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Rehabilitation of degraded mountain forests with an integrated eco restoration

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 SAARC FORESTRY JOURNAL

VOLUME IV

DECEMBER 2015
3
TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  
Livelihood  support  to  indigenous  people  in  Chittagong  Hill  Tracts  of  Bangladesh  is  a  strategy  for  
effective  management  of  degraded  forests:  A  case  study   1  

Stand  structure  and  natural  regeneration  of  Pinus  wallichiana  A.B.  Jackson  (Blue  pine)  forests  
adjoining  human  settlements  in  Western  Bhutan   10  
Regeneration  potential  (through  seed)  of  Quercus  semecarpifolia  in  reviving  the  highly  degraded  Oak  
forests  of  Western  Bhutan   21  
Rehabilitation  of  degraded  mountain  forests  with  an  integrated  eco  restoration  model  -­‐  A  case  study  
of  the  Attappady  Hills,  Kerala,  India   32
Livelihood support to indigenous people in Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh is a
strategy for effective management of degraded forests: A case study

Montosh Kumar Das

Coordinator cum Social Forestry Programme
PROSHIKA
I/1-Ga, Section-2, Mirpur
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Email: montosh.das@gmail.com

Abstract

The hill forest in Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHTs) in south-eastern of Bangladesh is the major
ecosystem which is about 58% of total national forest and 18% of total land area of country.
CHTs are comprised with three hill districts namely Rangamati, Khagrachrai and Banderban.
The vegetation type of these forest are mainly moist tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen
forests which extend from Teknaf Peninsula, north along Myanmar border to the Chittagong and
CHTs. This forest supports almost 80% of the country’s total biodiversity. At the same time,
livelihood and culture of 12 indigenous groups living in this region has a relationship to the
natural forest. In fact, indigenous people of the CHT are distinct from plain land people in terms
of ethnic identity, race, culture, life style, language, legal system and way of life. Due to
increase of dependency on forest resources, conversion of natural forest land, lack of awareness
and absence of alternative income for forest dependent people, this forest is now overexploited
and hence gradually being degraded. However, indigenous people (IP) in this region usually
conserve a patch of natural forest around their villages for availability of water and housing
materials, medicinal plants and food for community use. This type of community-conserved
forest is known as ‘village common forest’ or ‘mouza reserve’ where indigenous people try to
avoid any agricultural activities or collection of forest resources for individual uses. In an
analysis of project performance it is found that support to organizational development,
awareness building and alternative income generating activities help to reduce dependency on
the forest. Outcome of the project activities are realization of the forest conservation for their
own interest. An indigenous community in the village of Komolchari in Khagrachari district is
conserving a total of 128 hectares of village common forest since 2011. The community efforts
during this period are conservation of biodiversity without human interference. With the gradual
restoration activity, the water flow in the stream (locally called jhiri) has been increased, as it
would be used for drinking as well as household use. Regeneration of plant species and presence
of the wild animals indicate natural conservation of forest. In fact, IP of this concern forest has
established an example for forest conservation through their participatory management
approaches.

1
1. Background

In Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHTs) in south-eastern of

Bangladesh, indigenous people (IP) conserve the natural
forest around their villages where they live. This
community conserved forest is a traditional practice of
natural forest management for availability of water in
the streams (locally called Jhiri) and other non timber
forest products by IP in the hill forest. The hill forest is
the major ecosystem of about 1.51 million hectares
which is about 58% of total national forest and 18% of
total land area of country. It consists of moist tropical
evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, which extend
from Teknaf Peninsula, north along Myanmar border to
the Chittagong and CHTs. It can be mentioned that this
hill forest supports almost 80% of the country’s total
biodiversity (Nishat & Biswas, 2005) and inhibited by
people from 12 ethnic groups (Rasul, 2007) who depend
on forest commons to fulfill their basic subsistence
requirements and cash income (Rasul and Karki, 2006). Map 1: Project area
Traditionally, IP used to conserve a patch of natural
forest that occur across village clusters or mouza which are locally called mouza-ban or village
common forest (VCF) (Misbahuzzam K, 2008). So, these forests have also different names
among the different IP, like Jar to the Chakma, kalittra to the Tripura, Bam or Thoikhuong to the
Marma, Reserve to Tanchangya, Bam to Khyiang, Kua Bam to Mru, Kua Reserve to the Bom,
Kua service to the Pankhua, Service to Lusai, Jhumio Pui to Khumi and Thindhing Aka Ara to
the Chaks (Saha, 2010).

It is reported that customary practice in CHTs, each village identified an area within its territorial
and jurisdictional authority reserve solely for use and extraction relating to domestic purpose.
This forest communally owned and managed, with the community as a whole responsible for its
upkeep and conservation; jhum cultivations are not allowed in these areas. Use and extraction
was need-based with each person taking only what they required, in order not to deplete the
natural resources of this forest which existed for the benefit of the entire community. This area
was later known as the mouza reserve or service forests (Regulation 1 of 1900) with the
indigenous village administration responsible for its care and upkeep (Rule 41A of the Manual).
This system continues today in a few villages. In some cases it is the only remaining natural
forest in the surrounding area (Roy, R.C, 2000). As a result, VCF shows a rich biodiversity
compared to government reserve forests in CHTs (Baten et al, 2010).

2
 Present scenario of the traditional VCF
management system gradually has been
changing as population increase, absence of
alternative income of the forest dependent
people, lack of awareness for biodiversity
conservation etc. Most of the traditional
conservation systems have been broken down
as cash economics have developed among the
indigenous people. They are now frequently
selling natural resources in markets for money
(Mohiuddin, M & Alam M. K., 2011). So,
support to alternative income for forest
dependent people and awareness building about the importance of natural resources conservation
appears as a vital issue.

In this context, PROSHIKA with the financial assistance of Arannayk Foundation initiate a
project “Conservation and Restoration of Biodiversity of Village Common Forest in
Khagrachari” in Komolchari in Khagrachari Sadar upazila under Khagrachari Hill District from
August 2011. PROSHIKA is a national level non-governmental organization in Bangladesh
working throughout the country since 1976 with a mission of creating a society, which is
economically productive and equitable, socially just environmentally sound and genuinely
democratic. The mission of Arannayk Foundation is to facilitate the conservation, protection,
restoration and sustainable use of tropical forests in Bangladesh, which provide a wide range of
benefits to mankind, by providing financial grants or other support to qualified organizations or
entities.
So, the projects focus on (i) conservation and restoration of VCF for improving floral and faunal
biodiversity; (ii) improvement of institutional and technical capacity of the community for
management of VCF; (iii) promotion of alternative income generating activities of the
communities in order to reduce their dependency on forest resources and (iv) to create awareness
about the benefit of conservation of VCF forests and biodiversity.

2. Programme/activities

Main focus was given to institutional and financial capacity building of the indigenous
community through accompaniment support. In this regard, concern indigenous community in
the project area is organized and a series of activities are implemented through participatory
approaches. Some of the remarkable activities under project are mentioned as follows:

i) Assessment of biodiversity and socio-economic status of concern community;

ii) Conservation and restoration of biodiversity of VCF through community involvement;
iii) Organizational capacity building of the community;

3
 iv) Financial capacity building;
v) Support to forest dependent indigenous community for alternative income generating
activities;
vi) Organized training support;
vii) Mass awareness activities for necessity for conservation of natural forest;
viii) Monitoring support for better management of the forest;

3. Methodology used

This is prepared by evaluation field level performance, analyzing the project report (quarterly,
annual, and completion) and interviewing with the concern project beneficiaries.

4. Result/impact

During the last four years from project inception, some remarkable achievements are done
through the project activities, these are mentioned here.

i) Indigenous people have been realized the conservation and restoration of biodiversity of
VCF: Through the project activities, indigenous people have been realized the conservation
of the VCF as their own previous generation has also done. So they make a commitment to
allow natural regeneration of existing plant species of the VCF. In this regard, they have
done two things. Firstly, they decided not to harvest any forest resources from the natural
part of the VCF till dense forest coverage. Secondly, in the degraded part, they carry out
enrichment plantation with indigenous species and establish fruit orchards for their livelihood
support. It can be mentioned here that the total area of the Komolchari VCF in Khagrachri is
about 316 acres (128 hectares) where 40% areas are assessed natural vegetation and
remaining 60% areas are moderately degraded.

4
 At the same time,
enrichment plantations in
the degraded and
moderately degraded part
of VCF help to restore
the biodiversity of the
VCF. About 20% of the
vacant spaces have been
filled up so far with
indigenous species. In
this case some
lost/disappeared species
from the VCF is given
preferences.

Improved varieties of
fruit species have been
planted in degraded part
of VCF which are used
by the community for
traditional jhum
cultivation. Now 35% of
the VCF is covered with
establishment of fruit
orchards especially with

the species Mango (Mangifera indica). The fruit orchards

will provide livelihood support to the forest dependent
community.

Some of the indicators of the efficient conservation of the

VCF are appearance of various types of birds and wild
animals like Monkey (Macca mulatta), Shial (Canis
aureas), Bagdash (Vivera zibetha), Porcopine (Hystrix
indica), Red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus) etc. Water flow in
the streams has also been increased that are used by
surrounding villagers.

