QUANTUM THEORY

 The nature of light

“The electromagnetic spectrum” includes many different
types of radiation.
“Visible light” accounts for only a small part of the spectrum.
[400-700 nm.]
All forms of light travel in waves.

Wave characteristics
Wavelength: distance between identical points on successive
waves.
Frequency: number of waves that pass a particular point in one
second.
Amplitude: the vertical distance from the midline of waves to
the top of the peak or the bottom of the through.
Calculate wave frequency and wavelength
c = 3 x 108 m/s
λ = wavelength (m)
f = frequency (Hz or cycle/sec)
Example The wavelength of laser pointer is reported to be 663 nm.
What is the frequency of this light?

Example Calculate the wavelength of light, in nm. Of light with a

frequency of 3.52 x 1014 Hz

Example the yellow light given off by a sodium vapor lamp used for
public lighting has a wavelength of 589 nm. What is the frequency of
this radiation?

Example A laser used in eye surgery to fuse detached retains produces

radiation with a wavelength of 640 nm. Calculate the frequency of
this radiation.

Example An FM radio station broadcasts electromagnetic radiation at

a frequency of 103.4 MHz Calculate the wavelength of this radiation.
 Quantum theory equation
Energy of a single quantum of energy :
E = energy (J.)
h = Planck’s constant 6.63 x 10-34 Js.
f = frequency (Hz)
Photoelectric effect
Electrons ejected from a metal’s surface when exposed to light
of certain frequency
Einstein proposed that particles of light are really photons
(packets of light energy) and deduced that Ephoton = hf
Light of at least the threshold frequency and of greater intensity
will eject more electrons.

Example Calculate the energy (in joules) of a photon with a

wavelength of 700 nm.

Example Calculate the wavelength (in nm.) of light with energy 7.85
x 10-19 J per photon. In what region of the electromagnetic radiation
does this light fall.

Example A laser emits light with a frequency of 4.69 x 1014 Hz, What
is the energy of one photon of the radiation from this laser?
Example If the laser emits a pulse of energy containing 5.0 x 1017
photons of this radiation, what is the total energy of that pulse?

Example If the laser emits 1.3 x 10-2 J of energy during a pulse, how
many photons are emitted during the pulse?

 Bohr’s theory of the Hydrogen atom

Planck’s theory along with Einstein’s ideas not only
explained the photoelectric effect, but also made it possible
for scientists to unravel the idea of atomic line spectra
Line spectra/Spectrum: emission of light only at specific
wavelengths
 Every element has a unique emission spectrum
 Often referred to as “fingerprints” of the element
Line spectra of Hydrogen
The Rydberg equation:

Balmer and Rydberg developed the equation to calculate all

spectral lines in hydrogen.
Bohr’s contribution: showed only valid energies for
hydrogen’s electron with the following equation.

As the electron gets closer to the nucleus, En becomes larger in

absolute value but also more negative.
Ground state: the lowest energy state of an atom.
Excited state: each energy state in which n > 1

Electrons moving from ground state to higher

states require energy; an electron falling from
a higher to a lower state releases energy

Example Calculate the energy needed for an electron to move from

n=1 to n=4
Example Calculate the energy needed for an electron to move from
n=5 to n=3

 Quantum Mechanics
Use the term atomic orbital instead of “orbit” to describe the
electron’s position within the atom.
Each atomic orbital in an atom is characterized by a unique
set of three quantum numbers: n, l and ml
Quantum numbers
1. Principal quantum number (n) : designates size of the orbital
Integer value: 1, 2, 3 and so forth [Correspond to quantum numbers in
Bohr’s model. *The larger the “n” value, the greater the average
distance from the nucleus]
2. Angular momentum quantum number (l) : describes the shape
of the atomic orbital
Integer value: 0 to n-1
Sublevel: s, p, d, f

3. Magnetic quantum number (ml): describes the orientation of the

orbital in space (think in terms of x, y and z axis)
Integer values: -l to 0 to +l
4. Electron spin quantum number (ms): describes the spin of an
electron that occupies a particular orbital
Values: +1/2 or -1/2 [Electron will spin opposite each other in the
same orbital]

Example Identify the quantum number of Carbon

Example Identify the quantum number of Sodium

 Exercise (Study Hard Quiz Harder!)
1. Which of the following are possible sets of quantum numbers?
a) 1, 1, 0, +1/2 b) 2, 0, 0, +1/2 c) 3, 2, -2, -1/2
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2. The orange light ray has energy 3.31 x 10-19 J, Calculate the
frequency and wavelength?
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3. An electron received some energy from the white light that has 5.0
x 1014 Hz of frequency. If electron can absorb 70% of light energy,
Calculate the energy of this electron was received.
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4. It has 3 electron that has x, y and z of the principal quantum

number respectively. The 1st electron emits 600 nm of the light
wavelength to n=1. The 2nd electron emits 7 x 1014 Hz of frequency to
n=1. The 3rd electron emits 3 x 10-22 of light energy. Arrange the
principal quantum number from most to least.
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5. Identify the quantum number of Nitrogen

 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
Full version!!
Electron configuration is the arrangement of electrons around the
nucleus of an atom based on their energy level.
Electrons exist in different energy levels => “shells”
In “shells” have 4 subshells/orbitals => s, p, d, f
Sometimes, there have consisted to “subshells” have the orbitals
that are areas within subshells where the electrons are located.
 These orbitals may have different shapes
 There may be different numbers of orbitals within a shell
The energy levels correspond to the horizontal rows on the periodic
table.
 What is “the electron shield”?
Shielding occurs when an electron in a many-electron
atom is partially shielded from the positive charge of the
nucleus by other electrons in the atom.
Follow the Coulomb’s law…
 Electron shield and IE 
IE increases when valence
electrons
is nearby nucleus.
When F = ………………………………………….
k = …………………………………………..
Q = ………………………………………….
r = …………………………………………..

