Journal of Environmental Management 311 (2022) 114821

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Environmental Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Deep well injection for the waste brine disposal solution of potash mining in
Northeastern Thailand
Sunthorn Pumjan a, Tran Thanh Long b, c, *, Ho Huu Loc d, Edward Park e
a
Mining and Petroleum Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand
b
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Hochiminh City University of Technology, 268 Ly Thuong Kiet Street, District 10, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
c
Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc District, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
d
Water Engineering and Management, School of Engineering and Technology, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathumthani, Thailand
e
National Institute of Education (NIE), Earth Observatory of Singapore (EOS), and Asian School of the Environment (ASE), Nanyang Technological University (NTU),
Singapore

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Under the pressure of the existing world population growth trends, the dercreasing pastoral fields and the
Deep well injection increasing duration and incidences of drought and heat stress, the potash fertilizers demand dramaticly increase
Northeastern Thailand to enhance the world food production. Asia currently consumes 40% of the world’s potash market, yet 70% of
Sustainable mining environment
world potash exports come from mines in Canada and Europe. Weak collective efforts to produce potassium
Potash
fertilizers economically pose the risk of global shortages of potash goods and threatening global food security.
Waste brine
While the Khorat Plateau in Northeastern Thailand is noted to contain active and promising regional potash
deposits, developing a proper potash industry in the region has largely been unsuccessful due to major con­
straints such as the challenge of establishing a brine disposal solution. This study demonstrates the performance
of deep well injection (DWI) as an environmentally friendly alternative to secure waste brine production from the
potash mine. The groundwater numerical model demonstrates the movement and penetration of the concentrate
during and after deep well injection. The boundary condition was utilized from the regional hydrogeology data.
The waste brine injection is based on the waste products of the mine factory. Our simulation shows that the DWI
can isolate waste brine with freshwater by injecting it into the deep formation based on the geologic structure
and properties analysis. With high porosity and low specific yield, the Khok Kruat formation within Khrat Basin
shows a high potential injection rate of 200,000 m3/day, which is 200 times higher than current water brine
production rates. Moreover, the salinity can easily dissolve into the target domain with specific formation
properties. Hence, the DWI not only boosts the potash industry’s image in the long term but also enable sus­
tainable potash mining development in the region. Finally, we recommend that government agencies with
regulatory oversight over the DWI must promote further research associated with site characterization, well
construction and injection technologies, and monitoring tools in the long term.

1. Introduction
As the limited area of pastoral fields, the growing world population,
and the increasing duration and incidences of drought and heat stress,
the crops production and food security would adversely affect (Cleland,
2013; Zörb et al., 2014). Hence, potash (or potassium, K) plays an
essential role in the agriculture industry when the proper use of potash
fertilizer can boost the yield in two times to meet the future world food
demand (Katovich et al., 2018; Manning, 2010; Rawashdeh et al., 2016;
Römheld and Kirkby, 2010). After three decades of operating, the
existing potash mines in Europe have been facing exhaustion of reserves,
and environmental concerns inhibit deeper mine expansion. Without
collective efforts to produce potassium fertilizers, potential shortages
increase the risk of a massive global food security crisis (Al Rawashdeh,
2020). That being said, potash explorations and development activities
are down-trending due to concerns surrounding the ecological liveli­
hood impacts of wastes brine (wastes production from mining opera­
tions) have on surface waters (Bian et al., 2012; Cocker et al., 2016).