5
 ii) Develop organizational capacity among the
project participants: Out of 350 households in the
village Komolchari, Jaduraampara and
Thanachaandrapara, 268 household members have
been organized in 10 groups (locally called Sommittee)
consisting of 25-30 members up to March 2015 where
5 female groups and 5 male groups. Each group has a
specific management structure like Sovapati
(Chairman), Secretary, Cashier and general members
and each group sits in a monthly meeting where
discussions held on social and financial activities at
fixed date, maintain attendance and meeting minutes.
A 19-member of Executive Committee (EC) has been
formed as the apex committee to supervise the overall management of groups. EC performs
the major responsibilities like management of VCF, preparation of annual activity plan and
report, bank transaction, revolving loan fund management, appropriate loan selection for the
relevant members, loan approval and organizing the annual general meeting (AGM) etc.
After involving with the project activities, they arrange annual general meeting (AGM) from
2013 where all the performances of the groups are discussed, analyzed, evaluated and
prepared next year plan.

iii) Human and skill development among the participants: About 200 participants have
received various human and skill development training courses like ‘organization and
development’, ‘Financial management of primary groups’, ‘Techniques of Biodiversity
conservation of VCF’, ‘Homestead agricultural production’, ‘Techniques of livestock
rearing’, ‘Pond fish culture’ etc. These training courses help them better management of the
relevant interventions by groups which also help the better management of the VCF. Skills
for implementation of AIG activities have been increased. They learn to manage of their
revolving loan fund effectively.
iv) Develop financial capacity for implementation of various AIG: It is interesting that a total
of BDT 29,63,000 loan has been disbursed by Somittee from revolving fund among the 207
beneficiaries from September 2012 to March 2015 where members savings are BDT
1,71,288 and fund support from project are BDT 6,37,000.
As per
operational manual
for revolving fund
management, each
beneficiary receives
1st loan BDT 3500
to BDT 5000 for 12
months duration and
make the repayment
on the basis of monthly installments. After repayment, he/she has been eligible for next loan

6
 with higher amount. In this process, 50 beneficiaries take 1st round loan, 92 beneficiaries 2nd
loan, 64 beneficiaries 3rd loan and 1 beneficiary 4th loan up to March 2015. This is an
achievement due to financial capacity building of management committee and it is increasing
day by day. As a consequence, forest dependency of the indigenous people is gradually
reducing due to effective awareness build-up upon and execution of alternative income
generating activities. The loans are utilized for the various income generating activities like
agriculture, homestead gardening, small business, cow, pig, goat rearing.
v) Indigenous people are interested to use improved cooked stoves: A total of 51 organized
households are now using improved cooked stoves (ICS) which help them to reduce 50%
requirements of the firewood which was exploited from natural forest particularly from
VCF. Remaining HHs are also found very much interested to install such ICS in future.

ix) Mass awareness develop through promotional activities: A video documentary on

Komolchari VCF acts as a training material as well as awareness raising tool which is
telecasted in
Bangladesh
Television several
times. It helps to
create a mass
awareness regarding
the concept of VCF
and necessity of its
natural conservation.
Mass awareness has
also been created through installation of bill boards, brochure, and souvenir distribution.
It helps to disseminate information of project activities and creates awareness among the
people.

x) Community Resources Center (CRC): A CRC is built-up through the this project
assistance which is utilized for training, meeting, workshop and other social activities.
Komolchari VCF management committee uses a room in the center for official purpose.

5. Conclusion

In fact, the process of forest degradation started in this region from the British colonial period:
with the nationalization of forests; establishment of reserved forests by denying the customary
rights of indigenous people; entrusting management of forests to bureaucratic departments and;
weakening the traditional institutions and it is continued. Most of the natural forests are
gradually being converted into production plantation forest through massive felling and artificial
regeneration.

Different initiatives have been continued to restore the forest and biodiversity of the CHTs. In
that case, support to IP for community management of forests would be the best practice to
conserve critical ecosystems and threatened species; maintain essential ecosystem functions. As

7
community management practiced for sites and species by IP is age-old and the biodiversity
status of community-conserved forest is found rich rather than government-managed forest.

The initiatives of alternative income generation for forest dependent people are essential for
effective biodiversity conservation strategies. In that case, the capacity of the forest management
committee is an important issue to save this traditional practice. Different skill development
training support will help the IP for implementation of different income generating activities.

IP in the project area have created a model for biodiversity conservation through traditional
management practices. Learning from this project can be replicated in the other VCF in the
CHTs. To save the forest biodiversity, focus should be given to capacity building of the IP
especially the organization building of VCF management committee and provision of
incorporation for alternative income generating activities of the forest dependent people. The
concept of community conserved forest should be incorporated in the national biodiversity
conservation strategies.

6. References

AF (2010) Conserving forests for the future: Annual report 2009. Dhaka: Arannayk Foundation.
URL.http://www.arannayk.org/docs/af_annual report_2009.pdf

Baten, M. A., Khan, N. A., Ahmad, R., and Misbahuzzaman, K. (2010) Village common forests
in Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh: Balance between Conservation and Exploitation.
Dhaka: Unnayan Onneshan,

CRBVCFK. (2014) Annual Report, Prepared and submitted to Arannayk Foundation by

Proshika,
Misbahuzzaman, K. (2008) Restoration of degraded forest landscape in eastern upland of
Bangladesh using community management practices, 18th Commonwealth Forestry
Conference,

Mohiuddin, M., and Alam, M. K. (2011) Opportunities of traditional knowledge in Natural

resource management experience from Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh. Indian
Journal of Traditional Know- ledge, 10, 474-480.

Mundy, J., and Eyre. C. (2000) Risk mitigation in forestry: Linkages with Kyoto and sustainable
forestry management. Washington, D.C.: Forest Trends.
Nishat, A., and Biswas, S. (2005) Community-based restoration of de- graded tropical hill
forests: Experiences from Krykhong Para, Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh. Bulletin
16: 1-11. Jaipur/New Delhi: National Institute of Ecology.

8
Rasul, G. (2007) Political ecology of the degradation of forest commons in the Chittagong Hill
Tracts of Bangladesh. Environmental Conservation, 34, 153-163.
doi:10.1017/S0376892907003888

Rasul, G., and Karki, M. (2006) Political ecology of degradation of forest common in the
Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh. The Eleventh Biennial Conference of the
International Association for the Study of Common Property, Bali, 19-23 June 2006.

Roy, R. C. K. (1996) Land Rights of the Indigenous peoples of the Chittagong Hill Tracts,
Bangladesh, International Work Group For Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA)

Saha, P. S. (2010) Parbattya Chattagramer Mouza Ban: Prachin Praggyar Arek Rup. In P. Gain
(Ed.) Dharitri, 11th issue, an occasional SEHD magazine (Bangla). Dhaka: Society for
Environment and Human Development (SEHD).

9
Stand structure and natural regeneration of Pinus wallichiana A.B. Jackson (Blue pine)
forests adjoining human settlements in Western Bhutan
Tshering1 , Gratzer, G.2, Wangda, P3, Darabant, A.2, Phuntsho1
1
Forest Resources Management Division, Department of Forests and Park Services, Thimphu,
Bhutan
2
University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Department of Forest and Soil Sciences,
Vienna, Austria
3
Watershed Management Division, Department of Forests and Park Services, Thimphu, Bhutan

Abstract
The study was carried out in the inner dry region of lower Paro valley close to human
settlements in a degraded forest area. A total of 35 permanents plots (5 X 5 m) were established
in two sites with contrasting level of human disturbances. Investigation was carried out for
impact of anthropogenic disturbances on Blue pine natural regeneration and stand structure.
The investigation revealed high tree density with high level of injury and infection in the highly
disturbed site. Descriptive analysis showed highly disturbed site with higher level of injury,
infection and dead natural regeneration. The study showed positive correlation of blue pine
natural regeneration with site factors like slope, moisture, soil compaction and negative
correlation with soil carbon percent, however, an inverse logarithmic relationship with the leaf
litter cover percent was observed. The investigation showed that blue pine could achieve high
seedling densities on microsites with leaf litter cover of less than 40%, whereas above this
threshold, seedling densities tend to be uniformly low.

The study revealed that higher anthropogenic disturbances favors Blue pine natural
regeneration by increasing the tree density. However intense disturbance combined with harsh
environmental conditions leads to high level of injury and infection leading to low productive
degraded stand. Main form of disturbance inflicting injury on large trees was found to be torch
wood extraction and lopping of branches for firewood. Other factors leading to injury on natural
regenerations were trampling by grazing animals and injury during litter raking process.
Infection from Himalayan dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium minutissimum) is wide spread even on
recruits and is found to be the main factor affecting the stand structure in the study area.

Key words: Disturbance, Natural regeneration, Pinus wallichiana, degraded, Bhutan

I. Introduction
In Bhutan Pinus Wallichiana A.B. Jackson (Blue pine) mostly occurs in inner dry valleys in the
cool temperate regions growing between altitudes ranging from 2300 m asl to 3100 m asl and as
high as 3400 m asl. with precipitation ranging from 450 to 1500 mm (Grierson & Long 1983).It
is the main forest type occupying huge areas in Paro, Haa, and Thimphu valleys in western
Bhutan and in Bumthang valley in central Bhutan. It mostly forms extensive pure secondary
even aged forests, which represents roughly 9.77% of the total forest cover of Bhutan(MoAF
2010).

10
Blue pine wood is very easy to work on, light to carry and due to the presence of high resin
content the wood is resilient against insect and fungal attacks. Among all the local conifer timber
species blue pine wood is the most stable. With all the above reasons, Blue pine timber is the
most favored timber for house construction. It is also preferred for other uses such as furniture,
fencing posts, prayer flags and torch woods. Rosset J. (1999)
Rationale of the study

Blue pine being the most preferred timber species for construction of houses and other household
uses, forest adjoining human settlements has come under intense human pressure. In the dry
inner valleys ofParo and Thimphu; in the vicinity of human settlements Bluepine stands are often
found degraded due to uncontrolled silvicultural practices (Rosset J. 1999).

With increasing demand for blue pine timber and high rate of forest degradation close to
settlements it is of paramount importance to find out the impact of various form of anthropogenic
disturbances on the forest stand structure and the future recruits of important tree species such as
Blue pine.

The study sites were situated in a dry inner valley of western Bhutan in Paro district. Two sites
were selected at different distances from the village representing different disturbance levels.
The highly disturbed site (27°20'49.69"N and 89°27'16.72"E) and less disturbed site
(27°22'10.09"N and 89°28'12.78"E) were situated in the same valley at the same altitude
between (2400-2550 masl) and are characterized by the similar vegetation type, environmental
condition and geology.

II. Method
Two sites with contrasting level of human disturbances were selected. A total of 35 permanents
plots (5 X 5 m) were established (20 plots in highly disturbed and 15 plots in least disturbed
sites) and were investigated for Blue pine natural regeneration and stand structure and carefully
inspected for signs of injury, infection and death of trees. Highly disturbed site was further
categorized as highly disturbed (Near to the village) and moderately disturbed (further from the
village) compared with the low disturbed site.

General plot recordings included topography (aspect, slope, altitude, meso-topography and slope
position), leaf litters cover percent, soil moisture and soil compaction were recorded. Soil
moisture percent in the plot was measured by small portable TDR soil moisture sensor with 20
cm sensor rods and soil compaction was measured both in mm (millimeters) and Kg/cm2 by soil
penetrometer. For both, soil moisture and compaction, 10 repeated measurements were taken
within the plot.

All the trees falling within the plot were measured for its DBH, presence of injury and infection.
All the blue pine trees falling within the plots were cored by using an increment corer to study
the dendrochronological growth level of blue pine trees. In absence of blue pine trees within the
5 x 5 m plot, a minimum of two trees were measured and cored from a radius of 15 m from the
plot center. The search radius was increased to 30 m if blue pine was still absent within the 15 m
radius of the concentric circular plot.

