MODULE 5: DESIGN FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF LOADINGS

Prepared by: Engr. Jose R. Francisco, PME

Instructor, MITL-ME

Main Reference: Machine Elements Design, 4th Edition

By: Robert L. Mott

Definitions and Useful Information

o Static load – is the one that is applied slowly and never removed.
 Some loads that are applied slowly and removed and replaced very frequently can also be considered to be static.

o Fluctuating loads – are those that vary during the normal service of the product.
 They typically are applied for quite a long time so the part experiences many thousands or millions of cycles of stress
during its expected life.

Types of Loads
 Static load
 Repeated and reversal load
 Fluctuating load
 Shock or impact load
 Random load

Stress Ratios
 The primary factors to consider when specifying the type of loading to which a machine part is subjected are the manner of
variation of the load and the resulting variation of stress with time.

 Stress variations are characterized by four key values:

 Maximum stress, max
 Minimum stress, min
 Mean or average stress, m

max  min
m 
2

 Alternating stress, a (stress amplitude)

max  min
a 
2

 Stress Ratios

Minimum Stress min

Stress Ratio R  
Maximum Stress max

Alternating Stress a
Stress Ratio A  
Mean Stress m

Types of Stresses
 Static stress – is a stress when a body or part is subjected to a load that is applied slowly, without shock, and is held at
constant value.
 Static loading can also be assumed when a load is applied and is removed slowly and then reapplied, if the number of
load applications is small, that is, under a few thousand cycles of loading.

 In static loading, max  min and stress ratio R = 1.0.

 Repeated and Reversed Stress – is a stress when a given element of a load-carrying member is subjected to a certain
level of tensile stress followed by the same level of compressive stress; the stress cycle is repeated many thousands of
times.
 This type of load is also called as fatigue loading.

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  Moore Fatigue Test Device – is a device used to test the material ability to resist repeated loads, and is used to
measure the material endurance strength.

 Reversed stress is only a special case of fatigue loading since any stress that varies with time can lead to fatigue
failure of the part.

 In repeated and Reversed Stress: min   max , Stress ratio R = - 1.0, and the mean stress is zero.

 Fluctuating stress – is a stress when a load-carrying member is subjected to an alternating stress with non-zero mean.
 Any varying stress with nonzero mean is considered a fluctuating stress.
 Figures below represent a four diagrams of stress versus time:

a) Mean stress: tensile; all stresses: tensile; 0 < R < 1.0.

max
Stress, 

a

m

min
0
Time

b) Mean stress: tensile; max: tensile; min: compressive; - 1.0 < R < 0
Stress, 

max
a

m

0 Time
min

c) Mean stress: compressive; max: tensile; min: compressive; -  < R < - 1.0
Stress, 

max a
0
Time
m

min

2
 d) Mean stress: compressive; all stresses: compressive; 1.0 < R < 

Time
0 max a

m
Stress, 

min

 Repeated, One-direction Stress – is a special case of a fluctuating stress, in which a load is applied and removed
many times. Figure below represents a repeated, one-direction fluctuating stress, in which min = 0; m = a = max/2;

R  min  0 .
max
Stress, 

max
a

m

0 Time
min = 0

 Shock or Impact Loading – is a loading applied suddenly and rapidly which causes shock or impact.

 Random Loading – is a type of loading when varying loads are applied that are not regular in their amplitude
 Statistical analysis is used to characterize random loading for purposes of design and analysis.

Endurance Strength
 The endurance strength of the material is its ability to withstand fatigue loads.
 It is the stress level that a material can survive for a given number of cycles of loading.
 If the number of cycles is infinite, the stress level is called endurance limit.
 Approximation for the basic endurance strength for wrought iron:

Endurance Strength = 0.50(Ultimate tensile strength) = 0.50 (s u)

Estimated Actual Endurance Strength

 If the actual material characteristics or operating conditions for a machine part are different from those for which the basic
endurance strength was determined, the fatigue strength must be reduced from the reported value.

Procedure for Estimating Actual Endurance Strength

1. Specify the material for the part and determine its ultimate tensile strength, s u, considering its condition, as it will be used in
service.
2. Specify the manufacturing process used to produce the part with special attention to the condition of the surface in the
most highly stressed area.
3. Use figure 5-8 to estimate the modified endurance strength, sn.
4. Apply a material factor, Cm, from the following list:
Wrought steel: Cm = 1.00 Malleable cast iron: Cm = 0.80
Cast steel: Cm = 0.80 Gray cast iron: Cm = 0.70
Powdered steel: Cm = 0.76 Ductile cast iron: Cm = 0.66
5. Apply a type-of-stress factor: Cst = 1.0 for bending stress; Cst = 0.80 for axial tension.
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 6. Apply a reliability factor, CR, from table 5-1.
7. Apply a size factor, Cs, using figure 5-9 and table 5-2 as guides
8. Compute the estimated actual endurance strength, sn’, from
sn’ = snCmCstCRCs

Surface Finish
 Any deviation from a polished surface reduces endurance strength because the rougher surface provides sites where
locally increased stresses or irregularities in the material structure promote the initiation of microscopic cracks that can
progress to fatigue failures. Manufacturing processes, corrosion, and careless handling produce detrimental surface
roughening.