* Corresponding author. Faculty of Civil Engineering, Hochiminh City University of Technology, 268 Ly Thuong Kiet Street, District 10, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet
Nam.
E-mail addresses: sunpumjan@gmail.com (S. Pumjan), ttlong@hcmut.edu.vn (T.T. Long), hohuuloc@ait.ac.th (H.H. Loc), edward.park@nie.edu.sg (E. Park).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.114821
Received 21 November 2021; Received in revised form 27 February 2022; Accepted 27 February 2022
Available online 4 March 2022
0301-4797/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Pumjan et al.
Potash waste brine (consisting predominantly of salt) is known to be
detrimental to human lives, plants, and other wildlife (Loc et al., 2021;
Reid and Getzlaf, 2004; UNEP, 2001).
With a significant percentage of the workforce employed in the
agricultural sector, Asia has become the largest import market for pot­
ash, accounting for more than 40% of the world’s total potash exports.
Since most of the world’s potash production comes from mines in Can­
ada and Europe (FAO, 2017), the oligopoly resources, huge logistics and
transportation costs pose increasing critical prices.While potash occur­
rences have been found in Asia, such as in China, Thailand, Laos and
Vietnam (USGS, 2019; Qian et al., 1994; Zheng et al., 2018), the potash
industries in these countries are not sufficiently developed to relieve
regional demand. Hence, creating new potash suppliers from different
parts of the world, especially from Asia, with cheaper transportation,
development, and economically mining costs would be favorable to both
producers and consumers, benefitting society as a whole (Cocker et al.,
2016; Katovich et al., 2018; Roberts, 2014).
The Northeastern Thailand and central Laos Basin are known to be
some of the most promising potash reserve deposits. For example, the
sylvite potash commonly found in Northeast Thailand is one of the best
for manufacturing potassium fertilizers. Additionally, potash deposits in
Thailand can be found as close to 150–300 m under the ground surface
compared to 1000 m underground, as is the case with many potash
mines around the world, making mining costs much lower. However, the
development of the potash mining industry in Asia is halted mainly by
legal restrictions and massive strains on the environment. The primary
environmental aspect against developing mining in Thailand is the
disposal of waste brine, which is generated during the extraction pro­
cess. Improper waste brine management may cause adverse impacts on
the environment, health, and social effects due to its high salinity, and
the release of other byproducts such as pretreatment chemicals, or­
ganics, and heavy metals (Nakbanpote et al., 2018; Panagopoulos et al.,
2019).
Environment risks from desalination processes of potash excavation
include, the pollution of the freshwater body, adverse effects of land use
and landscape, and decreased soil quality due to salinity, temperature,
and chemical substances. Conventional subsurface disposal strategies
used in the desalination mining process include surface water discharge,
backfilling discharge, evaporation ponds, and landfill application. These
solutions, however, often face challenges surrounding economic and
technical feasibility, public acceptance, and obtaining licenses to
discharge the waste brine to the environment. Unlike the aforemen­
tioned unsustainable processes, the deep well injection has considerable
advantages, which include the: quick removal of large volumes of liquid
– eliminates NPDES permits; Provision of a long-term solution that can
operate over decades; application of proven methods and technologies
from the oil and gas industry that meet modern regulatory criteria; use
of a financially competitive solution with low ongoing operation and
maintenance costs; elimination of environmental impacts on drinking
water sources, thereby avoiding regulatory issues that affect other al­
ternatives. The deep well proposal includes injecting and isolating the
large volumes of brine waste into a deep formation beneath the imper­
meable layer. In addition, this solution is noted to be environmentally
safe and economically viable for uphill mining processing factories
(Bruno et al., 2011; Rish, 2005; Rybalchenko et al., 2005; UNEP, 2001).
While deep well disposal is a well-known and successful technology used
by countries such as the USA (Abou-Sayed et al., 2003; Guo et al., 2003;
Saripalli et al., 2000), Canada (Ferguson, 2015; Q. Guo et al., 2000; Reid
and Getzlaf, 2004; Tallin et al., 1990), Venezuela (López-Hernández
et al., 2021; Vega Riveros and Barrios, 2011), Russia (Karas et al., 2016;
Rybalchenko et al., 2005), and Norway (Santarelli et al., 2014), there is
still a noticeable lack of widespread adoption of DWI amongst Asian
countries, especially for waste management for inland mining.
In order to raise awareness of this solution, its potential uses and
viability in the region, more study is needed to understand the perfor­
mance of the target bed-rock domain under injection process before
2
Journal of Environmental Management 311 (2022) 114821
starting from site selection; method of operation; and the monitoring
schedule (Ahmed et al., 2004; Cleary and Warner, 1970; Guo et al.,
2003; Katal et al., 2020; Mike Mickley, 2004). Yet, evaluating the DWI of
potash waste brine poses significant challenges for the following reasons
grouped into two categories: (1) Lack of data. In this aspect, deep saline
aquifer generally possesses insufficient data due to the exploration and
production data limit. However, although saline aquifers are very
promising in the Mahasarakam formation throughout the Khorat basin
NE of Thailand, the well-defined stratigraphy units and their hydraulics
properties are scarce; (2) Lack of a good understanding of the interplay
between various physical and chemical mechanisms acting on different
time scales in deep saline aquifers. Addressing these gaps in knowledge
requires significant effort for further clarification and quantification of
data collection, laboratory experiments, numerical simulations and field
experience and measurements. This study, for that matter, seeks to fill
these gaps by presenting one of the first examinations of the perfor­
mance of deep well in the Asia region and the Khorat Basin. It collects
significant seismic data, exploration and well-test data, and physical and
chemical laboratory tests required for DWI assessments. In addition, our
investigation also contributes ‘allowable injection rates’ for these ac­
tivities, which are fundamental towards evaluating the overall perfor­
mance of the deep wells.
The study examined the profile of waste brine injection into the deep
aquifer in Northeastern Thailand via numerical modelling. A numerical
model was constructed to simulate injected waste brine into the deep
aquifer without any environmental impacts (piezometric head, area of
brine waste penetration). The dispersion parameters have utilized the
properties of brine waste. Additionally, the study simulated the move­
ment and penetration of the concentrate during and after injection. The
change in the piezometric head is kept within 5% after waster brine
injection to prevent the waste brine leakage into the fresh aquifers. The
results provide insight into plume penetration of good deep injection
under environmental protection criteria for wastewater treatment for
the mining process in Thailand. The study also determines the source
and contamination pathway to assist water resources planning for urban
use.
The results of the study contribute significant knowledge to the
mining industry in three aspects. First, the study provides a specific
wastewater solution for inland potash mining where the potash deposit
is allocated near the community area. Second, the study advances un­