11
Pinus wallichiana recruits with less than 10 cm DBH were recorded as natural regeneration and
were carefully inspected for signs of injury, infection, and vitality status.

III. Results
Stand structure of Pinus wallichiana forest
The density of healthy blue pine trees were higher in the least disturbed site than in the highly
disturbed site (Figure 1). In case of injured and infected trees, the highly disturbed site had
higher tree densities but less dead trees than the least disturbed site (Figure. 1). Basal area of blue
pine trees in highly disturbed site was 23.53 m2/ha as compared to 31.26 m2/ha in the least
disturbed site.

Observations from the highly disturbed site revealed high number of infected, injured and dead
tree density near to the village. No significant differences in density of healthy trees between
near and far was observed within the study site I (Figure. 2).High number of trees in the DBH
classes of 0-10 cm and 10-20 cm and less record of trees in DBH above 40 cm in highly
disturbed site was observed. In the least disturbed site, more blue pine trees were recorded in the
DBH class of 20-30 cm followed by 10-20 cm and 30-40 cm. However no trees above the 40 cm
DBH were found.
700  
Highly  disturbed  
600  
Blue  pine  trees/Ha  (Mean)  

500  
Least  disturbed  
400  
300  
200  
100  
0  
Healthy   Injured   Infected   Dead  

Figure 1. Pinus wallichiana tree density per hectare (mean) at two different sites;
standard errors are indicated for each record.

800  
Near  to  the  village  
700  
Blue  pine  trees/Ha  (Mean)  

600   Far  from  the  village  

500  
400  
300  
200  
100  
0  
Healthy   Injured   Infected   Dead  

Figure 2. Pinus wallichiana tree density per hectare (mean) at different

distances from the village (in highly disturbed site) standard errors are indicated
for each recorded tree status
12
The growth release of Pinus wallichiana between the two sites were compared from 85 tree
cores. The figure exhibits the mean ring width at the 95 per cent bootstrap confidence interval
for 110 years starting from calendar year 1900 to 2010. Since, bootstrap confidence intervals
overlap between ring width measurements of the two differently disturbed sites the difference in
growth rates is considered statistically not significant at 95 per cent confidence level.(Figure 3)

Figure 3. Mean Pinus wallichiana tree

ring width in two differently
disturbed sites.
• BPS -Highly disturbed site
BPP-
• Least disturbed site

Slow growth trend for both study areas is observed with low tree growth ring width. Maximum
mean ring growth of 2.4 mm and minimum of 0.3 mm for least disturbed site and maximum of
2.3 mm and minimum of 0.03 mm for highly disturbed site was recorded (Figure. 3).

Natural regeneration of Pinus wallichiana

Seedling density per hectare of blue pine in highly disturbed and least disturbed site was 4500
and 1200 respectively. ANOVA of the log transformed blue pine regeneration between the two
study sites showed significant (p <0.05) differences (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Natural regeneration of Pinus wallichiana in

two differently disturbed sites. Median, quartiles,
minima and maxima are indicated.

13
 Figure 5. Patterns of Pinus wallichiana
regeneration distribution in the two
study sites at different height classes.

The highly disturbed site have

high seedling records in all the
height classes than the least
disturbed site (Figure 5). Blue
pine natural regeneration status
in highly disturbed site was
76% (healthy), 12%
(injured/infected) and 12%
(dead)) and in less disturbed site was 79% (healthy), 11% (injured/infected) and 10% (dead)). No
significance difference was observed but the highly disturbed site indicated higher percent of
injured/infected/dead regenerations and less in healthy regenerations.
Natural regeneration of blue pine per hectare at distances near and far from the village (highly
disturbed site) was 6900 ± 2937 and 2133 ± 2749 (Mean ± Standard Deviation) respectively.
ANOVA for blue pine natural regeneration showed significant (p < 0.01) differences at near and
far distances from the village. Negative correlation was observed in blue pine natural
regeneration with varying distances from the village (Figure 7).
At distance near to the village it was observed that 80% of the total blue pine seedling recorded
were healthy and 10% were either injured or infected and 10% were either dead or dying
Similarly, at distance far from the village 60% of total blue pine seedling recorded were healthy
and 23% were injured or infected and 17% were either dead or in dying state (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Seedling status of Pinus

wallichiana near and far from the village.
Figures indicated in mean percentages.

14
Natural regeneration and site factors

Figure7. Natural regeneration of Pinus

wallichiana at different distances from the
village.

Blue pine natural regeneration correlates significantly and positively with average slope (p <
0.01), soil moisture percent (p<0.05), soil compaction (p<0.01), soil available phosphorous
(p<0.05), soil magnesium (p<0.01) and negatively with leaf litter cover percent (p<0.05) and
soil carbon percent (p<0.01).

The correlation between the blue pine natural regeneration and leaf litter does not show a true
linear relationship instead an inverse logarithmic relationship between the leaf litter cover and
regeneration density of blue pine was observed (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Log function relationship

between blue pine natural
regeneration and leaf litter cover
percent.

15
IV. Discussion
Anthropogenic disturbances have highly influenced the composition of Pinus wallichiana stand.
High number of trees in the lower DBH classes in the highly disturbed area represents a young
regenerating forest stand. Few records of trees above 40 cm DBH can be attributed to the harsh
environmental conditions and human pressure. A stretch of pure large blue pine forest close to
the village where once sokshings Sokshings2 were forest areas leased by the individual
households for leaf litter collection from the government (RGoB 1979) but the right to lease and
own a Sokshing was abolished in 2007 (RGoB 2007). A sense of ownership towards sokshings
had helped protect the forest in the study area. Therefore, study on policy implications in
abolishing sokshings needs to be carried out.

Records of more blue pine trees in the lower DBH class and few trees above the diameter of 40
cm in the least disturbed site, reflects a single cohort stand in a later stage of development after
regenerating on abandoned pasture land with some scattered older trees (102 years).

The current study found that blue pine tree density increases with increase in the level of
anthropogenic disturbance. This is because blue pine is a fast growing, light demanding pioneer
species and successful colonizer on abandoned agricultural and pasture land in the temperate
conifer zone (Tenzin 2001). High tree density (including regenerations) in the highly disturbed
site can be attributed to earlier stand development stages caused by higher disturbance frequency
and intensity including soil disturbances and due to the pioneer characteristics of blue pine (Troup 1921;
Singh 1996; Turner, WL Baker et al. 1998; Tenzin 2001; Bonnet, Schoettle et al. 2005)

More injured and infected large trees in the highly disturbed sites and areas near to the village
indicate the evidence of the negative impact of anthropogenic disturbance on large trees as well.
The injuries to large blue pine trees are mainly caused by extractions of torch wood. Other minor
causes may include intentional injury to kill the tree and extract it (as dead trees are allowed to
be extracted without much restriction by law). More number of dead trees in least disturbed site
in compared to highly disturbed site is a result of high rate of extraction from the locals.

Evidence from dead trees with witches broom branches and without any external human injury
shows that dwarf mistletoes are the main causes for tree mortality (Figure 9). This observation
was consistent with the reports of Tshering and Chhetri (2000) who reported that A.
minutissimum is the most important biotic threat of P. wallichiana in western Bhutan. Increased
mortality rates of blue pine caused by A. minutissimum were also reported from the western
Himalayas (Pakistan) (Hawksworth and Zakaullah. 1985; Zakaullah 1988).A detailed study on
Himalayan dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium minutissimum) and the leafy mistletoe Taxillus
kaempferi on Blue pine (Pinus wallichiana) in Western Bhutan was done by Dorji (2007).In this
study area, injury, infection and death of blue pine trees in the study area were an outcome of a
combination of anthropogenic, biotic and environmental factors.

16
 Figure 9. Arceuthobium minutissimum infected blue pine trees

Natural regeneration of Pinus wallichiana

High density of blue pine natural regeneration in highly disturbed site and at distance near to the
village is attributed to more openings of the forests and greater soil disturbances (Troup 1921; Singh
1996; Tenzin 2001; Bonnet, Schoettle et al. 2005). Other reasons are due to the high persistence and competitive nature of the young
High regeneration density of Pinus wallichiana in the highly disturbed site
blue pines (Troup 1921).
with highly coppiced and litter raked Q. semecarpifolia forests is due to higher canopy
openness and exposure of mineral soil. .

The newly exposed loose porous mineral soil combined with canopy openness was the most
suitable microsite for the regeneration of blue pine. This is evident from the remarkable
colonization ability of blue pine on abandoned pasture and agricultural land, on the landslide
areas, near the base of uprooted trees, along the side of newly built forest roads etc. Blue pine is
a highly competitive tree species, its seedlings can grow through fairly heavy weed growth and
growth of shrubs. Moderate grass covering of soil is found unfavorable for blue pine
regeneration (Troup 1921).

As blue pine is a pioneer species, it’s a strong light demander and grows vigorous in complete
light. It was also observed that blue pine regeneration was profuse and abundant in severely
lopped oak forests during the study. This shows the beneficial effect of exposure to high light
levels following the protection of the seedlings in their early stage (Tenzin 2001). Regeneration
and seedling distribution in conifer forests is influenced by both large-scale disturbances such as
wildfire and forest clearing (Turner, WL Baker et al. 1998; Bonnet, Schoettle et al. 2005) and
also small-scale disturbances such as animal grazing (wild and domestic), lightening and disease
(Bonnet, Schoettle et al. 2005). Visual observation of blue pine natural regeneration in the study

17
area appears satisfactory but a close investigation shows widely spaced stems with branching
towards the base.

Similar status and vitality of blue pine natural regeneration in both the sites could be due to
similar grazing pressure and the presence of mother trees infected with Arceuthobium
minutissimum. Further, seedlings growing below the tree infected with Arceuthobium
minutissimum were also found infected. This is supported by Hawksworth & Wiens et al. (1996)
who stated that most dwarf mistletoe species can only infect young host tissue, less than five
years old.

