the war
on the Eastern Front.
– The D-Day Invasion (1944): The Allied invasion of Normandy,
France, opening a second front in Europe.
– The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1945): The
United States dropped atomic bombs on Japan, leading to Japan’s sur-
render.
• Consequences:
– Devastating Casualties: Tens of millions of people died, making it

the deadliest conflict in human history.
– Economic Destruction: Extensive damage to infrastructure, indus-
try, and agriculture.
– The Rise of the Superpowers: The United States and the Soviet
Union emerged as the dominant powers, leading to the Cold War.
– Decolonization: The war weakened European powers, accelerating
the process of decolonization in Asia and Africa.
– The United Nations: The UN was founded in 1945 to promote in-
ternational cooperation and prevent future wars.

24
Unit 5: Global and Regional Developments Since

1945
5.1 The United Nations Organization: Formation, Mission,
Principles, and Achievements
• Formation (1945): Established at the end of World War II to promote
international peace and security, to foster cooperation among nations, and
to address global challenges.
• Mission:
– Maintain International Peace and Security: To prevent wars and

resolve conflicts through diplomacy and negotiation.
– Promote Sustainable Development: To address global issues such
as poverty, hunger, disease, and climate change.
– Protect Human Rights: To uphold human rights and fundamental
freedoms.
• Principles:
– Sovereign Equality of Members: All member states are equal and

have an equal voice in the organization.
– Peaceful Settlement of Disputes: Members are obligated to resolve
disputes through peaceful means.
– Refraining from the Threat or Use of Force: Members are for-
bidden from using force against other states except in self-defense or
under UN authorization.
– Non-Intervention in Domestic Affairs: The UN is not supposed
to interfere in the internal affairs of member states.
• Structure:
– The General Assembly: The main deliberative body, with all mem-
ber states represented, discussing issues, approving the budget, and
electing the non-permanent members of the Security Council.
– The Security Council: The most powerful organ, responsible for
maintaining international peace and security, with 15 members (five
permanent and ten non-permanent).
25
∗ Veto Power: The five permanent members (the United States,

Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom) have the power
to veto any resolution.
– The Secretariat: The administrative arm of the UN, headed by the
Secretary-General.
– The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC): Focuses on eco-
nomic and social development.
– The International Court of Justice (ICJ): The UN’s main judicial
organ.
– The Trusteeship Council: Formerly responsible for overseeing the
administration of trust territories, but now suspended.
• Achievements:
– Peacekeeping Operations: The UN has deployed peacekeeping forces

to many conflict zones to help maintain peace and stability.
– Humanitarian Assistance: The UN provides humanitarian aid to
people in need around the world.
– Development Programs: The UN supports development programs
to address poverty, hunger, disease, and education.
• Challenges:
– Effectiveness of the Security Council: The veto power of the per-

manent members can hinder the UN’s ability to act effectively.
– Financial Constraints: The UN faces funding challenges, which can
limit its ability to carry out its missions.
– National Sovereignty: Balancing the need for international cooper-
ation with the sovereignty of member states.
5.2 The Rise of the Superpowers and the Beginning of the

Cold War
• Superpowers: The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the
dominant global powers after World War II.
• The Cold War (1945-1991): A period of intense ideological, political,

economic, and military rivalry between the United States and the Soviet
Union.
26
– Causes:
∗ Ideological Conflict: Capitalism versus communism.
∗ Nuclear Arms Race: The development of nuclear weapons by
both superpowers.
∗ Geopolitical Rivalry: Competition for global influence and con-
trol.
– Key Features:
∗ Containment: The US policy of stopping the spread of commu-
nism.
∗ The Truman Doctrine (1947): US policy of providing aid to
countries threatened by communism.
∗ The Marshall Plan (1948): US program to provide economic
assistance to war-torn Europe.
∗ The Iron Curtain: The symbolic division of Europe into commu-
nist (Eastern Bloc) and non-communist (Western Bloc) regions.
∗ NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization): A military
alliance formed by the United States and its Western allies.
∗ The Warsaw Pact: A military alliance formed by the Soviet
Union and its Eastern European allies.
∗ The Arms Race: A competition between the superpowers to de-
velop and acquire more powerful weapons, including nuclear weapons.
∗ Proxy Wars: Conflicts fought by the superpowers through allies.
∗ Propaganda: The use of propaganda to promote ideology and
demonize the opponent.
– The Berlin Blockade (1948-1949): The Soviet Union blockaded
West Berlin, but the US responded with the Berlin Airlift, which suc-
cessfully supplied West Berlin. This was a major event that heightened
Cold War tensions.
– The Division of Germany: Germany was divided into East and West
Germany in 1949.
5.2 The Rise of the Superpowers and the Beginning of the