derstanding of the target domain for the DWI via a numerical model.
Third, according to the properties of DWI, the study also recommends
the policy and regulation to safeguard communities living in the vicinity
of potash mines.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area
This study makes use of the discharged brine from the flotation
processing plant of the Asia Pacific Potash Corporation (APPC) project in
Udon Thani Province, Thailand. A mining design based on room and
pillar layout with backfill applied resulted in ‘Proven and Probable
Extractable Reserves of Sylvinite of 108.48 Mt with average ore grade of
23.62% K2O’. This ore tonnage is equivalent to 36.37 Mt MOP (KCl
product) (APPC, 2015). The plant facilities are in Muang and Prajak
Silapakom Districts, 15 km southeast of the city of Udon Thani (Fig. 1).
The site project covers approximately 42.3 square kilometers. Potash
deposits remain about 407,000 million tons below 150–300 m in
Northeast Thailand. The sufficient reserves for a life-of-mine expectancy
of 21-years are proven with planned production of 2 Mt per year of MOP.
The resource was discovered in the 1970s but has been left largely un­
exploited because of environmental concerns and legal restrictions. The
region is hilly and rolling hill topographic terrains. The elevation de­
creases from the north to the south (from 400 m. MSL to 160 m. MSL).
The climate is tropical monsoon with an average annual rainfall of
S. Pumjan et al.
Fig. 1. Project site located at Khorat Plateau (Crosby, 2007).
1268.6 mm, which showed an increasing trend between 1984 and 2015.
Almost 90% of the average annual rainfall is distributed from May
through October. The average daily temperature is 27.0 ◦ C and has a
slightly increasing trend. January is the coolest month, with a daily
temperature of about 22.4 ◦ C, and April is the hottest month, with
29.8 ◦ C. The average evaporation from the Class A Pan measurement is
1683 mm/year (Royal Irrigation Department (RID), 2015).
The aquifers system in this area can be divided into three aquifers:
Khorat aquifer, the Maha Sarakham aquifer, and the Phu Thok aquifer,
respectively, in ascending order.
The Phu Thok aquifer (PT), with a thickness of 10–300 m, consists of
fine-to-medium sandstone and siltstone. The formation is easily frac­
tured and is usually a productive aquifer found in the northwest and
northeast parts of the study area. Phu Tok aquifer occupies about 30% of
the total area of the Khorat Plateau. Yields from individual boreholes in
the Phu Tok aquifer range from a low of 2 m3/h to a high of 204m3/hr.
An average transmissivity of 500 m3/day has been adopted for the
discharge zone. However, transmissivity values between 5 and 100 m2/
day were obtained in the less fracturing area. Thus, groundwater quality
in the Phu Tok aquifer is good quality; generally, less than 500 mg/1
total dissolved solids in the study area. Hence, the activities of com­
munities rely on the storage of this aquifer.
Maha Sarakham unit (MS) is a very low-permeability unit of rock
salt, anhydrite, and gypsum interbedded with mudstone deposited
under the Pt Unit with the thickness varying from 50 to 600 m. The Khok
Kruat unit (KK) is found at the foot of the mountain, consisting of silt­
stone and sandstone with a thickness of 50–400 m. Lithostratigraphy
3
Journal of Environmental Management 311 (2022) 114821
and subdivisions of the Khorat Group and the Maha Sarakham Forma­
tion are shown in Fig. 2. Because the outcropping and sub-cropping
formation consist of fine-grained sediments to clay, the recharge by
direct infiltration is considered a minor amount. Transmissivity values
ranging between 80 and 290 m2/day were obtained from 20 pumping
tests. However, groundwater quality is brackish to salty water due to the
rock salt effect. The average total dissolved solids (TDS) remained 1500
mg/1, especially in some zones exceeding 3500 mg/l. Thus, this aquifer
is a qualified seal layer to avoid the leakage of waste brine injection into
the fresh upper aquifer (see Fig. 3).
Khok Kruat Aquifer (KK) interbedded moderately consolidated
calcareous siltstones, micaceous sandstones, shale, and conglomerate.
The discharge occurs by vertical seepage through the overlying forma­
tions, fault boundaries, and seepage into topographically low areas.
Yields from many boreholes in the Khok Kruat aquifer range from 2 to
15 m3/h. The transmissivity range of the Khok Kruat aquifer is 2.5–12
m2/day (for the sandstone) and 0.4–5.5 m2/day (for the siltstone and
shale). Groundwater quality in terms of total dissolved solids is generally
less than 500 mg/1, but in some areas, the TDS is up to 1500 mg/1.
Because of deep formation and low transmissivity, the Khok Kruat
aquifer cannot be exploited for domestic purposes. Moreover, the depth
of the aquifer is from 300 to 400 m below the surface, which is a possible
depth to drill an injection well. Thus, this aquifer has the potential to be
a domain for waste brine injection.
S. Pumjan et al.
Fig. 2. Lithostratigraphy and subdivisions of Khorat group in the study area (Pholkern et al., 2019).
2.2. Waste brine characteristics
The water used in the ore dressing plant comes from rainwater ponds
collected within the project area. Water is blended with the ore and
becomes saturated brine. This concentrated brine is recycled in the
flotation process with some loss from evaporation. Table 1 expresses the
composition of eliminated brine from the ore dressing plant. The total
salt concentration of brine is 415,800 mg/l, primarily composed of
magnesium chloride, potassium chloride, and sodium chloride. The
amount of brine output in the different years depends strongly on the
various raw salt composition of the delivered plain salt from under­
ground. A large amount of concentrate brine must be eliminated from
the system because it contains too high a concentration of Mg dissolved
to be accepted in the brine stream circuit. The high Mg brine concen­
tration discharged annually from the processing plant is shown in
Table 2. The total amount of brine waste produces 2,803,961 m3 after 21
operating years. The highest volume brine eliminated was in Year 9, at
481,094 m3.
In the case whereby the high concentrated brine discharge to shadow
water bodies without treatment, the contamination can affect river
creatures’ lives and human health, resulting in serious soil salinization
and reducing crop production (Wang et al., 2021). Currently, there are
4
Journal of Environmental Management 311 (2022) 114821
several traditional methods for brine disposal such as surface water
discharge, land application, evaporation ponds, conventional crystal­
lizers and deep well injection. However, the shallow disposal methods
remain costly, and high-risk contaminants as a result of precipitation can
cause seepage to disposal and leak to freshwater resources. The deep
well method is most suitable for high concentration waste brine when
isolating the contaminant from freshwater bodies in deep formation
(Katal et al., 2020). However, the injection method requires the injec­
tion domain’s geological conditions and suitable injection rate without
adverse impact to aquifers. Therefore, the study utilized brine’s annual
volume and composition to evaluate feasible injection methods in this
project site.
2.3. Injection numerical modeling
2.3.1. Conceptual groundwater modeling
During operation, the risk of injection wells is critically associated
with the operational parameters such as injection rates, breakdown
pressures of geology formation, and the possible contamination of the
waste after injecting into the host domain (Charbeneau, 1986; Saripalli
et al., 2000). Hence, the study developed a groundwater model to pre­
dict the injection well performance in the promising project site. The
S. Pumjan et al. Journal of Environmental Management 311 (2022) 114821