Material Factors
 Metal alloys having similar chemical composition can be wrought, cast, or made by powder metallurgy to produce the final
form. Wrought materials are usually rolled or drawn, and they typically have higher endurance strength than cast materials.
The grain structure of many cast materials or powder metals and the likelihood of internal flaws and inclusions tend to
reduce their endurance strength.

Type-of-Stress Factor
 Most endurance strength data are obtained from tests using a rotating cylindrical bar subjected to repeated and reversed
bending in which the outer part experiences the highest stress. Stress levels decrease linearly to zero at the center of the
bar. Because fatigue cracks usually initiate in regions of high tensile stress, a relatively small proportion of the material
experiences such stresses. Contrast this with the case of a bar subjected to direct axial tensile stress for which all of the
material experiences the maximum stress. There is a higher statistical probability that local flaws anywhere in the bar may
start fatigue cracks. The result is that the endurance strength of a material subjected to repeated and reversed axial stress
is approximately 80% of that from repeated and reversed bending. Therefore, we recommend that a factor C„ = 1.0 be
applied for bending stress and C„ = 0.80 for axial loading

Design Factor
 Design Factor – is a measure of the relative safety of a load-carrying component.
 In most cases, the strength of the material from which the component is to be made is divided by the design factor to
determine a design stress, σd, sometimes called the allowable stress. Then the actual stress to which the component is
subjected should be less than the design stress.
 For some kinds of loading, it is more convenient to set up a relationship from which the design factor, N, can be computed
from the actual applied stres.ses and the strength of the material.
 In other cases, particularly for the case of the buckling of columns the design factor is applied to the load on the column
rather than the strength of the material.

Strength of material
Design Factor 
Allowable stressor design stress

 The strength basis for design can be yield strength, ultimate strength, endurance strength, or some combination of these.
The goal of the design process is to achieve a suitable design factor, N. that ensures that the component is safe. That is,
the strength of the material must be greater than the applied stresses.
 The designer must determine what a reasonable value for the design factor should be in any given situation.
 Often the value of the design factor or the design stress is governed by codes established by standards-setting
organizations such as the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the American Gear Manufacturers
Association (AGMA), the U.S. Department of Defense, the Aluminum Association, or the American Institute of Steel
Construction (AISC).
 For structures, local or state building codes often prescribe design factors or design stresses.
 Some companies have adopted their own policies specifying design factors based on past experience with similar
conditions
 In the absence of codes or standards, the designer must use judgment to specify the desired design factor.
 Part of the design philosophy discussed issues such as the nature of the application, environment, nature of the loads on
the component to be designed, stress analysis, material properties, and the degree of confidence in data used in the
design processes.
 All of these considerations affect the decision about what value for the design factor is appropriate.

Recommended Factor of Safety

For Ductile Materials

1. N = 1.25 to 2.0, Design of structures under static loads for which there is a high level of confidence in all design data.
2. N = 2.0 to 2.5, Design of machine elements under dynamic loading with average confidence in all design data.
3. N = 2.5 to 4.0, Design of static structures or machine elements under dynamic loading with uncertainty about loads,
material properties, stress analysis, or the environment.
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 4. N = 4.0 or higher. Design of static structures or machine elements under dynamic loading with uncertainty about some
combination of loads, material properties, stress analysis, or the environment. The desire to provide extra safety to critical
components may also justify these values

For Brittle Materials

5. N = 3.0 to 4.0, Design of structures under static loads for which there is a high level of confidence in all design data.
6. N = 4.0 to 8.0, Design of static structures or machine elements under dynamic loading with uncertainty about loads,
material properties, stress analysis, or the environment.