Low percentage of infected or injured and dead blue pine regeneration recorded at distances near
to the village and higher percentage of infected or injured and dead can be attributed to shifting
of anthropogenic pressure further away from the village due to scarcity of resources in the
nearby forest and absence of infected large blue pine trees near to the village. The higher number
of dead individuals may also reflect higher competition in the absence of repeated disturbances.
Positive correlations between blue pine natural regeneration with average slope in this study was
consistent with the findings of Clark and Clark (2000) for tropical rain forest, Enoki (2003) for
tropical evergreen broad leaf forest and Thomson, Radford et al. (1993) for rhododendron. The
finding was further supported by Umeki (1995) who reported that in natural forest, neighboring
trees are the most important obstacles that reduce light intensity and change light quality. Thus
the light environment is more favorable for both the trees on the upper and lower side of the
slope, rather than if they were on a flat terrain with no slope difference. Tashi (2004) also
reported similar observation for Rhododendron arboreum.

Positive correlations observed between blue pine natural regeneration density and site factors (
soil moisture percent, soil compaction (as indicator for soil wounding by cattle), and soil
available phosphorous and soil magnesium) and negative correlations with leaf litter cover
percent and soil carbon percent seem to share some similarities to the observations and reporting
done by (Troup 1921; Singh 1996; Turner, WL Baker et al. 1998; Tenzin 2001; Bonnet,
Schoettle et al. 2005).
An inverse logarithmic relationship between the leaf litter cover and regeneration density of blue
pine shows that blue pine can achieve high seedling densities on micro-sites with leaf litter cover
of less than 40%, whereas above this threshold, seedling densities tend to be uniformly low.

V. Conclusion
The investigation showed that higher anthropogenic disturbances had led to profuse Blue pine
natural regeneration along with high level of injury and infection. Although extraction of
torchwood and lopping of tree branches had drastically reduced but leaf litter raking was a
continuous trend which is the main factor inflicting injury and damaging the young recruits.
Therefore, controlled form of litter raking need to be initiated by keeping designated areas for the
regeneration to establish, since established regeneration is less impacted by litter racking tools
due to their sturdy and firm rooting system. Infection from Arceuthobium minutissimum
(Himalayan dwarf mistletoe) is wide spread in the area inflicting damage to large trees and
regenerations. The health of the forest needs to be improved through removing the infected trees
and regenerating the area either naturally or artificially by healthy recruits.

18
 The destruction of the forests surrounding settlements will ultimately lead to the destruction of
the local environment and land degradation. Therefore, a proper community level sustainable
forest resource and land management programme needs to be initiated.

References
Bonnet, V.H., Schoettle, A.W., Shepperd, W.D., 2005. Post-fire environmental conditions
influence the spatial pattern of regeneration for Pinus ponderosa. Canadian Journal of
Forest Research 35, 37–47.
Clark, D.B., Clark, D.A., 2000. Landscape- scale variation in forest structure and biomass in a
tropical rain forest. Forest Ecology and Management 137, 185-198.
Dorji, S., 2007. Himalayan dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium minutissimum) and the leafy
mistletoe (Taxillus kaempferi) on Blue pine (Pinus wallichiana) – a case study in
Western Bhutan. Diplomarbeit / Diploma thesis. University of Life Science and Natural
Resources, Vienna, Austria.
Enoki, T., 2003. Microtopography and distribution of canopy trees in a subtropical evergreen
broad leaved forest in the northern part of Okinawa Island, Japan. Ecological Research
18, 103- 113.
Grierson, A.J.C. & Long, D.G. 1983. Flora of Bhutan Vol. 1. Part 1. Royal BotanicalGarden
Edinburgh, Edinburgh, U.K.
Hawksworth, F.G., Wiens, D., Geils, B.W., 1996. (tech. ed.); Rebecca, R. G. (manag. ed.),
Dwarf Mistletoes: Biology, Pathology, and Systematics. Washington, DC.: U. S.
Department of Agriculture. Forest Service. Agriculture Handbook 709. 410 pp.
Hawksworth, F.G., Zakaullah., 1985. Observation on Dwarf Mistletoe on Himalayan Blue Pine
in Pakistan. The Goden Bough 7, 1-2.
MoAF (2010). Bhutan Land Cover Assessment (LCMP), National Soil Services Centre (NSSC)
& PPD.
Rawat, V.S., Jagdish, C., 2013. Human impact on diversity gradient around govind pashu vihar
national park of uttarakhand. International Journal of Advanced Biosciences 1, (2), 10-
16.
RGoB, 1979. Land Act of Bhutan. Royal Government of Bhutan, Thimphu.
RGoB, 2007. Land Act of Bhutan. Thimphu Bhutan.
Rosset, J. 1999. Temperate conifer forests of Bhutan A review of forestry research activities until
June, 1998 RNR-RC Jakar, Special Publication No 3.
Singh, S.et.al., 1996. Vegetation structure under different aspects in the temperate zone of
Tirthan valley, western Himalaya, India, 9:2. Journal of Hill Research, 347-355.
Tashi, S., 2004. Regeneration of Quercus semecarpifolia Sm. in an Old Growth Forest Under
Gidakom FMU- Bhutan. (MSc Dissertation) Forest Ecology and Forest Management.
Department of Forestry, Wageningen University and Research Centrum, The
Netherlands.
Tenzin, K., 2001. Management of blue pine (Pinus wallachiana) in secondary forest in bhutan.
The University of Edinburgh.
Thomson, A.G., Radford, G.L., Norris, D.A., Good, J.E.G., 1993. Factors Affecting the
Distribution and Spread of Rhododendron in North Wales. Journal of Environmental
Management 39, (3), 199-212.
Troup, R.S., 1921. The Silviculture of Indian Trees. Clarendos Press. Oxford.

19
Tshering, G., Chhetri, D.B., 2000. Important forest insect pests and diseases of Bhutan with
control measures. Renewable Natural Resources Research Centre, Yusipang, Bhutan;
Natural Resources Training Institute, Lobesa, Bhutan. Ministry of Agriculture. Field
Guide 2000/1. 57.
Turner, M.G., WL Baker, W.L., Peterson, C.J., Peet, R.K., 1998. Factors influencing succession:
lessons from large, infrequent natural disturbances. Ecosystems 1, 511–523.
Umeki, K., 1995. Modelling the relationship between the asymmetry in crown display and local
environment. Ecological Modelling 82, 11-20.
Zakaullah, 1988. Survey and control of mistletoes in Pakistan. Final technical report. Peshawar,
Pakistan: . Pakistan Forest Institute, p. 52.

20
Regeneration potential (through seed) of Quercus semecarpifolia in reviving the highly
degraded Oak forests of Western Bhutan
Tshering1 , Gratzer, G.2, Wangda, P3, Darabant, A.2, Phuntsho1
1
Forest Resources Management Division, Department of Forests and Park Services, Thimphu,
Bhutan
2
University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Department of Forest and Soil Sciences,
Vienna, Austria
3
Watershed Management Division, Department of Forests and Park Services, Thimphu, Bhutan
Abstract
Quercus semecarpifolia plays an important role in the livelihood of the Himalayan people. It
provides farmers with wood for heating and leaves for compost making and fodders. Due to its
multipurpose uses, the Quercus semecarpifolia forests close to human settlements are under
intense and constant anthropogenic pressure.
This study therefore aims in finding the impact of various environmental and anthropogenic
factors influencing the natural regeneration of Quercus semecarpifolia in highly degraded Oak
Forest. A total of 35 permanent sample plots of 5 x 5 m size were evaluated across two study
sites, one with high anthropogenic disturbance close to a village and one with fewer
disturbances.
Generative natural regeneration showed higher density under highly disturbed forest as
compared to stands with low disturbance. However, the level of injury and damage to
regeneration was higher on the highly disturbed site. On the highly disturbed site generative
natural regeneration was found to contribute little to recruitment of future trees due to damages
sustained by the impact of anthropogenic disturbances, such as litter racking, lopping and
grazing combined with low soil nutrient and moisture availability.
Key words: Disturbance, Natural regeneration, Quercus semecarpifolia, Degraded

I. Introduction
I.1 General use of Oaks

‘‘From earliest times, oaks have held a prominent place in human culture’’ Johnson et al. (2009).
Oaks have always served multipurpose functions in human history. They are used in variety of
ways like fuel wood, charcoal making for smelting, shipbuilding, for furniture and paneling
industry and are the main timber in mining and railroad construction. Its bark are a source of
tannins and leaves as fodder. Its acorns are also once a staple food for Native Americans
(Johnson et al., 2009).They also provided fodder for pigs in medieval Europe until the 19th
century – a type of fodder which was particularly abundant in years of mass fruiting of oaks,
giving rise to the term masting (from fattening pigs) for intermittent seed production in trees.

21
Quercus semecarpifolia similarly was also a multipurpose tree used for fodder, fuel-wood (Singh
et al., 2010), its bark was a source of tannin and wood used for making agricultural implements
(Shrestha, 2003). Moreover in general it also serves as an important habitat for faunal diversity
and plays an important role in watershed protection (Tashi, 2004).

II. Problem statement

The constitution of Bhutan entrusts the forestry sector with a huge responsibility of maintaining a
minimum forest coverage of 60% (RGoB, 2008) for all times to come as well as “meeting
people’s needs” to satiate the demands of the Bhutanese people in terms of forest products. As a
result, 50% of the country was designated as protected areas and productive forests are being
identified as forest management units which are harvested annually to fill the annual demand for
timber in the country. However, managed forest in Bhutan constitutes around 4.3% of the total
forest area and unmanaged forests (outside FMUs/protected area system/community forestry)
cover large tracts of Bhutan’s forests (FRDD, 2004). The worst scenarios of forest degradation
were found in areas accessible and adjacent to human settlements.

In Bhutan, there is decrease between 4 and 6 percent of broadleaved forest and 6 percent of
coniferous forest area over the last 41 years. However, scrub forest was seen increasing steadily
replacing the natural coniferous and broadleaved forests (Dhital, 2002).

The main factors leading to degradation of Q. semecarpifolia forests in the Himalayas are intense
human pressure (Singh et al., 2010; Subedi, 2006) and seed predation (Aryal and Kreigenhofer,
2009; Shrestha, 2003).
Q. semecarpifolia lacks the ability to produce adequate natural regeneration (Metz, 1997; Negi
and Naithani, 1995; Vetaas, 2000). Shrestha (2003) has reported that natural regeneration of the
species was poor both under disturbed and undisturbed conditions. Low regeneration of
evergreen oaks are explained with human impact and best regeneration success is achieved on
the least disturbed sites (Maren and Vetaas, 2007).
III. Objective
The study focuses on generative natural regeneration potential of Quercus semecarpifolia forests
adjoining human settlements under constant anthropogenic disturbance. The study therefore is
aimed at validating the previous findings to the Western Bhutan Himalayas and will serve as a
step forward for management and revival of these degraded oak forests.
IV. Study site
The study sites were situated in the dry lower Paro valley of western Bhutan. The highly
disturbed site (27°20'49.69"N and 89°27'16.72"E) and less disturbed site (27°22'10.09"N and
89°28'12.78"E) were situated in the same valley at the same altitude between (2400-2550 m.a.s.l)
and are characterized by the similar vegetation type, environmental condition and geology. The
areas represent mixed forest dominated by Quercus semecarpifolia (oak) with the continuous
presence of Pinus wallichiana (blue pine). Q. semecarpifolia forests in the study areas were
degraded, frequently coppiced and low productive forest.