Fig. 3. Conceptual brine injection groundwater modeling.

model (MT3DMS). A conceptual model of the study area was developed

Table 1
based on the hydrogeologic information and field investigation of a
Average composition of the refinery brine from ore dressing plant in Udon South
previous study by the Royal Irrigation Department (RID) (2015) and
Potash Deposit (Thao, 2016).
Pholkern et al. (2019). First, the spatial geology of the study area was
Composition Concentration Percentage
constructed from the borehole, cross-section, hydrogeology map. The
g/L mg/L % model area is limited by the project site and the preservation zone, 15
MgCl2 319.5 319,500 25 km from the communities zone. The groundwater system encloses
KCl 61.3 61,300 4.8 approximately 180 km2 and 600 m depth. Second, the hydraulic pa­
NaCl 31.6 31,600 2.47 rameters were estimated via reverse modeling. The suitable parameters
CaSO4 3.4 3400 0.27
are determined when the computed head fits the investigated head in
H2O 862.1 – 67.46
Total TDS 415.8 g/L 415,800 100 the hydrogeology map. Third, the DWI was installed in the project site to
examine the absorption performance of the KK domain.

2.3.2. Boundary condition and assign parameters

Table 2
Annual brine eliminated from ore dressing process (Thao, 2016).
The regional model consists of 3 layers: Phu Thok aquifer, Mahasa­
khan Salt rock, and Khok Kruat aquifer. The thickness of the first layers
Year Brine amount from production Year Brine amount from production
was set 70–180 m; the second layers thickness was assigned 150–440 m;
m3/year m3/day m3/year m3/day and the third layers was 430–700 m. The region model was built with a
1 5207 14.3 12 76,026 208.3 grid size of 100 m × 100 m. In comparison, the project site grid was
2 12,845 35.2 13 67,542 185
refined on a smaller scale of 20 m × 20 m to explore the movement of
3 24,549 67.3 14 63,271 173.3 injected brine waste. For groundwater flow, the piezometric head of the
4 74,391 203.8 15 171,434 469.7 PT aquifer and KK aquifer are stable in the hydrology cycle because both
5 89,269 244.6 16 164,838 451.6 aquifers are confined and have rare pumping activities near the project
6 105,345 288.6 17 302,026 827.5
site. Thus, the boundary condition is set as the constant head or Dirichlet
7 158,557 434.4 18 207,424 568.3
8 308,663 845.7 19 86,293 236.4 condition. The constant head was obtained the hydraulic contour from
9 481,094 1318.1 20 79,102 216.7 the hydrogeology map (Pholkern et al., 2019; Royal Irrigation Depart­
10 153,467 420.5 21 60,260 165.1 ment (RID), 2015). Meanwhile, the salt rock with a low permeability
11 112,358 307.8 Total 2,803,961 formed a no-flow condition (Fig. 4). The initial hydrogeology properties
included elevation, thickness, hydraulic conductivity, specific storage,
brine waste injection model was constructed by coupling the specific yield, and porosity obtained from Pholkern et al. (2019); Royal
three-dimensional finite-difference groundwater movement model Irrigation Department (RID) (2015) (Table 3). The hydraulic parameters
(MODFLOW) and a modular three-dimensional multispecies transport were then calibrated until the computed head meets the observed head.

5
S. Pumjan et al. Journal of Environmental Management 311 (2022) 114821

2.3.3. Calibration & validation

The initial hydraulic parameters of three layers were adapted from
the study groundwater sustainable yield in Huai Luang Basin, Northern
Thailand (Pholkern et al., 2019). The study utilized an inverse calibra­
tion process to adjust the hydraulic parameters in the region. Because
the groundwater system include PT aquifer and KK aquifer, the cali­
bration was fitted the compted head with the static head of both aqui­
fers. To evaluate the performance of the MODFLOW-based numerical
model, the study utilized mean squared error (RMSE), standard error
(Std error) and coefficient of determination (R2) are given by the
following equations:
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
∑N 2
i=1 (hsi − hoi )
RMSE = (1)
N

( ∑N )2
(hoi − ho )(hsi − hs )
R2 = ∑N i=1 2 ∑N 2
(2)
i=1 (hoi − h0 ) i=1 (hsi − hs )

Fig. 4. Grid design and boundary condition.

where hoi is the observed groundwater level of the ith data [L], hsi the
simulated groundwater level of the ith data, ho the mean of observed
groundwater levels [L], hs the mean of simulated groundwater levels
Table 3 [L], ho the mean of observed groundwater levels and N is the number of
Hydrogeology properties of 3 layers (RID (2015); Pholkern et al. (2019)). observations. Thus, the best fit between observed and simulated
Parameters Mahasakhan Salt rock Khok Kruat groundwater levels would be RMSE = 0, R2 = 1.
aquifer layer aquifer Moreover, the observed groundwater level hydrographs and
Elevation (m) 171–243 50–170 − 300–− 500 MODFLOW-based numerical model simulated groundwater level
Thickness (m) 70–180 150–440 430–700 hydrographs were plotted to check model performance visually. Scatter
Recharge rate (m/d) 0.0002 n/a n/a plots (together with 1:1 line, 95% interval lines and 95% confidence
Hydraulic conductivity (m/d) 4.36 10− 10 0.08
4 6 interval lines) of observed versus simulated groundwater levels were
Specific storage (1/m) 1.0 × 10− 1.0 × 10− 1.0 × 10− 5
Porosity 0.25 0.02 0.25 also prepared for calibration and validation periods for examining the
Specific yield 0.17 0.01 0.2 efficiency of the models in simulating groundwater levels. The 95%
TDS concentration (mg/l) 300 3000 300 interval is where 95% of the total number of data points is expected to
Longitudinal dispersity (m) 2 2 2
occur. The 95% confidence interval shows the range of calculated values
Ratio horizontal transverse 0.15 0.15 0.15
dispersity to Longitudinal
for each observed value with 95% confidence that the simulation results
dispersity will be acceptable for a given observed value. For an ideal calibration,
Ratio vertical transverse 0.01 0.01 0.01 the 1:1 line should lie within the 95% confidence interval lines (WHI,
dispersity to Longitudinal 2005).
dispersity
9
Effective molecular diffusion 0.00022 2.2 × 10− 0.00022
coefficient (m2/day) 2.3.4. Scenario
The safe criteria of DWI for our investigation are the pressure head
and radius of dissolve contamination. We hypothesized that if the
For solute transportation, the model includes advection and diffusion pressure head after injection is still lower than the maximum fracture
of contaminant. For the advection package, the 3rd order TVD scheme pressures of KK formation, the pollutant will not break salt rock for­
was selected. This method is considered a good compromise between the mation and the leak to the upper fresh aquifer. Hence, the acceptance
standard finite difference and particle tracking approaches. The diffu­ volume of deep well injection is quantified until the pressure at the
sion coefficient is most simply understood as the magnitude of the molar injected site raises to the maximum fracture pressures of KK formation.
flux through a surface per unit concentration gradient out-of-plane. It is The maximum wellhead injection pressures will be set according to the
analogous to the property of thermal diffusivity in heat transfer. Based imperial analysis fracture pressure of the Alberta Energy Regulator
on the inversion of the experiment through simulation, the molecular (Alberta Energy Regulator, 1994). Because of the depth of 430–700 m.
diffusion coefficients of salt used in this study were obtained 2.03 × MSL, the maximum breakdown injection pressure of Kho Kruat aquifer is
10− 9 m2/s - 4.17 × 10− 9 m2/s in water, which have shown similar results 3000 kPa. To avoid the contaminant leakage into the community’s zone,
with other studies in deep well solution (Holz et al., 2000; Li et al., 2019; the effective contamination radius remained within the project site,
Robinson et al., 2006). Longitudinal dispersion is caused by differences approximately 5 km. The simulation duration was processed in 20 years
in groundwater velocity through pore spaces that vary in width or tor­ of operating and 30 after injection to investigate the movement of the
tuosity (Vance, 1997). The longitudinal dispersity is most sensitive to salinity isoline.
the Phu Thok aquifer and less sensitive under Maha Sarakham salt rock.
The dispersity of Upper Phu Thok, Mahasarakham, and Khok Kruat was 3. Results
estimated at 150 m, 50 m, and 70 m, respectively. The horizontal
transverse dispersity is set as a typical 20%–10% of the longitudinal 3.1. Calibration steady-state hydrogeology
dispersity. The vertical transverse dispersity is 2%–1% (Pholkern et al.,
2019). The concentration of the injection well liquid is considered to be According to the results, the hydraulic conductivity of layer one and
415,800 mg/l. The TDS concentration of PT, Salt Rock, and KK are 300, land recharge are most sensitive to groundwater flow (Table 4). The
3,000, and 300 mg/l. The model was then simulated for operating 20 groundwater model shows the good performance between the computed
years, and, after injected, 30 years, for studying the behaviors produced head and the observation from the hydrogeology map. The R2 is 0.87,
wastewater in and around the injection well. and the RMSE is 2.3 m. The simulated groundwater is lower than the