Predictions of Failure
 Designers should understand the various ways that load-carrying components can fail in order to complete a design that
ensures that failure does not occur. Several different methods of predicting failure are available, and it is the designer's
responsibility to select the one most appropriate to the conditions of the project.
 The factors involved are the nature of the load (static, repeated and reversed, or fluctuating), the type of material involved
(ductile or brittle), and the amount of design effort and analysis that can be justified by the nature of the component or
product being designed.
 The following are the Methods for Failure Prediction:
 Maximum Normal Stress Method, used for uniaxial static stress on brittle materials
 Modified Mohr Method, used for biaxial static stress on brittle materials
 Yield Strength Method, used for uniaxial static stress on ductile materials
 Maximum Shear Stress Method, used for biaxial static stress on ductile materials [Moderately conservative]
 Distortion Energy Method, used for biaxial or triaxial stress on ductile materials [Good predictor]
 Goodman Method, used for fluctuating stress on ductile materials [Slightly conservative]
 Gerber Method, used for fluctuating stress on ductile materials [Good predictor]
 Soderberg Method, used for fluctuating stress on ductile materials [Moderately conservative]

Theories of Failure

1. Maximum Normal Stress Method for Uniaxial Static Stress on Brittle Materials

 The maximum normal stress theory states that a material will fracture when the maximum normal stress (either tension or
compression) exceeds the ultimate strength of the material as obtained from a standard tensile or compressive test.
 It is used for brittle materials under pure uniaxial static tension or compression.
 Any stress concentration factor at the region of interest should be applied to the computed stress because brittle materials
do not yield and therefore cannot redistribute the increased stress.

Equation:

S ut
For Tensile Stress k t   d 
N

S uc
For Compressive Stress k t   d 
N

2. Yield Strength Method for Uniaxial Static Normal Stresses on Ductile Materials

 This is a simple application of the principle of yielding in which a component is carrying a direct tensile or compressive load
in the manner similar to the conditions of the standard tensile or compressive test for the material.
 Failure is predicted when the actual applied stress exceeds the yield strength.
 Stress concentrations can normally be neglected for static stresses on ductile materials because the higher stresses near
the stress concentrations are highly localized.
 When the local stress on a small part of the component reaches the yield strength of the material, it does in fact yield. In
the process, the stress is redistributed to other areas and the component is still safe.

Equation:

S yt
For Tensile Stress   d 
N

S yc
For Compressive Stress   d 
N

For Most Wrought Ductile Metals S yt  S yc

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3. Maximum Shear Stress Method for Biaxial Static Stress on Ductile Materials

 The maximum shear stress method of failure prediction states that a ductile material begins to yield when the maximum
shear stress in a load-carrying component exceeds that in a tensile-test specimen when yielding begins.
 A Mohr's circle analysis for the uniaxial tension test shows that the maximum shear stress is one-half of the applied tensile
Sy
stress, S ys  .
2
 The maximum shear stress method of failure prediction has been shown to be somewhat conservative for ductile materials
subjected to a combination of normal and shear stresses.
 It is relatively easy to use and is often chosen by designers.
 For more precise analysis, the distortion energy method is preferred.

S ys Sy
Equation:  max   d  
N 2N

4. Distortion Energy Method for Static Biaxial or Triaxial Stress on Ductile Materials

 The distortion energy method has been shown to be the best predictor of failure for ductile materials under static loads or
completely reversed normal, shear, or combined stresses.
 It requires the definition of the new term, von Mises stress, indicated by the symbol, σ', that can be calculated for biaxial
stresses, given the maximum and minimum principal stresses, σ1 and σ2, from '  1 2   2 2  1  2 .
 Failure is predicted when σ’ > Sy.
 The biaxial stress approach requires that the applied stress in the third orthogonal direction, typically σz, is zero.
 Credit is given to R. von Mises for the development of Equation above in 1913.
 The method is sometimes called the von Mises-Hencky method because of additional contributions by H. Hencky in 1925.
 Another term used in this method is the octahedral shear stress.

Sy
Equation: '   d 
N

5. Goodman Method for Fatigue Under Fluctuating Stress on Ductile Materials

 The Goodman method of failure prediction has been shown to provide a good correlation with experimental data, falling
just slightly below the scatter of data points.

a m
Equation for Goodman Line:  1
Sn ' Su

Where, σa = alternating stress σm = mean stress

Sn’ = actual endurance strength of material Su = ultimate tensile strength

K t a m 1
Design Equation:  
Sn ' Su N

Where, Kt = stress concentration factor N = factor of safety

 Any stress concentration factor in the region of interest should be applied to the alternating component but not to the mean
stress component, because experimental evidence shows that the presence of a stress concentration does not affect the
contribution of the mean stress of fatigue failure.

6. Gerber Method for Fluctuating Stress on Ductile Materials

 Method used for Fluctuating stress on ductile materials

2
a  m 
Equation for Gerber Line:   1
S n '  S u 

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7. Soderberg Method for Fluctuating Stress on Ductile Materials

 This method is used for fluctuating stress on ductile materials

K t a m
Equation of Soderberg Line:  1
Sn ' Sy