Cold War
• Superpowers: The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the
dominant global powers after World War II.
27
• The Cold War (1945-1991): A period of intense ideological, political,

economic, and military rivalry between the United States and the Soviet
Union.
– Causes:
∗ Ideological Conflict: Capitalism versus communism.
∗ Nuclear Arms Race: The development of nuclear weapons by
both superpowers.
∗ Geopolitical Rivalry: Competition for global influence and con-
trol.
– Key Features:
∗ Containment: The US policy of stopping the spread of commu-
nism.
∗ The Truman Doctrine (1947): US policy of providing aid to
countries threatened by communism.
∗ The Marshall Plan (1948): US program to provide economic
assistance to war-torn Europe.
∗ The Iron Curtain: The symbolic division of Europe into commu-
nist (Eastern Bloc) and non-communist (Western Bloc) regions.
∗ NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization): A military
alliance formed by the United States and its Western allies.
∗ The Warsaw Pact: A military alliance formed by the Soviet
Union and its Eastern European allies.
∗ The Arms Race: A competition between the superpowers to de-
velop and acquire more powerful weapons, including nuclear weapons.
∗ Proxy Wars: Conflicts fought by the superpowers through allies.
∗ Propaganda: The use of propaganda to promote ideology and
demonize the opponent.
– The Berlin Blockade (1948-1949): The Soviet Union blockaded
West Berlin, but the US responded with the Berlin Airlift, which suc-
cessfully supplied West Berlin. This was a major event that heightened
Cold War tensions.
– The Division of Germany: Germany was divided into East and West
Germany in 1949.
5.3 Situations in Asia During the Cold War: Japan, Korea,

China, Vietnam
• Japan:
28
– Post-World War II Recovery: Japan’s economy recovered rapidly

after World War II, becoming a major industrial power and a close ally
of the United States.
• China:
– The Chinese Civil War (1946-1949): The Chinese Communist

Party (CCP) led by Mao Zedong defeated the Kuomintang (KMT) and
established the People’s Republic of China (PRC).
– The Korean War (1950-1953): A conflict between North Korea
(supported by the Soviet Union and China) and South Korea (supported
by the United States and the UN). The war ended in a stalemate, with
Korea remaining divided.
• Vietnam:
– The First Indochina War (1946-1954): A war between Vietnam

(supported by the Soviet Union and China) and France (supported by
the United States). The war ended with Vietnam divided at the 17th
parallel.
– The Second Indochina War (Vietnam War, 1957-1975): A war
between North Vietnam (supported by the Soviet Union and China) and
South Vietnam (supported by the United States). The war ended with
the communist victory in 1975, leading to the reunification of Vietnam.
5.4 Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)

• Formation: Established in 1961 as a group of states that did not align with
either the United States or the Soviet Union during the Cold War.
• Goals:
– Promote Independence and Neutrality: To remain independent

from Cold War alliances and to pursue a neutral stance in international
affairs.
– Oppose Colonialism and Imperialism: To support national liber-
ation movements and oppose foreign domination.
– Promote Economic Development: To work towards economic de-
velopment and cooperation among member states.
– Promote Peace and International Cooperation: To contribute to
global peace and security.
29
• Key Leaders:
– Jawaharlal Nehru (India):
– Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt):
– Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia):
– Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana):
• Impact: The NAM played a significant role in the decolonization process
and in promoting international cooperation.
5.5 The Arab-Israeli Conflict

• Historical Background: A long-standing conflict rooted in competing
claims to the land of Palestine.
• Key Factors:
– Zionism: A Jewish nationalist movement that sought to establish a
Jewish homeland in Palestine.
– Arab Nationalism: Arab opposition to the establishment of Israel
and the displacement of Palestinian Arabs.
– The Balfour Declaration (1917): A British declaration that sup-
ported the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.
– The UN Partition Plan (1947): A UN resolution that divided Pales-
tine into Jewish and Arab states.
• Key Wars:
– The 1948 Arab-Israeli War: The first war between Israel and Arab
states, resulting in Israel’s victory.
– The Suez Crisis (1956): A war between Israel and Egypt, with
British and French intervention.
– The Six-Day War (1967): A major war between Israel and its Arab
neighbors, resulting in Israel’s victory and the occupation of the Golan
Heights, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the Sinai Peninsula.
– The Yom Kippur War (1973): A war initiated by Egypt and Syria
to regain territory lost in the Six-Day War. The war ended in a stale-
mate.
• The Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO): A Palestinian orga-
nization that fought for an independent Palestinian state.
30
• Peace Efforts: There have been numerous attempts to resolve the Arab-
Israeli conflict, including the Oslo Accords (1993) and the Camp David Sum-
mit (2000).
5.6 The Collapse of the Soviet Union