22
Mean maximum temperature of 28.84o C was recorded in August and mean minimum
temperature of 7.9o C was recorded in January for the past 15 years. For the past 15 years an
average annual rainfall of 662 mm was recorded with approximately unimodal distribution
pattern for the area.
V. Methods
Total of 35 permanent plots were laid systematically throughout the two study sites (20 plots in
highly disturbed site and 15 plots in least disturbed site) in 2012. The minimum plot to plot
distance on the same transect is maintained at 50 m and distance between transects were
maintained at 40 m (contour height)
Plot size of 5 X 5 m were enumerated for natural regeneration of Quercus semecarpifolia.
General plot recordings included topography (aspect, slope, altitude, meso-topography and slope
position), leaf litter cover percent, soil moisture and soil compaction. Soil moisture percent in the
plot was measured by a portable soil digital moisture meter (MD-7822) with 20 cm sensor rods
and soil compaction was measured both in mm (millimeters) and Kg/cm2 by a soil penetrometer.
For both soil moisture and compaction, 10 repeated measurements were taken within the plot and
the values were averaged.
The highly disturbed and least disturbed sites were compared with each other. The highly
disturbed area situated in proximity of the village is further categorized under two different
disturbance category; highly disturbed (Near to the village in highly disturbed site) and
moderately disturbed (Further away from the village in highly disturbed site). The least disturbed

23
(study site 2) was then compared with the different disturbance categories in highly disturbed site
(Study site 1)
VI. Data analysis
SPSS version 19 software (Landau and Everitt, 2004) was used to analyze the data. A normality
test (Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk) was performed to check if the data was normally
distributed, before subjecting the data to parametric tests (simple One way ANOVA, Pearson’s
correlation and Linear regression). Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variance was also
performed to check the equality of variances of different dependent variables. Variables recorded
in percentages, like soil Nitrogen percent and Carbon percent were Arcsine transformed and
other non-percent dependent variables were normalized using the natural logarithm
transformation.
Mann-Whitney U test was performed to evaluate differences of Quercus semecarpifolia natural
regeneration between the two study sites and at two different distances from the village.
Pearson’s correlation was done to test the influence of leaf litter percent on natural regeneration
of Q. semecarpifolia.
For the analysis of the hemi-spherical photographs Hemi-view software version 2.1.3.0 was
used. In the hemi-view software, latitude setting was changed to 27oN, longitude to 89oE, a
magnetic declination of 0o 9’ (Negative) west was calculated and an altitude of 2450 masl was
used. Global site factor (GSF) was calculated using the software and used for further analysis.
Global site factor (GSF) is the proportion of global radiation (direct plus diffuse) under a plant
canopy relative to that in the open “total site factor” (Anderson, 1964)
VII. Results
Quercus semecarpifolia regeneration in heavily disturbed and less disturbed sites
The mean sseedling density per hectare of Q. semecarpifolia in highly disturbed and least
disturbed site was 1340 and 186 respectively (Figure 1). The Mann-Whitney U test showed
significant (p<0.05) differences in the natural regeneration of Quercus semecarpifolia between
the two sites, the mean rank of highly disturbed site was 21.00 and the least disturbed site at
14.00

The status of Q. semecarpifolia natural regeneration through seed in highly disturbed site was
76% (healthy) and 24% (dead) and in the least disturbed site was 94% (healthy) and 6% (dead).
Highly disturbed site when compared to least disturbed site had less percentage of healthy
seedling and more percentage of dead/dying regenerations(Figure 2).In the highly disturbed site
from the 20 plots enumurated, regeneration was absent in 5 plots and a maximum of 8 seedlings
were recorded in one plot near to the stream with good cover of Berberis insignis (Figure 8).In
the least disturbed site out of the 15 plots enumerated, natural regeneration was absent in 7 plots
and 5 plots have record of just 1 seedling each. Many lopped and suppressed re-sprouts were
obsreved bearing acorns. Maximum number of seedlings recorded in the highly disturbed site
was in the height class 10-25 cm followed by 0-10 cm (Figure 3).Seedlings above 50 cm height
were almost absent in highly disturbed site

24
The Shannon Weaver Index of shrubs in the highly disturbed site was 2.13 ± 0.42 and for least
disturbed site it was 1.45 ± 0.29 (Mean ± SD). ANOVA for shrub species diversity was found
highly significant between the sites (p<0.01) (Figure 5)

Quercus semecarpifolia natural regeneration at different distance from the village

The status of Q. semecarpifolia natural regeneration through seed close to the village showed
73% healthy and 27% dead or dying seedlings and 84% healthy and 16%either dead or dying at
distance further away from the village (Figure 4).

Maximum of Q. semecarpifolianatural regeneration was observed in the height class of 10-25 cm

followed by 0-10 cm. Mann-Whitney U test for Q. semecarpifolia natural regeneration showed
significant (p < 0.05) differences between far and near distances from the village.
The shrub species diversity at far and near to the village was 2.37 ± 0.307 and 1.88 ± 0.381
(Mean ±SD). ANOVA of the Shannon Weaver Index of shrubs was significantly (p<0.01)
different for the two distance classes (Figure 6).

VIII. Discussion
Higher density of Q. semecarpifolia natural regeneration recorded in the highly disturbed sites
and sites near to the village was consistent with the findings ofThakuri (2010) who reported
similar results from the Oak forests of Nepal Himalayas. The findings of this study are also
inline with the observation made by Maren and Vetaas (2007) who reported the best regeneration
success in least disturbed site.Shrestha et al. (2002) also reported that lopping in a limited area
opens up the canopy and may facilitate oak regeneration. High natural regeneration in the highly
disturbed site can be attributed to presence of old suppressed shrub like coppice re-sprouts
bearing acorns beside other factors. Therefore, the area though highly disturbed with coppiced
trees was observed to produce abundant acorns for natural regeneration through seeds.

High percentage of dead and dying regenerations in the highly disturbed site shows the visible
evidence of damage through trampling by grazing animals, ecological, environmental and
anthropogenic factors. No sign of leaf browsing was observed on the regenerations. Dorji (2012)
also reported high mortality of oak seedlings in both unfenced and fenced plots and reasoned that
it is due to less chance of finding suitable micro-sites to get themselves to establish. High natural
mortality of natural regeneration of oaks in the Himalayas was also reported by Singh and Singh
(1987) and Vetaas (2000). In the study sites, all the young tree seedlings recorded possess spiny
leaf margins with stiff leaf texture (Figure 7). This is consistent with results of Dorji (2012) who
reported the presence of oak regenerations with surface spines, high thickness and reduced leaf
area in unfenced grazed areas. He also assumed that these morphological changes as a means to
adapt towards environmental stresses and particularly to grazing. If these observations hold true,
then trampling but not grazing has the more adverse impact on regeneration in the current study
sites. The sapling phase of the regeneration is the most susceptible stage for the large number of
browsing animals as they become more prominent and visible to the grazing animals (Dorji,
2012). However, almost complete absence of regeneration above 50 cm height, lack of browsing
signs either on the seedlings or on the young branches shows that grazing is not be the main

25
cause for poor natural regeneration through seeds instead the absence of suitable microsite is
playing the major role in lack of seedling establishment in the study site Dorji (2012).

Other reasons for the high number of dead or dying seedlings in highly disturbed site can be
attributed to litter raking which has far more adverse impact on newly germinated seedlings
causing damage and even uprooting. Higher mortality rates of young seedlings through
desiccation was a major factor in both highly and least disturbed areas. Young seedlings with
yellowish leaves and retarded growth were observed which can be attributed to low soil nutrient,
low moisture aggravated by lack of shade during the initial stages due to large canopy openness,
which can summed up as lack of suitable microsite for proper seedling establishment Dorji
(2012).Litter raking further possess serious threat by exposing the mineral soil and increasing the
soil moisture loss through evaporation and increasing soil erosion during monsoon. However,
with adequate soil moisture content less leaf litter cover and under-growth has positive
influences on regeneration of oaks (Dzwonko and Gawronski, 2002; Tripathi and Khan, 1990).
Highest seedling record in the plot near to the stream with Berberis insignis shows the positive
influence of nurse shrubs on survival and establishment of Q. semecarpifolia regeneration, which
is also consistent with the findings of Tashi (2004) and Dorji (2012)(Figure 8). However,
presence of shrubs alone does not seem to increase the survival and establishment of the oak
regeneration as no correlation was observed between them. In these circumstances environmental
and soil factors are limiting factors in the study area.
Q. semecarpifolia natural regeneration showed no significant correlation with any of the site
factors like litter cover percent, slope gradient, soil pH and Global Site Factor (GSF). The same
was reported by Tashi (2004), in the old growth Q. semecarpifolia forest in western Bhutan.
However, Johnson et al. (2002) reported a negative correlation between oak regeneration and
slope gradient. Higher number of regeneration density in the highly disturbed site than in the
least disturbed site shows the evidence that Q. semecarpifolia regenerates well under canopy
openness, thus corroborating findings of Gamble (1972), Vetaas (2000), Tashi (2004), Maren
and Vetaas (2007) and Dorji (2012). Further, higher number of seedlings in highly disturbed site
which has significantly less litter cover percent reflects the negative effect of thick litter cover on
regeneration. Frequent litter raking occurs where there are abundant leaf litter thus litter raking
along with thick litter cover was found to deter regeneration and their survival. Similarly, high
regeneration was observed at distance near to the village where forest frequently gets litter raked
and lopped. These observations were consistent with the reports by Tripathi and Khan (1990)
and Dzwonko and Gawronski (2002). Litter raking however, if done frequently, will have a
negative impact on survival of the young seedlings through direct damage and uprooting.

