TLI Group 1

The crude oil was obtained from an oil spill site in Delta state, Nigeria; the soil (0 – 0.4 m depth)
was collected from a virgin land, with no recorded history of oil spill. The poultry manure was
compost from poultry waste collected from poultry farms; while the NPK 15:15:15 fertilizer was
purchased from agro-allied shop. The soil was sun-dried and iltered with a 0.60 mm size metal
sieve.
The sieved virgin (uncontaminated) soil was contaminated with crude oil at the ratio of 9:1 (9
parts of oil to 1 part of oil), and left to stabilize for 10 days under ambient environmental
conditions. At the 10th day, the soil was thoroughly mixed to have a near homogenous mixture,
and illed into plastic containers at the rate of 10 kg per pot. Thereafter the contaminated soil was
remediated with the following therapies, as presented in Table 1. All the experimental pots were
kept in a shady environment for a period of 12 weeks, under normal environmental condition. 1
Litre of borehole water was uniformly added to all the containers once in a week.

The soil samples dielectric properties were analyzed by using the vector network analyzer (VNA),
at a frequency of 800 MHz, as explained by Yodrotet al. (2023). The digital electrical conductivity
meter (model DDS-11C, manufactured in China) was used to measure the electrical conductivity
of all the soil samples in accordance with ASTM D1125 guidelines.
The electrical resistance (R) of the soil samples was measure using the apparatus described by
Igboama and Ugwu (2016). During the laboratory analysis, the soil samples were dried to a
moisture content of 20% (wet basis), crushed and sifted with a 2 mm gauge sieve. The soil was
poured into the hollow pipe and rammed 20 times, by using a 2-inch ramming rod. Thereafter,
the pipe (with it’s soil content) was carefully inserted into the apparatus, and the current and
potential difference across the soil were read from the ammeter and voltmeter. The soil electrical
resistance of the soil sample was calculated, by using Equations 1.

With the knowledge of the soil column length (L) and soil cross-sectional area (A), the soil
electrical resistively was calculated with the aid of Equation 2.

The results obtained from the laboratory analysis were subjected to statistical analysis, using
tables and charts to further evaluate the indings made in this study.
TLI Group 2
In this paper an AFPM synchronous machine is selected to be optimally designed. This kind of actuator
is known to be very convenient for some specific applications such as direct drive in-wheel applications
[15] due to the high power and torque densities [16]. It is worth noting that direct drive machines
simplify the vehicle mechanical structure, thus the overall vehicle efficiency and weight are minimized.
The studied machine has a torus geometry containing an internal stator and two outer rotor disks, which
include the magnets. The rotor disks present a NN configuration, i.e. a north pole N facing another north
pole N, which is placed at the other side of the stator [17]. Fig. 1 shows the AFPM dealt with in this
paper.

The stator core of the AFPM is made of strip wound steel and includes concentrated back-to-back
connected windings, which are wounded inside the slots in the radial direction [17]. Back-to-back
windings allow enhancing the overall machine efficiency, since they offer reduced end windings length,
thus presenting lower copper losses [18]. In addition, both rotors contain permanent magnets with
trapezoidal geometry to minimize the torque ripple [18].