6
S. Pumjan et al. Journal of Environmental Management 311 (2022) 114821

Table 4 well during 20 years of operating and after 30 years later.

Calibrated hydraulic parameters used in simulations of groundwater flow. Second, the study explores the allowable injection rate by increasing
Parameters Source Sensitivity Calibrated the flow rate until the well pressure meets the permissible pressure.
Then, the study also finds that the injected rate has a strong correlation
K layer 1 (m/day) Calibrated 0.936 28.8
K layer 2 (m/day) 0.001 8.64 × 10− 10 with wellhead pressure. As a result, the maximum allowable flow rate is
K layer 3 (m/day) 0.001 4.89 210,000 m3/day (Fig. 6b). Hence, the formation of the project site has a
Land recharge (m/day) 0.936 0.0036 high capacity to conduct the deep well disposal. With the high absorp­
Specific storage layer 1 (1/ Cotanont Non- 0.00001 tion capacity, the DWI into the Khok Khuat aquifer stage is a basic safe
m) (2014) sensitivity
Specific storage layer 2 (1/ 0.00001
environment solution to huge potash mining waste in the region.
m)
Specific storage layer 3 (1/ 0.005
m)
3.3. Movement of salinity iso-lines
Specific yield layer 1 0.2
Specific yield layer 2 0.05 Despite the contaminant being captured into deep formation Khok
Specific yield layer 3 0.25 Khuat, the community is concerned if the waste brine can reach the
communities zone after injection. Hence, the study simulates the solute
95% prediction interval (Fig. 5). The piezometric head of the Khok Kruat transport of waste brine for 20 years of injection and after 30 years of
aquifer increase from the south (160 m. MSL) to the northeast (200 m. completing injection. The results show the pollutant located close to the
MSL). Moreover, the computed flow lines matched the survey flow lines injection well during 20 years of operation. After 50 years of simula­
of the hydrogeology map from the Groundwater Resources Department, tions, the plume moves only 150 m far from the deep well (Fig. 7).
Khon Kean University (Fig. 5). Hence, the groundwater model is satis­ Moreover, the brine waste remains in the mining lease land. Because the
fied to be the base modeling to access the injected waste movement in target domain consists of low hydraulic conductivity and high porosity,
the deep aquifer. the target domain seems to absorb injected waste brine and make
disposal salinity iso-lines slowly. Therefore, DWI can isolate the waste
brine in the KK domain and ensure the freshwater resources in the region
3.2. Allowable injection rate remain uncontaminated.
Fig. 8 demonstrates the contaminant and area of waste brine injected
First, the study examines the pressure of the Khok Khuat aquifer deep well. The TDS of the KK aquifer reaches 1000 mg/l after 60 days of
under the injection rate of daily waste brine disposal in the project. The operating. After ten years, the TDS rose to the contaminant of waste
results show that the injected rate of the project site is too low to create brine and remained within those concentration levels until the last
fracture pressure into the Khok Khuat formation (Fig. 6a). The low operating years. After the injection period, the TDS at the injection well
pressure also indicates no leakage between the Khok Kruat aquifer and decreases at a rate of 6,000 mg/l/year. The total area of plum is twenty
the upper layer. As a result, it can confirm that the contaminant can exist thousand square meters, which is small area in the mining lease. Results
only in deep formation Khok Khuat. Furthermore, it means that the from the simulation show that the injected waste brine does not threaten
community’s fresh water in the Phuk Tok aquifer remained safe from the the freshwater resources in the region. Hence the DWI can secure the
effects of produced wastewater disposal from the deep-seated injection water brine disposal of potash mining in deep aquifers without any

Fig. 5. Calibrated piezometric head in steady-state.