• Causes:
– Economic Problems: The Soviet economy faced significant chal-
lenges, including inefficiency and a lack of innovation.
– Political Reform: Mikhail Gorbachev’s reforms, glasnost (openness)
and perestroika (restructuring), aimed to address economic and political
problems, but ultimately contributed to the Soviet Union’s collapse.
– Nationalism: The rise of nationalist movements in Soviet republics,
particularly in the Baltic states.
– The End of the Cold War: The end of the Cold War removed the
US-Soviet rivalry, which had provided a degree of stability to the Soviet
system.
• Key Events:
– The Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989): A symbolic event that marked
the beginning of the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe.
– Revolutions in Eastern Europe (1989-1991): Communist regimes
were overthrown in countries like Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and
East Germany.
– The Dissolution of the Soviet Union (1991): The Soviet Union
was dissolved, creating 15 independent states.
• Consequences:
– End of the Cold War: The collapse of the Soviet Union marked the
end of the Cold War.
– Emergence of New Nations: The creation of new independent states
from the former Soviet republics.
– Shift in Global Power: The US became the sole superpower.
– Economic Transition: The transition from a communist economy to
a market economy in the former Soviet republics.
– Rise of New Conflicts: The collapse of the Soviet Union led to new
conflicts and instability in the former Soviet republics.
31

Unit 6: Ethiopia: Internal Developments and Ex-

ternal Influences from 1941 to 1991
6.1 Major Administrative Reforms and Socio-Economic Con-
ditions in the Post-Liberation Period
6.1.1 External Influences
• The British Era (1941-1952):
– British Dominance: Despite Ethiopia’s official independence, Britain

maintained significant influence over the country’s political, economic,
and military affairs.
– Occupied Enemy Territory Administration (OETA): The British
established the OETA over Eritrea and the Ogaden.
– The 1942 Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty: Recognized Ethiopia’s indepen-
dence but also imposed restrictions on Ethiopia’s sovereignty, granting
Britain significant control over its military, economy, and foreign policy.
– The 1944 Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty: Modified the 1942 treaty, restor-
ing the Ogaden to Ethiopia, but Britain remained in control of Eritrea.
– British Military Mission to Ethiopia (BMME): Trained and mod-
ernized the Ethiopian army.
• The American Era (1950s-1970s):
– The Point Four Agreement (1952): US aid program to Ethiopia

in areas like agriculture, health, and education.
32
– The 1953 Treaty: Allowed the US to establish a military base, Kag-

new Station, in Eritrea for communications and intelligence gathering.
– Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG): Provided military
assistance to Ethiopia.
– Decline in Ethio-US Relations: US influence waned due to the
growth of anti-American sentiment in Ethiopia and the changing Cold
War dynamics.
6.1.2 Administrative Reforms

• Centralization of Power: Emperor Haile Selassie aimed to strengthen his
authority and consolidate a centralized state.
• Administrative Divisions:
– Teqlaygezats (Governorates-General): Established 12 teqlaygezats,

each ruled by an enderase (governor) appointed by the Emperor.
• The 1955 Constitution:
– Strengthening of the Emperor’s Power: Consolidated the Em-

peror’s absolute authority and centralized power.
– Lack of Democratic Principles: Did not include principles like pop-
ular sovereignty, rule of law, or separation of powers.
6.1.3 Agriculture, Land Tenure, and Tenancy

• Importance of Agriculture: The backbone of the Ethiopian economy,
providing employment for the majority of the population.
• Indigenous Land Tenure Systems:
– Gult: The right to collect tribute (gibir) from peasants, granted to

officials, the church, and others.
– Rist: Hereditary land ownership based on lineage.
• The Qalad System (Land Measurement):
– Purpose: To facilitate taxation, promote private land ownership, and

enable the state to allocate land.
– Impact: Led to the growth of tenancy (landlessness) and increased
feudal exploitation.
33
6.1.4 Trade, Industry, Financial Sector, Education, Transport, and Com-

munication
• Limited Industrialization: Ethiopia’s industrial base remained weak, with
small-scale industries in urban centers.
• Agricultural Exports: Coffee, skins and hides, pulses, and oilseeds were
the main exports.
• Five-Year Plans (1957-1973): Attempts to modernize the economy, focus
on infrastructure development, and promote agricultural growth.
• Education:
– Expansion of Education: The government encouraged the develop-
ment of education, but access remained limited.
– Influence of British and American Systems: The education sys-
tem was heavily influenced by British and later American models.
6.2 Early Opposition Movements Against the Imperial Rule

• Peasant Revolts:
– Causes: Feudal exploitation, heavy taxation, land alienation, and dis-
satisfaction with the imperial regime.
– Key Revolts: The Woyyane revolt in Tigray (1943), the Bale upris-
ing (1963-1970), the Gojjam uprising (1968), and revolts in Yejju and
Gedeo.
• The 1960 Coup d’état: An attempt to overthrow Emperor Haile Selassie
by a group of military officers led by Mengistu Neway and his brother, Ger-
mame Neway.
– Causes: Opposition to the imperial regime’s authoritarian rule and
desire for political change.
– Outcome: The coup was unsuccessful, and the leaders were either
killed or executed.
• The Ethiopian Student Movement:
– Causes: Dissatisfaction with the imperial regime’s policies, including
the lack of democracy, poor education, and social inequality.
– Key Issues: Demands for democracy, freedom of speech, education
reform, and land reform.
34
6.3 The Ethiopian Revolution and the Fall of the Monarchy