There have 3 principles of electron configuration…

1. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
- the electron could be moving fast enough
to fly out of the atom altogether.
- moving fast -> enough energy called
“ Ionization energy (IE) “
2. Pauli exclusion principle
- Each orbital can only hold two electrons.
- Two electrons have opposite spinning called
“ mutual repulsion ” (ms = +1/2 and -1/2)
3. Aufbau principle
- Electrons are added one at a time to the
lowest energy levels first.

Actual electron configurations

1. Total electrons = atomic number
2. Electrons are added one at a time to lowest energy levels first.
(Aufbau principal)
3. When electrons are filling orbitals of the same energy, they
prefer to enter empty orbitals first. These electrons all have same
spin. (Hund’s rule)
4. Fill energy levels with electrons until you run out.
5. A superscript states how many electrons are in each level.

 s can keep maximal electrons =>

…………….. electrons
 p can keep maximal electrons =>
…………….. electrons
 d can keep maximal electrons =>
…………….. electrons
 f can keep maximal electrons =>
…………….. electrons
 g can keep maximal electrons =>
…………….. electrons
 h can keep maximal electrons =>
…………….. electrons
Practice
1. Oxygen 2. Sodium

3. Potassium 4. Titanium

5. Calcium 6. Kryptons
Shorter form of electron configuration = Inert gas form
Electron configuration of Radon (Rn = 86)

Practice: Change the electron configuration of the

following elements into Inert gas form.
1. Rubidium 2. Francium

3. Iodine 4. Boron

The orbitals and the periodic table

 The periodic table is the standard elements table.
 Have 4 block; s-Block, d-Block, p-Block and f-Block
 Ionization energy (IE)
Ionization energy is minimum energy needed to remove an
electron from an atom in the gas phase.
Representation: Sodium

**IE between 2A-3A groups and 5A-6A groups…

Summary of IE
Magnetism and electron configuration
 Electrons in atoms are moving charges.
 Produce magnetic field (considered as an example the electric
current). Electrons act as tiny magnets.
 Magnetic field mainly produced by spin motion.
 Paired electrons have a total spin of zero [1/2 – 1/2 = 0] ,have
thus no total magnetic field.
  What’s ferromagnetic?
There are many more unpaired electrons thus resulting,
in a strengthened magnetic field. The elements that are
ferromagnetic; Iron, Cobalt and Nickel.

Try to prove ferromagnetic Iron.

From ferromagnetic brings the transition elements to have
colour!!!

The colour is different because

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Ligand is a molecule or ion that forms a co-ordinate bond with

a transition metal by donating a pair of electrons. It called electron
pair donor.
A complex compound is a central metal atom or ion surrounded
by ligands.
Electron configurations and the formation
of the hexacyanoferrate(III) complex ion
Fe atom [Ar]3d64s2
Fe3+ isolated ion [Ar]3d5
Fe3+ in complex [Ar]3d5

 Exercise time (Study hard Quiz

harder!!) 
1. Arrange the IE of 32
16 S , 3517Cl , 3919K and 4020Ca from low to high.
2. Use this content below to answer the question, Find the Atomic
number and the basic electron configuration of elements A B and C
and identify the magnetism.
Element A: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2 Element C: 1s2 2s2 2p6
3s2 3p6
Element B: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
2. In the ground state, Find the electron configuration of 26Fe2+ and
3+
24Cr . and if there have the hydroxide groups (-OH) 4 molecules to be
ligands, Draw the structure and draw the electron configuration
diagram of central ion (please show the position that ligands will
locate).
3. Write the electron configuration in inert gas form of 4020Ca and 25Mn7+.
And add the cyanide ion (-CN) until the complex compound of Mn no
charge, Draw the molecular structure and write the molecular
formula.
 Use for answer the questions or the notes
 Exercise time (II) (Study hard Quiz
harder!!) 
1. Hydrogen has a red emission line at 656.3 nm, what is the energy
and frequency of a photon of this light? Note: Planck’s constant =
6.626 x 10–34 Js, speed of light = 2.998 x 108 m/s
2. What is the wavelength of a 7.65 x 10-17 J wave?
3. Determine what elements are denoted by the following electron
configurations:
1) 1s22s22p63s23p4 ____________________
2 2 6 2 6 2 10 6 1
2) 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s ____________________
2 10 3
3) [Kr] 5s 4d 5p ____________________
2 14 6
4) [Xe] 6s 4f 5d ____________________
2 11
5) [Rn] 7s 5f ____________________
4. For the following elements list the electron configuration.
1) krypton ____________________
2) titanium ____________________
3) scandium ____________________
5. Write formulas for the following and find the ligands and metal
(central atom).
1. potassium hexacyanoferrate(III)
2. sodium hexafluoroaluminate
3. Pentaaquabromomanganese(III) sulfate
4. hexaamminechromium(III) nitrate
5. sodium tetrahydroxochromate(III)
Use for answer the questions or the notes