VIII. Conclusion

The study therefore, validated the findings of Shrestha (2003) and Thakuri (2010) who recorded
higher density of Quercus semecarpifolia natural regeneration in highly disturbed sites. Higher

26
number of regeneration density in the highly disturbed site than in the least disturbed site shows
the evidence that Quercus semecarpifolia regenerates well under canopy openness corroborating
many previous findings.
The current study though recorded high density of natural regeneration in highly disturbed site
the success or the survival of those regenerations are found to be very low. Therefore, the study
further corroborates the findings of (Maren and Vetaas, 2007) who reported that low
regeneration of evergreen oaks are explained with human impact and best regeneration success is
achieved on least disturbed sites. Hence, the study validated the previous findings and their
applicability to the Q. semecarpifolia forests of western Bhutan.
It was also observed that desiccation, trampling and litter raking does more adverse impact on
natural regeneration of Quercus semecarpifolia than grazing in the current study areas. Presence
of nurse shrubs was also found to enhance the survival of the regenerations provided with
suitable micro-site otherwise it was observed that on dry micro-sites shrubs fail to become nurse
shrubs.
The study carried out in the same area by (Tshering et al., 2014) stated that coppicing is the
major pathway for reviving such type of degraded forests. The current study found that the
restoration of such degraded oak forests by natural regeneration through seed will be far less
applicable. Instead a proper management of coppice stems will be the best way of managing such
type of forests.
Through the findings of this study the authors therefore recommends Department of Forests and
Park Services, Royal Government of Bhutan to come up with a proper utilization guidelines for
extraction of forest products taking place in such highly sensitive and degraded areas. The study
therefore, propose an urgent need for land and forest management scheme through participatory
approach in such areas to revive both the natural environment as well as the rural livelihood.

Figure 1. Difference in natural Figure 2. Status of natural

regeneration (via seed) for Quercus regeneration of Quercus
semecarpifolia in two differently semecarpifolia in the two
disturbed sites. Median, quartiles, differently disturbed sites.
outliers, minima and maxima are Indicated in percentages.
indicated
27
Figure 3. Patterns of Quercus semecarpifolia
regeneration distribution in the two study
sites in different height classes.
Figure5 Shrub diversity in two
differently disturbed sites. Median,
quartiles, minima and maxima are
indicated.
28
Figure 4 Seedling status of Quercus
semecarpifolia at distance near and
far from the village. Figures are
indicated in mean percentages
Figure 6. Shrub diversity at two
different distances from the village.
Median, quartiles, minima and
maxima are indicated.
 Figure7. Quercus semecarpifolia seedlings with spiky leaf margins and leaf
desiccation

Q. semecarpifolia regeneration

Figure 8 Berberis insignis as nurse shrubs for Q. semecarpifolia

natural regenerations
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Dzwonko, Z., Gawronski, S., 2002. Influence of litter and weather on seedling recruitment in a
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Distributors, Dehradun, India.
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exploitation and threats. Himalayan Journal of Sciences 1, 126-128.
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Gidakom FMU- Bhutan. (MSc Dissertation) Forest Ecology and Forest Management.

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 Department of Forestry, Wageningen University and Research Centrum, The
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31
Rehabilitation of degraded mountain forests with an integrated eco restoration model - A
case study of the Attappady Hills, Kerala, India
Rajesh S Kumar1, N K Binu 2, Jazmin Caballero3 and Shilpi Kundu4
1. Member, Indian Forest Service (IFS), 103, M S Flats, San Martin Marg, New Delhi , India, PIN 110021/ Former Field Officer
(Forestry) Attappady Hills Area Development Society, Govt.of Kerala /Former Scholar, George August University, Goettingen,
Germany and the Author for correspondence1.

2. Assistant Professor, Dept. of Tree Physiology and Breeding, College of Forestry, Kerala Agricultural University, KAU P.O.,
Thrissur, Kerala, India PIN: 680656 and Former Field Officer (Forestry) Attappady Hills Area Development Society, Govt. of
Kerala .

3. Coordinator, Geoprocessing Unit, Guyra Paraguay, Tacuari N 2675 esquina sauce, Asunción, Paraguay.

4. Assistant Professor, Dept. of Agricultural Extension & Info. System, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka- 1207,
Bangladesh and Scholar, George August University, Goettingen, Germany / Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,
Sweden

Abstract
Tropical forests signify abodes of invaluable biodiversity resources and harbingers of various
ecosystem products and services required for the sustainable development of the economies.
However in many of the developing economies, tropical mountain forests are under severe
pressure of deforestation and forest degradation with consequences on the livelihood and life
quality of the mountain communities besides threatening the existence of several endangered
faunal and floral species. It also reported that in several instances, conventional rehabilitation
efforts based predominantly on plantation activities alone have fallen short of gaining social
ownership as well as development of conflicts between forest administrations and local
communities. In the current case study we describe, analyze and highlight how comprehensive
rehabilitation of degraded mountain forest landscapes could be realized with strategies
integrating across ecosystem restoration, resilience building, biodiversity conservation, actor
inclusion, social ownership building and participatory implementation through a multi pronged
restoration model. In the paper, we have considered the case evidences from the landscape level
forest rehabilitation cum restoration activities undertaken in the degraded forests of Attappady
area in the Western Ghat mountain landscape in Kerala India. The major rehabilitation
strategies included reforestation/ afforestation, conservation of biomass in the tropical forests,
agroforestry etc. and were implemented by the participatory local institutions under the
supervision of forestry experts. The evaluation of the evidences proved that the implementation
of the strategies resulted in the rehabilitation, eco restoration as well as carbon stock
enhancement in the forests in the landscape. The availability of such validated evidences is
expected to contribute to the experience and expertise base to deal with the challenge of
rehabilitation of degraded forests in the country and as well as in other similar contexts in
elsewhere in the SARRC region as well.

Key words: rehabilitation of degraded forests, Attappady Hills, multipronged strategies

The views/analysis/observations presented in the current paper are based on the professional experience of the authors and may not be linked
/ reflected to the official positions announced by the organizations under which the authors are presently employed with or employed in the
past

32
1. Introduction
No matter where you live, forests make your life possible. When a forest is lost anywhere,
people feel it everywhere
……www.conservation.org…..
The forested landscapes in the tropics are abodes of invaluable biodiversity resources as well as
harbingers of multiple forest based products and ecosystem services. These landscapes also
known to immensely support livelihood subsistence relationships between the local forest
dwellers and the forest resources in several developing and least developed economies. The
scenario of forest resource dependency by and large holds true for the SARRC countries as well.
Nevertheless, biodiversity resources and forest ecosystem functioning in such landscapes have
been threatened due to varied ecologically unsustainable land uses and critical land use changes.
The deforestation and forest degradation are reported to affect 91 % of threatened plants, 89 % of
threatened birds and 83 % of threatened mammals (IUCN, 2003). The consequent disruption and
disintegration of forest ecosystems often have been found to promote the development of
economically, environmentally and aesthetically impoverished landscapes across the world
(Lamb and Gilmour 2003). It is reported that rehabilitation of degraded mountain forests based
on conventional approaches have often fallen short to restore and deliver multiple values of the
forest resources as well as to meet the varied requirements of the forest dependent communities.
The emerging scenario calls for multi formatted integrated interventions for rehabilitation of
degraded mountain forests and the landscape while integrating the environmental, economic and
social needs and realities of the locality in particular and that of the landscape in general (Lamb
and Gilmour 2003). The studies in the domain report that ecological restoration increased
provisioning of biodiversity and ecosystem services by 44 and 25%, respectively (Rey 2009).
However, it is also reported that rehabilitation of degraded tropical mountain forests along with
restoration of species diversity has been fraught with multiple challenges. The recent trends in
this direction are at digression with the conventional approaches as the latter focused mainly on
rehabilitation with timber plantation as the principal strategy (Manikandan 2015). The evolving
paradigm calls for redesigning rehabilitation plantation strategies to combine quality timber
values with the objectives to secure back some of the lost biodiversity values at landscape level
along with restoration of lost human livelihood options, redress of long term food security issues,
climate regulatory services and overall human wellbeing. As indicated before, the realization of
the objectives of restoration pre calls for cross cutting approaches at landscape level and most
often with the land uses under agriculture, pasture, recreation etc. (Lamb 1998).
In the current case study, we have considered the experiences and evidences from the
rehabilitation cum restoration activities undertaken in the degraded tropical forests in the
Attappady Hills in the Palakkad District of Kerala, India under the Attappady Wastelands
Comprehensive Environmental Conservation Project (AWCECOP). The paper analyses and
records the features of the landscape level multi strategy format adopted in the restoration project
as well as demonstrate how such approaches could help in the realization of the various concerns
in the ecosystem restoration. The primary as well as the secondary data required for the analysis
were collected / generated by the authors and further supplemented with the information based
on the personal experience of the first and second authors. Besides personal interviews with
different actors and stakeholders involved in the implementation of the reforestation activities
were also performed to gather the needed data, information and insights. A geospatial analysis

33
was also carried out to assess the impacts of the reforestation activities with the support of
Landsat data for the months January to February (considered with a view to reduce the influence
of cloud cover) spanning over 2003-2009 using the ArcGIS 10.2.2. version (Esri 2014). The
relative changes in the vegetation cover were discerned with the application of the Normalized
Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) for the Attappady block landscape, over the major period
of the project activity in the GIS domain. The experience and evidences generated through the
instant rehabilitation model for ecological reforestation is expected to enrich the knowledge and
experience on successful restoration of degraded forests. The model also observed to possess rich
elements for replication elsewhere as well with suitable adaptive modifications.
2. Situation/ Background/ Cause Of Degradation
The restoration area is located in the Attappady block of the Kerala State and embedded in the
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve of the Western Ghat major landscape. Localized between 10° 55’ and
11° 15’ N and 76°21’ and 76° 48’ E, the area is characterised with undulating topography and
influenced by both the monsoons. A map of the study area is given at figure # 1 which may be
perused. The landscape originally possessed a rich assemblage of forest types and indigenous
communities dominated the socio-scape. The major forest types which covered the landscape
included Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest, West Coast Tropical Semi Evergreen Forests, South
Indian Moist Deciduous Forests, Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest, Subtropical Hill
Forest, Southern Montane Temperate Forest and Grasslands, Tropical Throny and Scrub Forests,
etc. The ecosystem diversity in the landscapes is much attributable to the contrasts in the rainfall
patterns over the Eastern and Western parts of Attappady with rain shadow areas in the former
part. However, the ecology of the area got negatively impacted with large scale clear-felling of
the forests in the early thirties of the last century to meet the wood requirements for railway
sleepers, plywood industry as well as to pave way for establishment of plantations (Manikandan
2015). The deforestation in the area got further accentuated with the influx of the non-indigenous
settlers for agriculture, from the adjoining States of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka between 1951-
1981. As consequence, the original forest cover in the area got diminished form 60,729 ha
(approx) in 1959 to 14,616 ha (approx) in 1994. The extreme degradation of the land resource
led to the development of poverty, health issues as well as food and livelihood insecurity
amongst the indigenous people and other forest dwellers in the area (AWCECOP 2008).