• Causes of the Revolution (1974):
– Economic Hardship: Poverty, famine, and inflation.
– Political Repression: The imperial regime’s suppression of opposi-
tion.
– Social Inequality: Wide disparities between the wealthy elite and the
poor masses.
– The Student Movement: The Ethiopian student movement played
a significant role in mobilizing public opinion.
– Military Upheavals: Military uprisings, such as the Negelle army
mutiny (1974).
• Key Events:
– The Formation of the Derg (Coordinating Committee of the
Armed Forces, 1974): A military junta that seized power from Em-
peror Haile Selassie.
– Deposition of Emperor Haile Selassie (1974): The Emperor was
overthrown and placed under house arrest.
– Red Terror (1976-1978): A brutal campaign of repression by the
Derg against its political opponents, primarily the Ethiopian People’s
Revolutionary Party (EPRP).
– The Land Reform Proclamation (1975): Nationalized all rural
land, aimed at abolishing feudalism.
– The Workers’ Party of Ethiopia (WPE, 1984): The Derg estab-
lished a Marxist-Leninist party as the vanguard of the revolution.
– The People’s Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE, 1987):
The Derg established a communist state.
• Consequences:
– End of the Monarchy: The overthrow of Emperor Haile Selassie.
– Establishment of a Marxist-Leninist State: The Derg established
a communist regime.
– Civil War: The Derg faced armed opposition from various groups,
including the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF), the Tigray
People’s Liberation Front (TPLF), and the Oromo Liberation Front
(OLF).
35
– The Famine of 1984-1985: A severe famine, exacerbated by drought

and the Derg’s policies.
– The Resettlement Program: The Derg forcibly resettled people
from drought-affected regions to other parts of the country.
6.4 The Ethio-Somali War and Foreign Influences, the Ques-

tion of Eritrea, and the Fall of the Derg
• The Ethio-Somali War (1977-1978):
– Causes: Somalia’s ambition to create a ”Greater Somalia” by annexing
the Ogaden region of Ethiopia.
– Foreign Intervention: The Soviet Union supported Ethiopia, while
the United States supported Somalia.
– Outcome: Ethiopia defeated Somalia.
• The Question of Eritrea:
– Federation (1952): Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia, but its au-
tonomy was gradually eroded.
– Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM, 1958): A movement that
began to fight for Eritrean independence.
– Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF, 1960): A more militant organi-
zation that waged a guerrilla war.
– Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF, 1973): A prominent
Eritrean liberation group that fought against both the Imperial regime
and the Derg.
– The Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF): A Tigrayan lib-
eration group that fought against the Derg.
• The Fall of the Derg (1991):
– Causes:
∗ Civil War: The Derg faced a long and bloody civil war with Er-
itrean and Tigrayan liberation groups.
∗ The Famine of 1984-1985: The famine weakened the Derg and
fueled popular unrest.
∗ The Resettlement Program: The Derg’s forced resettlement
program, which displaced millions of people, led to widespread op-
position.
36
∗ Loss of Soviet Support: The Soviet Union withdrew its support

for the Derg, weakening its military and economic position.
– Key Events:
∗ The Formation of the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary
Democratic Front (EPRDF): A coalition of liberation fronts,
including the TPLF, that overthrew the Derg.
– Outcome: The Derg was overthrown, leading to the establishment
of a transitional government and ultimately the Federal Democratic
Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE).

Unit 7: Africa Since 1960

7.1 Rise of Independent States in Africa
• The Year of Africa (1960): A year in which many African countries
gained independence from European colonial rule.
• National Liberation Movements: African nationalist movements, often
using nonviolent resistance or guerrilla warfare, fought for independence.
7.1.1 National Liberation Movements in North Africa

• Egypt:
– British Protectorate (1882-1922): Egypt was a British protec-
torate.
– Independence (1922): Egypt gained nominal independence, but Britain
maintained control over its foreign policy and military.
37
– The 1952 Revolution: Overthrew the monarchy and led to the es-
tablishment of a republic.
– The Suez Crisis (1956): Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal, leading
to a war with Israel, Britain, and France.
• Sudan:
– Anglo-Egyptian Condominium (1899-1956): Sudan was jointly

ruled by Britain and Egypt.
– Independence (1956): Sudan gained independence.
• Morocco:
– French Protectorate: Morocco was a French protectorate.

– Independence (1956): Morocco gained independence.
• Tunisia:
– French Protectorate: Tunisia was a French protectorate.

– Independence (1956): Tunisia gained independence.
• Algeria:
– French Colony: Algeria was a French colony.

– The Algerian War of Independence (1954-1962): A long and
violent war between Algeria and France, resulting in Algeria’s indepen-
dence.
7.1.2 National Liberation Movements in West Africa

• British West Africa:
– Ghana (Gold Coast): Gained independence in 1957 under the lead-

ership of Kwame Nkrumah.
– Nigeria: Gained independence in 1960.
– Sierra Leone: Gained independence in 1961.
– The Gambia: Gained independence in 1965.
• French West Africa:
– Guinea: Gained independence in 1958 after voting ”no” to a referen-

dum on continued association with France.
38
– Other French Colonies: Gained independence in 1960.
• Portuguese West Africa:
– Guinea-Bissau: Gained independence in 1973.