7
S. Pumjan et al.
Fig. 6. a) The injection rate and pressure head of the third formation; b) The relationship between injection with wellhead pressure.
negative impacts on freshwater resources in the region.
4. Discussions
4.1. Summary of results
The groundwater contaminant transport modeling technique has
proved effective in simulating produced wastewater plumes from the
deep-seated injection well. Our results elaborate on finding from the
base regional groundwater modeling. In addition, the study also pro­
vides a base for evaluating risks of contaminants on a long-term basis
with similar conditions in the future. Without fracturing formation
pressure, the daily waste brine production from the processing plant can
be injected safely into the Kho Khuat aquifer. Because of high porosity
and low specific yield, the Khok Khuat aquifer shows a high potential
injection rate of 200,000 m3/day, which is 200 times greater than cur­
rent water brine production. In addition, the risk of expansion of plume
regionally does not exist as wastewater disposal is seized in the deeper
horizon well below the aquifers. Moreover, the plum area is limited in
the mining site. The results reported herewith are among the first for
inland deep well injection in Asia. Most of the existing studies focus on
offshore petrol mining; however, we attempt to compare the result with
the similar geology formation of the largest potash mining in Sas­
katchewan, Canada. Regarding the potash mine in Saskatchewan, a
large amount of waste brine was injected into the deep formation
beneath the salt rock. With permeability clays and shales above, the
deep formation was utilized as a domain to inject potash disposal with
over 3800m3/day for over a decade (Ferguson, 2015; Ferguson and
Grasby, 2014). Currently, the volume of injected brine reaches over 50
million m3, and the plume area is approximately 1 km2. Although this
study has not examined the geochemical effect during operation, the
potential injected brine volume is closed with a similar formation in
Western Canada. Hence, government agencies with regulatory oversight
over the DWI should promote the research activities associated with the
role of site characterization, well construction and injection
8
Journal of Environmental Management 311 (2022) 114821
technologies, and monitoring tools in the long term. Moreover, the
government must provide a clear path for DWI development projects
that will enhance the implementation of the project, and policies that
enable strict compliance and regulatory control. In Thailand, there is an
urgent need for a pilot project that demonstrates the applicability of the
DWI technique in solving the waste brine from the potash industry.
Although the DWI appears as a low-risk waste management solution
based on potash disposal experience in Canada, the monitoring networks
should be investing in providing insight into the risks associated with the
injection (Jackson et al., 2013). Furthermore, the geochemical should be
examined to optimal the well operating performance (Ferguson, 2015).
4.2. Policy implications
Current trends in world population growth and increased demand for
agricultural products continue to fuel the demand for potash fertilizer
globally. However, much of the world’s potash production remains
concentrated only in a handful of countries in Europe and Canada.
Moreover, ever-increasing potash prices in the last few decades have
resulted in the rise of oligopolies in the potash mining trade, causing
significant problems within the potash market itself (Katovich et al.,
2018). Hence, developing new potash producers in Asia, where most of
the world’s potash demand for agricultural purposes comes from, is
essential to avoid potential future challenges such as global food scar­
city. Although Thailand is fortunate to possess a unique geological
regime rich in natural resources like high-grade, sylvinite-type potash,
the development of its domestic potash mining industry has been stalled
mainly due to legal restrictions and a massive strain on the environment.
The most challenging environmental aspect related to the potash in­
dustry is waste management, as large amounts of brine are produced
during the production phase. To ensure the sustainability of the potash
industry, we recommend multi-stakeholders engagement processes right
from the inception of any given mining project that weighs both the cost
and benefit of the development together with environmental concerns.
Additionally, clear pathways must be charted with well-informed
S. Pumjan et al.
Fig. 7. Penetrate of brine waste injection in 50 years.
remedial mitigations. By promising long-term safe and secure storage
with exceptional storage, the adaptation of DWI technology provides
assurance to all stakeholders’ concerns and can pave the way for a future
potash mining industry that is clean and green. Furthermore, DWI can
potentially improve the image of the potash industry in the long term,
and create new markets and networks for sustainable economic growth.
We suggest that future DWI design must solve two main goals: op­
timum brine waste injection rate and long-term secure waste contain­
ment within the desired formation. The volume brine waste injection
depends on the properties of the target underground domain (formation
pressure, fracture pressure, permeability, porosity, etc.). DWI requires
minimal vertical migration outside the disposal zone. This is in line with
the practices with respect to injected disposal in the Western Canada
Sedimentary Basin (Ferguson, 2015). Hence, the selected formation
must be intercepted by low permeable cap rock. The operating well
performance of injection must be evaluated via hydraulic numerical
model as illustrated in the study; the DWI is considered the best candi­
date for discharging brine into a deep secured aquifer formation. Be­
sides, an abnormally high pore pressure can occur during the waste
injection (Veil and Dusseault, 2003). Therefore, it is essential to monitor
and adjust the well pressure at each injection interval. Besides, the DWI
schedule practice aims to safeguard the contaminant plume in the long
term securely; tracking tools must be employed after starting injection,
such as seismic investigation tools. Monitoring contaminants at the in­
jection site should share among stakeholders and general public to
enhance environmental knowledge and understanding of the DWI
9
Journal of Environmental Management 311 (2022) 114821
solution in the region.
4.3. Methodological implications
Although DWI is proven to be an environmentally acceptable
disposal option for waste from potash exploration and production ac­
tivities, the possibility of severe impacts on the environment still exists.
This possibility stems from inappropriate process designs, lack of data,
inadequate engineering practices, poor project implementation, and
lack of systematic surveillance (Gaurina-Međimurec et al., 2020).
Moreover, the unwanted movement of waste may resurface if the per­
manent retention pressure is not maintained appropriately during
operation. This study, therefore, proposes the following three consid­
erations for DWI design. First, the site selection for the waste brine