34
 Figure # 1. Location map of the study area (AWCECOP, 2008)
3. Programme Activities
The forest rehabilitation cum landscape level eco restoration activities were taken up under the
(AWCECOP) with the assistance of the Japan Agency for International Cooperation (JICA). The
project was implemented from 1997-2010 over an area of 745 km2. The forest area considered in
the project was 444 km2 and forestry interventions were done in 118 km2 which constituted
nearly 27% of the total forest area considered in the eco-restoration project. The entire Attappady
block comprising the project area of 745 km2 has two main watersheds drained by the Bhavani
and Siruvani rivers and watershed approach was followed in the implementation of the project.
The landscape was divided into 15 major watersheds and 146 micro watersheds to provide for
integrated and focused implementation of site-specific restoration activities. The strategy
pursued in the area integrated basic features like measures to improve the livelihood options of
the forest dependent people, plantations models with capacity to generate a variety of goods and
services, integrating environmental, economic and social requirements in the landscape,
developing synergy in land uses, coordination of actors, stakeholder participation in the planning
and implementation of the reforestation project under defined institutional arrangements, etc.
The basic model followed in the scheme of restoration for the landscape is depicted at figure # 2.
The forestry strategies aimed at the rehabilitation of the degraded forests and eco restoration at
landscape revolved around the following interventions viz., i) intensive reforestation/

35
afforestation of degraded forest lands, ii) biomass conservation in forests and iv) agroforestry
interventions in non forest lands.

Figure # 2. Basic model followed in the scheme of biomass restoration for the landscape
(source: own elaboration)
4. Methodologies Used
As outlined before, the rehabilitation of the degraded forestland and landscape level carbon stock
building in the project area were taken up by following a multi-pronged format. It focused on
both forest land as well as the degraded wastelands in the landscape with the support of efficient
institutional arrangement and poly specific plantation models. The essential operational
strategies are described below;
4.1. Institutional Arrangements
The forestry activities were implemented under participatory mode involving the concerned
actors, stakeholders, well informed persons/ organizations etc. through institutional
arrangements. The implementation of strategies such as reforestation/ afforestation/ biomass
conservation in the forest areas was carried out through Joint Forest Management Committees
(JFMCs)/ Ooru Vikasana Samithis (OVSs) whilst the agroforestry interventions in non-forest
areas were implemented through User Associations (UAs). The broad features of the institutional
arrangements for implementation of the activities are summarized below at table #1.

36
 Table #1. Institutional arrangements for implementation rehabilitation of degraded forests
and carbon stock improvement in the landscape.

Joint Forest Management User Association Ooru Vikasana Samithi

Committees (OVS)
(UA)
(JFMCs)

The JFMCs were set up as User Associations (UAs) Ooru Vikasana Samithis or
the basic institutional represented the interests of the Hamlet Development
arrangement for actors and stakeholders in a Committees represented a
implementation of the micro watershed for integrated specialized institutional
afforestation / reforestation/ developmental action by the arrangement customised to the
biomass conservation project. The executive socio political features of the
components of the project. members of the UA were indigenous societies in the
The participants and trained in the different project area. It also integrated
beneficiaries of the under the domains of the programme the traditional leadership and
JFM were determined based implementation by following power centres in the
on their dependency on a cross cutting approach. The community organizations of
forests and forest based UA as a local institution was the local indigenous
resources for their enthused with the communities as ex officio
livelihood. The implementation of the members to the committee.
implementations as well as agroforestry and private land The OVSs were responsible
subsequent monitoring of tree stocking in under the for implementation of the
the projects were performed programme as per the micro programme components over
as per the clauses of the plans in 93 such micro- 166 tribal hamlets.
micro plans prepared by the watersheds.
53 JFMCs spread over the
project area.

4.2. Reforestation/Afforestation
The rehabilitation activities under the project mainly considered reforestation / afforestation as
major vehicles to restore carbon stock in the degraded forest areas. The forest areas with canopy
cover less than 40% were identified as target areas for reforestation/ afforestation with due
consideration for site history. The forest areas so identified by the JFMCs were considered for
treatment under the reforestation/ afforestation strategies under the JFM Plans prepared by the

37
 stakeholders.. The evidences from the reforestation site at Kadamapara, which was implemented
under the direct supervision of the first author, are given at plate 1 and plate 2. These micro plans
inter alia included provisions for selection of the species model for plantation, programme
implementation, monitoring and evaluation, protection, multiple use areas to accommodate
various biotic pressures, such as grazing. The species model considered under the JFMCs under
the project over the landscape included a range of species complementing local ecology, habitat,
multiple use requirements etc. The list of species considered for implementation under the
project is given in the box # 1 below. The success in reforestation achieved by the project could
be largely ascribed to the participatory selection of the species model, precision canopy
development planning, social protection measures etc as compared to the traditional approaches
on landscape restoration based on implementation of plantation models on participatory
approaches

Plate 1. JFMC rehabilitation plantation at Plate 2. JFMC rehabilitation plantation at

Kadampara indicating the protection measures Kadampara indicating the level of forest
(Photo Credit: Rajesh S Kumar, 2006) rehabilitation and restoration (Photo Credit:
Rajesh S Kumar, 2006)

Karivelam (Acacia nilotica), Kudavelam (Acacia planifrons), Swarga maram (Simarouba glauca),
Subabul (Leuceana leucocephala), Venga (Pterocarpus marsupium), Ungu (Pongamia pinnata), Kattady
(Casuarina equisetifolia), Mula (Bamboosa bamboos), Veppu (Azadirachta indica), Puli (Tamarindus
indicus), Seethapazham (Annona squamosa), Silver oak (Grevillea robusta), Vanarani (Spathodea
companulata), Manjakonna (Cassia siamea), Njaval (Syzygium cumini), Unjal (Albizia amara), Nelli
(Emblica officinalis), Kumizhu (Gmelina arborea), Nenmenivaka (Albizia lebbeck), Aalu (Ficus
religiosa), Mahagony (Sweitenia macrophylla), Badam (Terminalia catappa), Thekku (Tectona grandis),
Pala (Wrightia tinctoria), Vanni (Acacia ferrugenia), Charalkonna (Peltophorum ferrugianum), Aaval
(Holoptelia integrifolia), Mandaram (Bauhinia racemosa), Jacaranda (Jacaranda mimosifolia), Thanni
(Terminalia bellerica), Manimaruthu (Lagerstromea flos regina), Acacia (Acacia auriculiformes), Plavu
(Artocarpus heterophyllus), Mavu (Mangifera indica), Agathi (Sesbania grandiflora), Aacha
(Hardwickia binata), Panjimaram (Ceiba pentandra), Kokki (Acacia mellifera), Malaveppu (Melia
azadirachta), etc.

Box # 1. List of plant species used for afforestation programme in degraded forest lands
(Source :AWCECOP, 2008)

38
4.3. Biomass conservation
Whilst the afforestation/ reforestation focused on the building up of forest cover in the deforested
areas, the biomass conservation in the forest land as an innovative approach proved to be one of
the significant interventions to augment the carbon storage as well as to secure ecosystem
integrity in the forests. Besides, it constituted one of the significant steps taken towards
augmenting carbon stocking as well as safeguarding forest ecosystem integrity in the forest areas
to build adaptive capabilities to deal with the challenges of climate change at landscape level.
The strategy primarily focused on the forests with canopy density of more than 40% and
emphasized on the improvement of the carbon stocking and biodiversity values. The areas for
treatment for the activity was selected by the JFMCs in the area and implemented under detailed
micro plans prepared by the JFMCs under expert technical expertise. The species modeling for
the treatment kept in consideration important aspects such as ecological compatibility,
biodiversity requirements in the landscape, supplementation potential for augmentation of the
ecosystem service delivery potentials of the forest type, etc. The foci of conservation was planted
up with the species matrix decided through the participatory planning and tended with the
standard plantation development procedure. The important species considered for the inclusion
in the biomass conservation component of the programme are listed in the box #2.

Subabul (Leuceana leucocephala), Venga (Pterocarpus marsupium), Ungu (Pongamia

pinnata), Mula (Bamboosa bamboos), Veppu (Azadirachta indica), Puli (Tamarindus indicus),
Seethapazham (Annona squamosa), Vanarani (Spathodea companulata), Manjakonna (Cassia
siamea), Njaval (Syzygium cumini), Unjal (Albizia amara), Nelli (Emblica officinalis),
Kumizhu (Gmelina arborea), Nenmenivaka (Albizia lebbeck), Aalu (Ficus religiosa),
Mahagony (Sweitenia macrophylla), Badam (Terminalia catappa), Thekku (Tectona grandis),
Aaval (Holoptelia integrifolia), Mandaram (Bauhinia racemosa), Acacia (Acacia
auriculiformos), Plavu (Artocarpus heterophyllus), Mavu (Mangifera indica), Agathi
(Sesbania grandiflora), etc,.

Box # 2. List of plant species used for biomass conservation in forest land
(Source:AWCECOP, 2008)
4.4. Agroforestry
Agroforestry interventions represented the core of the carbon stocking rehabilitation in the areas
outside the forestlands in the landscape. These interventions followed adaptive versions of the
agroforestry models selected by the farmers with the assistance of a multidisciplinary technical
expert team. The species models were integrated under the planning document for the micro
watersheds and the implementation was supervised by the User Association concerned of the
watershed. The details of the forestry species considered in the development of agroforestry
models are listed in box # 3

Cashew graft (Anacardium occidentale), Mango and Mango graft (Mangifera indica), Lemon
(Citrus limon), Jack tree (Artabotrys odorotissimus), Guava (Psidium gujuva), Pomegranate
and Pomegranate graft (Punica granatum), Cashew (Anacardium occidentale), Coconut
(Cocos nucifera), Sappotta (Achras sappotta), Seethapazham (Annona squamosa), Drum stick

39
(Moringa olifera), Arecanut (Areca catechu), Njetaval (Holoptelia integrifolia), Gooseberry
and Gooseberry graft (Emblica officinalis), Neem (Azadirachta indica), Plash (Butea
monosperma), Teak (Tectona grandis), Kattadi (Casuarina equisetifolia), Silver Oak
(Grevillea robusta), Jambo (Syzigium jambolanum), Pathimukham (Ceasalpinia sappans), etc

Box # 3. List of plant species used for agroforestry interventions in private land (Source
:AWCECOP 2008)
5. Results/Impacts
5.1 Reforestation / Afforestation
The sustained reforestation activities carried out in the deforested lands in the project area
resulted in the restocking of the degraded landscapes with green cover. The afforestation/
reforestation activities covered an area of 10,999.91 ha of in forestland. The progress of the
achievement in restoration with the involvement of the Joint Forest Management Committees is
given at figure #3. It could be seen that the reforestation model selected, developed, implemented
and adopted by the JMFCs have yielded the results. The process of development of the reforested
forest stands were also observed to have been tended and protected for facilitating their
development for vertical species profile formation and canopy integrity.