– Cape Verde: Gained independence in 1975.
– Angola: Gained independence in 1975.
– Mozambique: Gained independence in 1975.
7.1.3 National Liberation Movements in East and Central Africa

• British East Africa:
– Uganda: Gained independence in 1962.

– Tanzania (Tanganyika and Zanzibar): Tanganyika gained inde-
pendence in 1961, Zanzibar in 1963, and the two states united to form
Tanzania in 1964.
– Kenya: Gained independence in 1963 after a long and violent struggle
against British rule, including the Mau Mau uprising.
• Belgian Congo:
– Independence (1960): Gained independence.

– The Congo Crisis: The country faced instability and violence after
independence, including the assassination of Patrice Lumumba.
• Rwanda and Burundi:
– Belgian Mandate: Ruanda-Urundi was a Belgian mandate territory.

– Independence (1962): Rwanda and Burundi gained independence.
7.1.4 National Liberation Movements in Southern Africa

• British Southern Africa:
– Zambia (Northern Rhodesia): Gained independence in 1964.

– Malawi (Nyasaland): Gained independence in 1964.
– Lesotho (Basutoland): Gained independence in 1966.
– Botswana (Bechuanaland): Gained independence in 1966.
• South Africa:
39
– Union of South Africa (1910): South Africa became a dominion

within the British Empire.
– Apartheid (1948-1990): A system of racial segregation and discrim-
ination imposed by the white minority government.
– The African National Congress (ANC): A South African organi-
zation that fought against apartheid.
– Anti-Apartheid Struggle: Led by the ANC, with leaders such as
Nelson Mandela.
– End of Apartheid (1990): Apartheid was abolished, and Nelson
Mandela was released from prison.
– Multi-party Democracy (1994): South Africa became a multi-party
democracy, with Nelson Mandela as the first black president.
• Portuguese Southern Africa:
– Mozambique: Gained independence in 1975 after a long and violent

war against Portuguese rule.
– Angola: Gained independence in 1975.
• Namibia (South-West Africa):
– South African Mandate: Namibia was a South African mandate

territory.
– The South-West African People’s Organization (SWAPO): A
Namibian liberation group that fought for independence from South
Africa.
– Independence (1990): Namibia gained independence from South
Africa.
7.1.5 Pan-Africanism and the OAU

• Pan-Africanism: A movement that advocated for the unity and liberation
of all people of African descent.
– Origins: Emerged in the 19th century in the Americas and Europe.
• Post-World War II Pan-Africanism: Gained momentum as African

countries sought independence.
• Key Figures:
40
– Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana): A prominent pan-Africanist leader.

– Julius Nyerere (Tanzania):
– Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya):
– Leopold Sedar Senghor (Senegal):
• The Organization of African Unity (OAU):
– Formation (1963): Established in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, to promote

African unity and solidarity.
– Goals:
∗ End Colonialism and Apartheid: To achieve the liberation of
all African countries.
∗ Promote Cooperation: To foster economic, social, and cultural
cooperation among African states.
∗ Maintain Peace and Security: To address conflicts and promote
peace.
7.1.6 Successes and Failures of the OAU

• Successes:
– Decolonization: Played a major role in the end of colonialism in

Africa.
– Anti-Apartheid Struggle: Supported the fight against apartheid in
South Africa.
• Failures:
– Conflicts: Unable to effectively resolve conflicts among African states.

– Economic Underdevelopment: The OAU did not have sufficient
economic resources or coordination to address Africa’s development
challenges.
– Human Rights Abuses: The OAU did not have effective mechanisms
to address human rights abuses in member states.
7.1.7 The African Union (AU)

• Formation (2002): The OAU was replaced by the African Union in 2002
to address the challenges of the 21st century.
41
• Goals:
– Promote African Unity and Integration: To foster greater politi-

cal, economic, and social integration among African states.
– Promote Peace and Security: To address conflicts and promote
peace and stability.
– Promote Human Rights and Democracy: To uphold human rights
and democratic principles.
– Promote Economic Development: To accelerate economic devel-
opment.
7.2 Struggle for Economic Independence

• Post-Independence Challenges: Newly independent African states faced
significant economic challenges, including:
– Underdevelopment: Colonialism had left Africa with weak economies

and limited industrialization.
– Dependence on Exporting Raw Materials: African economies re-
lied on exporting raw materials, often at low prices, to developed coun-
tries.
– Debt: Many African countries faced significant debt burdens.
– Drought and Famine: Regular droughts and famines contributed to
economic hardship.
• Regional Economic Integration: African countries sought to promote

economic integration through regional organizations.
– Key Regional Economic Communities (RECs):

∗ Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS):
∗ Southern African Development Community (SADC):
∗ Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA):
∗ Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD):
7.3 Major Issues in Contemporary Africa