storage requires a presence of competent formation and sealing
boundaries as effective trapping in the target formation. Second, the
numerical and analytical/semi-analytical methods should adapt to
simulate the reactivation process for a specific fault to avoid unexpected
pressure. Then, the pore pressure monitoring at the fracture/fault
intersection should be monitored during the injection process to mini­
mize the risk of fault reactivation. Third, the injection zone must be
isolated from potable water aquifers and away from any location of
freshwater. The boreholes must be equipped with surface casing
cemented to protect waste brine seepage to fresh aquifer before it goes to
the deep formation (Gaurina-Medimurec et al., 2007). The different
radioactive tracers in waste slurry and an appropriate logging program
S. Pumjan et al.
Fig. 8. The concentration TDS at center plume and area of plume.
can be utilized to determine the disposal domain, especially in deciding
injection points and their changes during the project’s lifetime (Louviere
and Reddoch, 1993). The integrity of injecting wells must be maintained
throughout the injecting period covering the injecting and monitoring
schedule lasting up to 50 years. The maintenance of injection wells to
prevent clogging problems in the wellbore and its surrounding forma­
tion. The injection pressure must not exceed the formation pressure to
prevent the well outbreak and formation failure.
5. Conclusions
The study has proved effective DWI in waste brine disposal via
groundwater contaminant transport modeling technique. The hydroge­
ology parameters were obtained from regional hydrgeology map.
Without fracturing formation pressure, the daily waste brine production
of the mining factory can be injected safely into the Khok Kruat aquifer
in 20 years of operation. Moreover, with high porosity and low specific
yield, the Khok Kruat shows a high potential injection rate of 200,000
m3/day, higher than 200 times than current water brine production. In
addition, the risk of expansion of plume regionally does not exist as the
wastewater disposal is seized in the deeper horizon well below the
aquifers, and the quantity is quite limited. According to the base
groundwater modeling, the study provides a base for evaluating risks of
contaminants on a long-term basis in similar conditions in the future.
With high potential storage absorption of waste brine, government
agencies must promote regulatory frameworks to manage DWI projects
and encourage research activities associated with site characterization,
well construction and injection technologies, and monitoring tools to
boost the green potash mining industry in the long term. Moreover, the
well plugging and injectivity decline should be investigated to achieve
and sustain satisfactory well performance.
10
Journal of Environmental Management 311 (2022) 114821
Credit author statement
Sunthorn Pumjan: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data collection,
Investigation. Tran Thanh Long: Data curation, Modeling, Validation,
Writing- Original draft preparation. Ho Huu Loc: Conceptualization
Visualization, Writing- Reviewing and Editing. Edward Park: Supervi­
sion, Conceptualization Visualization, Writing- Reviewing and Editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledge
This research work is funded by TSRI Fund (CU_FRB640001_21_4).
We acknowledge the support. We would like to acknowledge the support
time and facilities from of the Mining Department, Faculty of Engi­
neering, Chulalongkorn University and Ho Chi Minh City University of
Technology (HCMUT), VNU-HCM. Finally, I would like to thank Asia
Pacific Potash Corporation Limited, APPC company, for sharing the site-
specific data.
References
Abou-Sayed, A.S., Guo, Q., Meng, F., Zaki, K., 2003. Ultimate capacity of a disposal well
in drilling waste injection operations. In: Paper Presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling
Conference.
Ahmed, M., Hoey, D., Shayya, W., Goosen, M.F., 2004. Brine Disposal from Inland
Desalination Plants: Current Status, Problems, and Opportunities, vol. 2.
Environmental Sciences Environmental Computing.
S. Pumjan et al.
Al Rawashdeh, R., 2020. World peak potash: an analytical study. Resour. Pol. 69,
101834. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2020.101834.
Alberta Energy Regulator, M., 1994. Directive 051: Injection and Disposal Wells–Well
Classifications, Completions, Logging, and Testing Requirements. in.
ASIA PACIFIC POTASH CORPORATION LIMITED, 2015. OVERVIEW OF UDON THANI
POTASH PROJECT. Retrieved from. http://www.appc.co.th/en/company_overview.
html.
Bian, Z., Miao, X., Lei, S., Chen, S.-e., Wang, W., Struthers, S., 2012. The challenges of
reusing mining and mineral-processing wastes. Science 337 (6095), 702–703.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1224757.
Bruno, M.S., Couture, J., Young, J.T., 2011. Concentrate and brine management through
deep well injections. In: Paper Presented at the Water Reuse Symposium (Phoenix,
Arizona, USA).
Charbeneau, R., 1986. Focus on research needs, 1986. In: Paper Presented at the
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Subsurface Injection of Liquid
Wastes. National Water Well Association, Dublin OH, pp. 733–739, 2 tab.
Cleary, E.J., Warner, D.L., 1970. Some Considerations in Underground Wastewater
Disposal. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 62 (8), 489–498.
Cleland, J., 2013. World population growth; past, present and future. Environ. Resour.
Econ. 55 (4), 543–554.
Cocker, M.D., Orris, G.J., Wynn, J.J., 2016. US Geological Survey assessment of global
potash production and resources—A significant advancement for global
development and a sustainable future. Geosci. Publ. Good Glob. Dev.: Toward
Sustain. Futur.: Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. 520, 89–98.
Cotanont, T., 2014. The Application of Environmental Isotopes and Fractured Analysis
for Sustainable Groundwater Development: A Case Study of Fractured Sandstone and
Siltstone Aquifers, Udon Thani Province. Department of Geotechnology, Khon Kaen
University, Thailand.
Crosby, K.S., 2007. Geology of the Udon Thani potash (sylvinite) deposits with an
overview for development of a sustainable potassium resource for Thailand. In:
Paper Presented at the Proceedings of the International Conference on Geology of
Thailand: towards Sustainable Development and Sufficiency Economy.
FAO-Food, Nations, A.O.o. t.U., 2017. World fertilizer trends and outlook to 2020. In:
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Rome, Italy.
Ferguson, G., 2015. Deep injection of waste water in the Western Canada Sedimentary
Basin. Groundwater 53 (2), 187–194. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwat.12198.
Ferguson, G., Grasby, S., 2014. The Geothermal Potential of the Basal Clastics of
Saskatchewan. Canada.
Gaurina-Medimurec, N., Durn, G., Fröschl, H.J.G., Sites, E.A.o.W.D., 2007. Alternative
Ways of Treating Hazardous Waste.
Gaurina-Međimurec, N., Pašić, B., Mijić, P., Medved, I., 2020. Deep Underground
Injection of Waste from Drilling Activities—An Overview. Minerals 10 (4), 303.
Guo, Q., Dutel, L., Wheatley, G., McLennan, J., Black, A., 2000. Assurance increased for