Figure # 3: Trends in the Figure # 4 Trends in the Figure # 5 Trends in the

implementation of implementation of biomass implementation of
Afforestation/ Reforestation conservation activities agroforestry
activities (Source :AWCECOP,2008)
(Source :AWCECOP,2008) (Source :AWCECOP,2008)

The evidences in this direction could be much observed in the JFMC project at Kadamapara,
which was personally visited by the first and second author in 2006. The photographic evidences
given in the plates mentioned further convey the results realized by the forest restoration
activities undertaken in the locality in 1999. The achievement made in reforestation over the
years in the project area is depicted at figure #3. As it is evident, the reforestation activities were
implemented systematically was perceived as one of the core activities aimed at the landscapes
level rejuvenation of the various ecosystem services at landscape level which got attenuated due
to deforestation

40
5.2. Biomass Conservation
Biomass conservation has been one of the unique forestry interventions adopted in the forest
areas to maintain and improve productivity and ecological health of the forest stands. The
selection of the species model and the gap filling in the forests not only led to the restoration of
canopy continuity but also secured enhancement of the land productivity. The progress of the
biomass conservation activities undertaken in the forest areas over the period is indicated in the
figure #4. As per reports, the beneficial effect of the protection in the biomass conservation area
was evident as in the case of the areas afforested as well. The major outcome of the biomass
conservation activity was the rejuvenation of some of the rivulets that were dried off completely
before the implementation of the project (for instance the rejuvenation of the Kodangara pallam
spring is one such example) as well as build-up of resilience in the ecosystem to deal with the
challenges of climate change.
5.3. Agroforestry
The implementation of the agroforestry interventions reported to have made significant impacts
in the socio economics as well as food and livelihood security of the stakeholders. The
agroforestry models developed through the participatory planning process received high level of
acceptance and ownership among the beneficiaries. The progress over the years on
implementation of the agroforestry plantation in the landscape is presented at figure # 5. It could
be observed that agroforestry interventions were implemented with sustained efforts in the
landscape over the years and significantly contributed to the recovery of green cover as well as
carbon stocking in the area. As per the reports the interventions covered more than 4939.27 ha
with around 3.73 million seedlings. These interventions also included ancillary practices such as
medicinal plant cultivation, organic farming, mushroom cultivation, silkworm rearing,
promotion of use of organic fertilizers, coir pith processing, etc.,

5.3. A Comparative analysis of the Strategies

The comparative analysis of the strategies adopted for restoration of degraded forest land as well
as the landscape in the project area reveals that adoption of a multipronged approach for forestry
treatment of the landscape has been largely instrumental in realization of the restoration
objectives and outputs. A summarized version of the empirical analysis of the different strategies
followed in the implementation forestry strategies is presented at table # 2. It may also be
highlighted that the pathway to successful restoration of degraded forests positions itself in
addressing the bundle of ecological, developmental and political issues at landscape level with
the placement of socially owned reforestation plantation interventions as against traditional
approaches based on implementation of plantation schemes with or without stakeholder
participation. .

41
Table #2 : A summarised version of the empirical analysis of the different strategies
followed in the implementation forestry strategies

Domain/ Afforestation/ Biomass Agroforestry

Reforestation Conservation
Action

Species biomass builders, continuity of promotion of multiple

productivity, fast biodiversity profile, livelihood options,
modelling growing species, carbon stock biodiversity
carbon stock building enhancement conservation,

Forest cover forest areas with less forest areas with more accommodated under
considerations than 40 % canopy than 40 % canopy agroforestry models
cover cover

site management generally degraded, better in terms of soil mixed land use
challenges with little soil depth depth, having conditions
and highly eroded, moderate water
with almost no soil holding
seed bank.

main focus of restoration of improvement of ecological restoration

plantation degraded forest areas forest profile and in the landscape
biodiversity
conservation

Implementation mode Joint Forest Joint Forest User Associations /

Management Management Oru Vikasana Samitis
Committees/ Oru Committees/ Oru
Vikasana Samitis Vikasana Samitis

Soil productivity intensive soil initiatives like gully terracing, bunding,

management conservation plugging , rill erosion water recharge points,
measures( pit and control etc
saucer shaped
planting pits,
trenches, gully
plugging etc)

Resource Protection managerial/ managerial/ managerial/ own farm

Arrangements institutional/ legal institutional/ legal arrangements

42
 Risk Management Technical/ Technical/ Technical/
Managerial/ political / Managerial/ political / Managerial/ political /
Institutional Institutional Institutional
arrangements arrangements arrangements

Quality Control and managerial/ managerial/ managerial/ review /

Quality Assurance participative participative record keeping
monitoring/ review monitoring/review
audit /record keeping audit /record keeping

(Source: Own elaboration)

6. Evaluation/Evidences
In order to evaluate the impacts of the forest rehabilitation and restoration activities, the
landscape was assessed for Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) using the
LANDSAT images of the Attappady block. The images were downloaded from the portals of
the United States Geological Survey resource base (USGS 2015) and were analyzed in the
ArcGIS 10.2.2 environment. The results of the analysis evidenced positive changes in the NDVI
for the landscape over the project implementation period. The results of the NDVI analysis for
the different years in the project cycle are presented at figure # 6-9.

Fig 6:Landscape level Fig 7:Landscape level Fig8:Landscape level Fig 9: Landscape level
NDVI status in 2003 NDVI status in 2005 NDVI status in 2007 NDVI status in 2009
(Landsat-7 ETM+) (Landsat- 7 ETM+) (Landsat-5 TM) (Landsat -5 TM)

As could be observed from the relative analysis of the images, the vegetation density in the area
has been steadily improving over the project implementation period indicating thereby the
impacts of the sustained forest rehabilitation interventions. The lowest index are given in 2003,
but this is because the image is available Landsat 7 has banding error SLC-off. These evidences
amply explain the impacts made by the project due to its multi pronged strategy to improve green
cover in the landscape and further supports the implementation statistics at figure #3,4,and 5 at
the landscape level.

43
7. Conclusion
As discussed above, rehabilitation of degraded forest landscapes and revival of ecosystem
services in degraded ecosystems are not free from formidable challenges. The strategies to deal
with such challenges demand synergy between technology, actors, implementation arrangements,
monitoring, etc. The evidences recorded by the current case example amply contribute to the
experience and skill perfection in comprehensive landscape level restoration of degraded forests.
Such interventions also generate a set of co benefits such as biomass building, biomass
restoration, ecosystem service provisioning, while building overall resilience in the ecological-
socio political continuum. These learning outcomes evidently emphasize that successful
restoration of degraded forestlands needs comprehensive engagement with the various actors,
stakeholders, interested groups and persons operating in the landscape with the application of
most appropriate plantation techniques. It is also highlighted that inclusive approaches have the
potential to secure resource ownership and operation of equity, sustainability concerns in the
resource development and utilization. The instant case study further reinforces the changing
forest management paradigm i.e., the practice of making good decisions for the resource
development with the consumers of the products and services generated by such decisions. We
hope that the strategies presented and the evidences discussed in the paper will also contribute
towards rehabilitation of the degraded forests in India as well as elsewhere in the SAARC region.
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 Brief Resumes of the authors

Rajesh S. Kumar is a career Civil Servant with the Indian Forest

Service(IFS). He has more than 15 years of rich experience in the domains
of sustainable forest management, environmental conservation, inclusive
rural development etc. As part of the academic training and qualifications,
he holds a Professional Degree in forestry and Master Degrees in
Economics, Environmental Science and Sustainable Forest and Nature
Management. His current interests lie in the areas of climate change
Rajesh S. Kumar mitigation and adaptation, forest governance, urban forestry, landscape
level biodiversity conservation, etc and presently he is working for tiger
conservation in India.

Binu N. Kamalolbhavan is presently working as Assistant Professor in the

Dept. of Tree Physiology and Breeding, College of Forestry, Kerala
Agricultural University, Kerala, India. Since last three years, he has been
teaching forestry subjects to undergraduate students as well as pursues
research in forestry. Currently he is doing a project entitled “ Diversity of
Binu N. Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in the Homesteads of Kerala”. Before
Kamalolbhavan joining the university, he worked with different research institutes,
plantation companies as well as with the eco restoration project in
Attappady, Kerala, India and he possesses 6 years of experience in the
ecoresotoration domain.

Jazmin Caballero is an environmental engineer by training and is

presently working as Coordinator of Landscape Analysis in Guyra
Paraguay Association, Asunción, Paraguay. She has wide experience in
monitoring changes land use changes, assessment of fires and floods in the
Great Chaco area, strengthening environmental Governance,; analysis of
the deforestation in Important Bird Areas( IBAs) . She was also engaged
with UNEP-Partnership Program of the United Nations Reducing
Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation, Paraguay wherein
Jazmin she worked as a collaborator in mapping the multiple benefits of REDD+
Caballero in Paraguay. Besides, she was also engaged in UNEP-WCMC projects and
worked closely with National Forestry Institute, Paraguay.

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 Shilpi Kundu is a scholar at Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,
Sweden, with the sustainable forest and nature management programme of
the European Union. She is concurrently working as Assistant Professor in
the Department of Agricultural Extension and Information System at Sher-
e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. At present, she is working
on understanding the linkages between landscape ecology, land use
dynamics and development of monitoring protocols for biodiversity
Shilpi Kundu conservation in the forested landscapes in Sweden. Her current interest lie
in the areas of biodiversity conservation, sustainable rural development
through adaptation of inclusive development practices and extension
services.

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