• Ethnic Conflict: Ethnic divisions and tensions have been a major source
of conflict in many African countries.
42
– The Biafra War (1967-1970): A civil war in Nigeria between the

Igbo people and the Hausa-controlled government.
– The Rwandan Genocide (1994): A brutal ethnic cleansing of the
Tutsi by the Hutu people.
• Poverty and Inequality: Extreme poverty and inequality remain signifi-

cant challenges in many African countries.
– Causes: Colonial legacies, conflict, corruption, poor governance, and

climate change.
• Population Pressure: Rapid population growth puts pressure on resources

and contributes to poverty and environmental degradation.
• Environmental Degradation and Climate Change: Africa is particu-

larly vulnerable to the effects of climate change, including droughts, floods,
and desertification.
• Disease: Many African countries face significant challenges from diseases

such as HIV/AIDS, malaria, and Ebola.
• Governance: Challenges with corruption, authoritarian rule, and lack of

democratic institutions.
• Hope for the Future: Despite these challenges, there is hope for the future
of Africa, with growing calls for democracy, good governance, and sustainable
development.

43
Unit 8: Post-1991 Developments in Ethiopia

8.1 The Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE)
• The Fall of the Derg (1991): The Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary
Democratic Front (EPRDF), a coalition of liberation movements, overthrew
the Derg regime, ending the long civil war.
• The London Conference (1991): A conference convened in London,

with the participation of the EPRDF, the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front
(EPLF), and the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), to establish a transitional
government.
• The Ethiopian Democratic and Peaceful Transitional Conference

(1991): A national conference held in Addis Ababa to prepare for a transi-
tional period.
• The 1991 Transitional Charter: Established a transitional government,

with a Council of Representatives and a National Charter that functioned
as a temporary constitution.
• Key Issues of the Transition:
– Eritrean Independence: The conference agreed to hold a referendum

on Eritrean independence within two years.
– Ethnic Federalism: The conference laid the foundation for a federal
system based on ethnic identities.
• The Transitional Government: Led by Meles Zenawi of the EPRDF.
• Challenges of the Transition:
– Political Instability: Conflicts between different groups, including

the OLF, which withdrew from the government.
8.1.2 The 1995 Constitution and the Formation of the FDRE

• The 1995 Constitution: Established the Federal Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia (FDRE).
• Key Features:
44
– Ethnic Federalism: The constitution established a federal system

based on ethnic identities, with nine regional states and two city ad-
ministrations (Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa).
– Self-Determination: Recognized the right of ethnic groups to self-
determination, including the right to secede.
– Parliamentary System: Established a bicameral parliament, with
the House of Peoples’ Representatives (HPR) and the House of Feder-
ation (HoF).
– Independent Judiciary: Established an independent judiciary, with
the Federal Supreme Court as the highest judicial body.
– Human Rights: Recognized a wide range of human rights and free-
doms.
– Working Language: Amharic was chosen as the working language at
the federal level, but all languages were declared equal.
• Formation of the FDRE: The FDRE was officially formed in 1995 with
the adoption of the new constitution.
• Challenges of Federalism:
– Ethnic Tensions and Conflict: The ethnically-based federal system

has contributed to ethnic tensions and conflicts in some regions.
– Power Sharing: Power-sharing arrangements between the federal gov-
ernment and regional states have been a source of tension.
– Economic Development: Addressing economic disparities between
regions.
8.2 Hydro-Political History of the Nile (Abay) Basin and

Development Issues
8.2.1 Hydro-Political History of the Nile (Abay) Basin
• The Nile River: The world’s longest river, flowing through eleven countries
in Africa.
• Tributaries:
– Blue Nile (Abay): Originates in the Ethiopian Highlands.

– Tekeze (Atbara): Originates in the Ethiopian Highlands.
– White Nile: Originates in Central Africa.
45
• Importance of the Nile: A vital source of water for agriculture, drinking,

and transportation in the Nile Basin.
• Historical Agreements on the Nile:
– The 1929 Agreement: Signed between Britain and Egypt, granting
Egypt control over the Nile and the right to veto any projects that could
affect its water supply.
– The 1959 Agreement: Signed between Egypt and Sudan, increasing
Sudan’s share of the Nile water but still giving Egypt a large majority.
• The Nile Basin Initiative (NBI): A cooperative framework established
in 1999 to promote sustainable management and development of the Nile
Basin’s resources.
• The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD): A hydroelectric
dam being built by Ethiopia on the Blue Nile, which has been a source of
controversy with downstream countries, Egypt and Sudan.
8.2.2 Development Issues & Challenges of the Democratization Process

in Ethiopia
• Economic Growth and Development: Ethiopia has experienced signifi-
cant economic growth in recent decades.
– Agricultural-led Development of Industrialization (ALDI): An
economic strategy to industrialize Ethiopia by boosting agricultural pro-
ductivity.
– Infrastructure Development: Significant investments in roads, hy-
dropower, and other infrastructure.
• Challenges to Development:
– Poverty and Inequality: Poverty and inequality remain widespread,
despite economic growth.
– Food Insecurity: Ethiopia continues to face challenges with food se-
curity, with periodic droughts and famines.
– Political Challenges:
∗ Human Rights: Concerns over human rights abuses.
∗ Ethnic Tensions: Ethnic tensions and violence.
∗ Governance: Concerns about the ruling party’s dominance, elec-
toral fairness, and freedom of expression.
46