drill cuttings Re-injection in the Panuke field Canada: case study of improved design.
In: SPE - International Association of Drilling Contractors Drilling Conference
Proceedings. https://doi.org/10.2118/59118-MS.
Guo, Q., Abou-Sayed, A.S., Engel, H.R., 2003. Feeling the pulse of drill cuttings injection
wells-a case study of simulation, monitoring and verification in Alaska. In: Paper
Presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition.
Holz, M., Heil, S.R., Sacco, A., 2000. Temperature-dependent self-diffusion coefficients of
water and six selected molecular liquids for calibration in accurate 1H NMR PFG
measurements. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2 (20), 4740–4742.
Waterloo Hydrogeologic, 2005. Visual Modflow Professional Edition User’s Manual
Retrieved from Ontario, Canada.
Jackson, R.E., Gorody, A., Mayer, B., Roy, J., Ryan, M., Van Stempvoort, D.J.G., 2013.
Groundwater protection and unconventional gas extraction: The critical need for
field-based hydrogeological research. Groundwater 51 (4), 488–510.
Karas, D., Demić, I., Kultysheva, K., Antropov, A., Blagojević, M., Neele, F., et al., 2016.
First field example of remediation of unwanted migration from a natural CO2
reservoir: the Bečej field, Serbia. Energy Procedia 86, 69–78.
Katal, R., Shen, T.Y., Jafari, I., Masudy-Panah, S., Farahani, M.H., Opportunities, 2020.
An Overview on the Treatment and Management of the Desalination Brine Solution.
D. A. J. D.-C.,.
Katovich, V., Thabtah, F., Day, C., 2018. Potash fertilizer to agricultural based
economies, 1029-2019-928 Int. J. Agric. Manag. 6, 123–130.
Li, W., Wang, J., Chen, Z., Yang, Y., Liu, R., Zhuo, Y., Yang, D., 2019. Numerical
simulation study on salt release across the sediment–water interface at low-
permeability. Area 11 (12), 2503.
Loc, H.H., Low Lixian, M., Park, E., Dung, T.D., Shrestha, S., Yoon, Y.-J., 2021. How the
saline water intrusion has reshaped the agricultural landscape of the Vietnamese
Mekong Delta, a review. Sci. Total Environ. 794, 148651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
scitotenv.2021.148651.
López-Hernández, D., Vallejo, O., Liendo, F., Urich, J., Hernández, C., 2021. Disposition
of wastewater from oil wells in Venezuelan Savannahs and their effects on
11
Journal of Environmental Management 311 (2022) 114821
percolation waters. J. Chem. Environ. Biol. Eng. 62–68. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.
jcebe.20210502.14.
Louviere, R., Reddoch, J., 1993. Onsite disposal of rig-generated waste via slurrification
and annular injection. In: Paper Presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference.
Manning, D.A., 2010. Mineral sources of potassium for plant nutrition. A review. Agron.
Sustain. Dev. 30 (2), 281–294.
Mike Mickley, P., 2004. Review of concentrate management options. In: The Future of
Desalination (Texas).
Nakbanpote, W., Prasad, M.N., Mongkhonsin, B., Panitlertumpai, N., Munjit, R.,
Rattanapolsan, L., 2018. Strategies for rehabilitation of mine waste/Leachate in
Thailand. In: Bio-Geotechnologies for Mine Site Rehabilitation. Elsevier,
pp. 617–643.
Panagopoulos, A., Haralambous, K.-J., Loizidou, M., 2019. Desalination brine disposal
methods and treatment technologies - a review. Sci. Total Environ. 693, 133545.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.351.
Pholkern, K., Saraphirom, P., Cloutier, V., Srisuk, K., 2019. Use of alternative
hydrogeological conceptual models to assess the potential impact of climate change
on groundwater sustainable yield in central Huai Luang Basin, Northeast Thailand.
Water 11 (2), 241.
Qian, Z., Qu, Y., Liu, Q., 1994. In: Potash Deposits. Geological Publishing House, Beijing.
Rawashdeh, R.A., Xavier-Oliveira, E., Maxwell, P., 2016. The potash market and its
future prospects. Resour. Pol. 47, 154–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
resourpol.2016.01.011.
Reid, K.W., Getzlaf, M.N., 2004. Decommissioning Planning for Saskatchewan’s Potash
Mines.
Rish, W.R., 2005. A probabilistic risk assessment of class I hazardous waste injection
wells. In: Tsang, C.-F., Apps, J.A. (Eds.), Developments in Water Science, vol. 52.
Elsevier, pp. 93–135.
Roberts, A., 2014. Fertiliser industry-The industry today. In: Te Ara-The Encyclopedia of
New Zealand.
Robinson, C., Gibbes, B., Li, L., 2006. Driving mechanisms for groundwater flow and salt
transport in a subterranean estuary. Geophys. Res. Lett. 33 (3).
Römheld, V., Kirkby, E.A., 2010. Research on potassium in agriculture: needs and
prospects. Plant Soil 335 (1), 155–180.
Royal Irrigation Department (RID), 2015. Rainfall, Steam Flow and Irrigation Data of
Udon Thani Province. Retrieved from Royal Irrigation Department, Udon Thani
Province, Thailand.
Rybalchenko, A.I., Pimenov, M.K., Kurochkin, V.M., Kamnev, E.N., Korotkevich, V.M.,
Zubkov, A.A., Khafizov, R.R., 2005. Deep injection disposal of liquid radioactive
waste in Russia, 1963–2002: results and consequences. In: Tsang, C.-F., Apps, J.A.
(Eds.), Developments in Water Science, vol. 52. Elsevier, pp. 13–19.
Santarelli, F.J., Sanfilippo, F., James, R.W., Nielsen, H.H., Fidan, M., Aamodt, G., 2014.
Injection in shale: review of 15 years experience on the Norwegian Continental Shelf
(NCS) and implications for the stimulation of unconventional reservoirs. In: Paper
Presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition.
Saripalli, K., Sharma, M.M., Bryant, S.L., 2000. Modeling injection well performance
during deep-well injection of liquid wastes. J. Hydrol. 227 (1–4), 41–55.
Tallin, J., Pufahl, D., Barbour, S., 1990. Waste management schemes of potash mines in
Saskatchewan. Can. J. Civ. Eng. 17 (4), 528–542.
Thao, N.A.N., 2016. THE ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES FOR TAILINGS DISPOSAL OF
THAILAND’S POTASH MINES. Chulalongkorn University, Chulalongkorn University.
UNEP, 2001. Environmental aspects of phosphate and potash mining. In: UN Environ.
Programme, Int. Fertil. Ind. Assoc., Paris.
(USGS), U. S. G. S, 2019. Potash. In: Mineral Commodity Summaries 2019 (Retrieved
from).
Vance, D., 1997. Transverse Dispersion Drives Natural Attenuation, vol. 7.
ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY-ATLANTA-, pp. 31–32.
Vega Riveros, G., Barrios, H., 2011. Steam injection experiences in heavy and extra-
heavy oil fields. In: Venezuela. Paper Presented at the SPE Heavy Oil Conference and
Exhibition.
Veil, J.A., Dusseault, M.B., 2003. Evaluation of Slurry Injection Technology for
Management of Drilling Wastes (Retrieved from).
Wang, X., Gao, Y., Jiang, X., Zhang, Q., Liu, W., 2021. Analysis on the characteristics of
water pollution caused by underground mining and research progress of treatment
technology. Adv. Civ. Eng. 2021, 9984147. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/
9984147.
Zheng, M.-p., Hou, X.-h., Zhang, Y.-s., Xing, E.-y., Li, H.-p., Yin, H.-w., Wei, Z.J.C.G.,
2018. Progress in the investigation of potash resources in western China. China Geol.
1 (3), 392–401.
Zörb, C., Senbayram, M., Peiter, E., 2014. Potassium in agriculture – status and
perspectives. J. Plant Physiol. 171 (9), 656–669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jplph.2013.08.008.