Unit 9: Indigenous Knowledge and Heritages of

Ethiopia
9.1 Indigenous Knowledge
• Definition: The knowledge and practices that have been developed by in-
digenous communities over generations to adapt to their local environments
and sustain their livelihoods.
• Forms of Indigenous Knowledge:
– Traditional Laws and Customs: Rules and regulations that govern

community life.
– Rituals and Ceremonies: Practices with social, spiritual, or cultural
significance.
– Classification and Quantification Systems: Local systems for un-
derstanding and managing the natural world.
– Agriculture and Farming Practices: Traditional methods for cul-
tivating land and crops.
– Medicine and Healing: Traditional knowledge and practices related
to health and healing.
• Importance of Indigenous Knowledge:
– Sustainable Development: Indigenous knowledge systems often pro-

mote sustainable practices for managing resources.
– Local Solutions: Provides practical solutions for local communities.
47
– Cultural Preservation: Helps to preserve cultural heritage.

– Potential for Innovation: Offers valuable insights for modern scien-
tific research and development.
9.1.1 The Role of Indigenous Knowledge for Overall Devel-

opment; Characteristics of Indigenous Knowledge
• Key Roles:
– Food Security: Indigenous knowledge helps manage agriculture and

food production.
– Health: Provides knowledge about traditional medicine and healing
practices.
– Environmental Conservation: Indigenous knowledge often includes
sustainable practices for managing natural resources.
– Social Cohesion: Helps to maintain social order and harmony.
• Characteristics:
– Practical and Applied: Focuses on solving real-world problems.

– Locally Specific: Developed for a particular environment and com-
munity.
– Transmitted Orally: Often passed down through generations by word
of mouth.
– Intertwined with Culture: Deeply rooted in cultural values and
beliefs.
– Dynamic and Evolving: Indigenous knowledge adapts and changes
over time.
9.1.2 Some Specific and Unique Knowledge Systems in Ethiopia

Among Particular Cultural Groups and Regions
• Afar:
– Mada’a: A traditional system of conflict resolution among the Afar,

led by elders and clan leaders.
– Dagu: An indigenous communication network used to share informa-
tion about events, news, and the environment.
48
• Oromo:
– Gadaa: An age-grade system that provides a framework for social,

political, and economic organization.
– Jaarsummaa: An indigenous conflict resolution process led by elders
(Jaarsaas).
– Gumaa: A system of blood money or compensation for homicide or
injury.
– Siinqee (Siiqee): An institution that upholds the rights and authority
of women in Oromo society.
• Amhara:
– Shimgelina: A traditional conflict resolution process led by elders

(Shimageles).
• Sidama:
– Luwa: An age-grade system with a cyclical structure that guides social

roles and responsibilities.
– Seera: A system of traditional laws and customs that governs Sidama
society.
• Kambata and Hadiya:
– Seera: A system of traditional laws and customs that governs Kambata

and Hadiya society.
9.2 Heritages of Ethiopia

• Definition: Anything of historical, cultural, or artistic value that is inher-
ited from the past.
• Types:
– Natural Heritage: Includes natural features, landscapes, and ecosys-

tems.
– Cultural Heritage: Includes tangible and intangible expressions of
culture, such as:
∗ Tangible Heritage: Physical objects, buildings, monuments, and
archaeological sites.
49
∗ Intangible Heritage: Practices, traditions, songs, dances, festi-

vals, languages, and knowledge systems.
• Importance:
– Identity: Heritage helps define a nation’s identity and culture.
– Tourism: Cultural and natural heritage sites are important tourist
attractions.
– Conservation: Preserving heritage for future generations.
9.2.1 Meaning and Values of Heritages

• Heritage Values: The meanings and significance that individuals and com-
munities attach to their heritage.
– Historical Value: Heritage sites and objects that provide insights into
the past.
– Cultural Value: Heritage that reflects cultural traditions and prac-
tices.
– Aesthetic Value: Heritage that is considered beautiful or inspiring.
– Economic Value: Heritage can contribute to economic development
through tourism.
9.2.2 Types of Heritages

• Natural Heritage: Examples in Ethiopia:
– Simien Mountains National Park: A UNESCO World Heritage
Site, known for its unique biodiversity and dramatic landscapes.
– Lower Valley of Awash: A UNESCO World Heritage Site, significant
for its paleoanthropological discoveries.
– Lower Valley of Omo: A UNESCO World Heritage Site, known for
its fossil discoveries and cultural diversity.
• Intangible Heritage: Examples in Ethiopia:
– Mesqel Demera Ceremony: A UNESCO Representative List of the
Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, celebrating the finding of the
True Cross.
– Gadaa: The Oromo age-grade system, inscribed on the UNESCO Rep-
resentative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
50
– Fichee-Chambalaalla: The Sidama New Year celebration, inscribed

on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage
of Humanity.
– Timket, Ethiopian Epiphany: Celebrates the baptism of Jesus, in-
scribed on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural
Heritage of Humanity.
• Tangible Heritage: Examples in Ethiopia:
– The Stelae of Aksum: A UNESCO World Heritage Site, representing
the Aksumite civilization.
– The Rock-Hewn Churches of Lalibela: A UNESCO World Her-
itage Site, known for their extraordinary architecture.
– Fasil Ghebbi (Gondar): A UNESCO World Heritage Site, represent-
ing the Gondarine period.
– Tiya: A UNESCO World Heritage Site, with ancient stelae and other
archaeological remains.
– Harar Jugol (Harar): A UNESCO World Heritage Site, known for
its historic walled city.
– Konso Cultural Landscape: A UNESCO World Heritage Site, with
terraced fields and fortified villages.
– Mosques: Numerous mosques throughout Ethiopia, representing Is-
lamic culture and heritage.
– Palaces: Examples include the Palace of King Fasilidas, the Grand
Palace of Menilek II, and the Palace of Abba Jifar II in Jimma.
– Caves: Sof Omar Cave system, a remarkable underground cave system.
– Houses: Traditional Ethiopian houses, with their unique architecture
and construction techniques.
– Manuscripts: Ethiopia has a rich tradition of manuscripts written in
Ge’ez.
51

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Advanced History Notes - Grade 10

June 25, 2024

Unit 1: Development of Capitalism and Nationalism 1815 to 1914 2

Unit 2: Africa & the Colonial Experience (1880s -1960s) 7

Unit 3: Social, Economic & Political Developments in Ethiopia, Mid

Unit 4: Society and Politics in the Age of World Wars, 1914-1945 18

Unit 5: Global and Regional Developments Since 1945 25

Unit 6: Ethiopia: Internal Developments and External Influences

Unit 7: Africa Since 1960 37

Unit 8: Post-1991 Developments in Ethiopia 44

Unit 9: Indigenous Knowledge and Heritages of Ethiopia 47

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Unit 1: Development of Capitalism and Nation-

– Private Ownership of the Means of Production: Individuals or

• Industrial Revolution’s Impact:

– New Technologies: Steam power, the factory system, new machinery.

1.2 Features of Nationalism and Formation of Nation-States

– Language: A common language.

• Nation-State: A state where the population shares a common national

• Factors Contributing to Nationalism:

– The Renaissance: The revival of classical learning and the develop-

1.2.1 Unification of Italy

• Key Figures in the Unification Movement:

– Giuseppe Mazzini: A nationalist leader who advocated for a united

– Giuseppe Garibaldi: A nationalist leader who led the “Red Shirts”

– The Revolutions of 1848: Nationalist uprisings throughout Italy.

– Regional Divisions: North and south Italy remained economically

1.2.2 Unification of Germany

• Key Figures in the Unification Movement:

– Otto von Bismarck: The Prussian minister-president who played a

– Realpolitik: A pragmatic approach to politics, focused on achieving

– Danish War (1864): Prussia, aided by Austria, defeated Denmark

– Rise of Prussia’s Power: Prussia became the dominant power in

1.2.3 The American Civil War

– Slavery: The most significant cause, with the South dependent on

– Abraham Lincoln: President of the United States during the Civil

– Secession of Southern States (1860-1861): Eleven southern states

– Abolition of Slavery: The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitu-

1.2.4 Nationalism and the “Eastern Question”

• Balkan Nationalism: Nationalist movements in the Balkans, seeking in-

• Competing Interests of European Powers:

– Russia: Supported Balkan nationalists to expand its influence in the

– Great Britain: Supported the Ottomans to prevent Russian expan-

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Unit 2: Africa & the Colonial Experience (1880s

– Characteristics: A foreign power establishes control over a territory,

– Early Colonialism: Practiced by ancient civilizations, such as the

• ”Legitimate” Trade: Trade in commodities between Africa and European

2.2 The Motives of European Colonialism

– Raw Materials: Demand for raw materials to fuel European indus-

• Political and Strategic Motives:

– Power and Prestige: Competition between European powers for colo-

• The Civilizing Mission and the White Man’s Burden:

– Belief in European Superiority: Europeans believed they had a

– Missionaries: Some missionaries supported colonialism, believing it

2.3 Scramble for Africa and the Berlin Conference

– Economic and Political Rivalry: Increased competition between

• The Berlin Conference (1884-1885):

– Purpose: To regulate European colonization of Africa and avoid con-

• Consequences of the Scramble for Africa:

– Partition of Africa: Nearly the entire continent was divided into

2.4 Colonial Policies and Administration

– Company Rule: Private companies were granted large territories to