Non-overlapping windings provide minimum mutual inductance between phases, thus minimizing
interactions between the faulty phase and the others, so they are highly recommended in fault-tolerant
machines. In addition, the design should ensure low mutual coupling among phases to limit the effect
of the short circuit in one phase on other phases. The use of concentrated stator windings (i.e. windings
encircling a single stator tooth, thus eliminating end-winding overlap among phase windings) offer
several advantages compared to distributed windings, including a reduction of the copper volume of the
end windings, which is especially significant when the axial length of motor is small, thus minimizing
copper losses and improving the motor efficiency [7],[19] compared to stator windings with integer
number of slots per pole and per phase. They also allow reducing the total length of the machine and
manufacturing costs since concentrated windings are easier to realize. Finally, an important advantage
is that compared to distributed windings, concentrated windings tend to provide higher inductance when
the magnetic flux linkage is the same, which allows extending the flux-weakening region [19]. Since in
this particular design the fault-tolerance is a must, a concentrated non-overlapping fractional-slot
singlelayer winding has been selected, as shown in Fig. 2, since it provides enough magnetic and electric
insulation to avoid a major propagation of a short circuit in the event of a short circuit fault.
TLI Group 3
Several 1xxx and 6xxx wrought aluminum alloys are used for electricity transmission and
distribution lines: 1080A, 1350, 1370, 6101 and 6201 [1,18,19]. 1080A, 1350, and 1370 alloys, ø 1.25–
5.25 mm wires (also known as EC wires), are used in the overhead conductors All Aluminum Conductor
(AAC) and Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR). These are pure aluminum alloys of 99.5–
99.8 wt.% Al; their electrical conductivity is 61.5–61.9% IACS minimum and tensile strength is in the
range 155–200 MPa. 6101 and 6201 alloys, ø 1.5–5.0 mm wires, have the main alloying elements Mg
and Si in 0.35–0.9 wt.% and 0.3–0.9 wt.%, respectively, with an aluminum content of 98.3 wt.%. Their
tensile strength is 295 MPa minimum and their electrical conductivity is 53% IACS minimum. They make
up the overhead conductor All Aluminum Alloy Conductor (AAAC).
AAC has excellent corrosion resistance; therefore, they are the preferred choice for coastal
areas. AAC are only installed in areas where installation distance is short due to their low strength. They
have high electrical conductivity, higher than ACSR and AAAC. ACSR is made of a steel core, that is
surrounded by 1xxx aluminum conductors. The steel core contributes high strength while aluminum
contributes excellent conductivity for low cost and weight. It is considered under difficult environmental
conditions such as ice, wind, and high temperatures. ACSR has low corrosion resistance, lower than
AAC and AAAC. AAAC is a homogenous conductor that is made of the 6xxx aluminum alloy with a
strength to weight ratio higher than those of AAC and ACSR. AAAC has a tensile strength higher than
that of the AAC, but lower than that of the ACSR. Its electrical conductivity is higher than that of the
ACSR, but lower than that of the AAC. AAAC has a good corrosion resistance higher than that of the
ACSR and lower than that of the AAC. AAAC is considered when a combination of moderate strength,
lightweight, and good corrosion resistance is required.
The alloy 6201 was processed using a commercial continuous casting and rolling system
(Oman Aluminium Processing Industries Spc (OAPIL), Suhar, Oman) following an in-line-
homogenization production method that includes a series of in-line thermomechanical processes
involving hot and cold working, solution heat treatment, quenching and artificial aging. The alloy is
prepared in a holding furnace at the temperature range 650–690 C, in which nll alloying elements are
added (see Table1). The molten metal then leaves the furnace and enters the casting wheel and
emerges as a cast bar at a temperature of 480–540 C. After that, the bar passes through a bar/induction
heater at 510 C, for homogenization; homogenization removes micro-segregation and distributes
alloying elements uniformly in the matrix. The cast bar then reaches the rolling mill, passes through
multiple 225 mm roll stands, and it is alternately compressed from side to side and top to bottom. Its
length increases, its cross-section decreases, and emerges as an oval/round rod of a diameter of 9.50
mm. Because precipitation might occur at temperatures below 340 C, the aluminum rod is quenched in
the quench tube assembly to a temperature below 120 rolling and quenching are performed fast enough
to avoid precipitation [27]. The aluminum rod is delivered to the coiler by the rod conduit. After natural
aging of 7 to 15 days, the rod is cold drawn (in the longitudinal direction) from ø 9.50 mm to a ø 3.50
mm wire (86% cold working) on a drawing machine, which is partially submerged in oil. This drawing is
necessary because AAAC is made up of ø 1.5–5.0 mm wires, not rods.

In university laboratories, 100 and 300 mm length samples were cut through the transverse direction
using the Linear Precision Saw, IsoMet 5000, Buehler (Lake Bluff, IL,b USA). Samples were then
solution heat treated in a Carbolite Muffle furnace (Carbolite Gero, Hope, Derbyshire, UK) at 510 C for
1 h. Solution heat treatment allows dissolution of intermetallic particles and solute atoms in the matrix
and removes the effects of hot and cold workings [28]. Solution heat treatment was directly followed by
quenching in water with ice at 0 C such that solute atoms and vacancies are retained in a supersaturated
solid solution. The retained solute atoms and vacancies will assist a subsequent precipitation hardening.
The supersaturated solid solution microstructure was then artificially aged at temperatures between 150
and 200 C for times between 2 to 30 h in a Carbolite PF Oven (Carbolite Gero, Hope, Derbyshire, UK).
The sample that was neither solution heat treated, nor precipitation heat treated is labeled “as-received”,
while the sample that was only solution heat treated is labeled “as-solutionized”. The samples that were
solution heat treated and precipitation heat treated are labeled using the precipitation temperature and
precipitation time (150-2, 150-13, etc.). The temperature–time chart and details of the process are
shown in Figure1and listed in Table2, respectively.
TLI Group 4
2. Brushless Stator Mounted Machines
These are brushless machines that have their excitation sources located in the stator. Among different
types of flux modulation (FM) machines, BSMMs are of great interest in EV application due to their
definite advantages in having a robust structure, high power density, and high efficiency. In the case of
rotor-PM machines, they usually need to be protected from the centrifugal forces by employing retaining
sleeves while a higher risk of irreversible demagnetization results due to poor thermal dissipation of
PMs placed in the rotor. Also, in rotor wound field machines, field flux is mostly difficult without the use
of slip rings and brushes. In contrast, BSMMs have PMs or DC electromagnets on the stator which help
to alleviate the problems suffered by their rotor-mounted counterparts. As a result, BSMMs are suitable
for high-speed or high-torque designs. Based on the location of excitation sources in the stator, there
are three types of BSMMs: doubly salient BSMMs [53], in which the excitation sources originate from
the stator yoke; flux reversal BSMMs [54], in which the excitation sources originate from the stator tooth
tips; and flux switching BSMMs [55], in which excitation sources originate from the stator teeth sides. A
broad classification of the different BSMMs based on excitation modes is shown in Figure2. The
following subsections will discuss this classification in terms of operating principles, torque, and field
weakening capabilities.

2.1. Doubly Salient BSMMs

Doubly salient BSMMs can be excited using only PM (DSPMM), DC wound field (DSWFM), or a hybrid
combination of PMand DC wound field (DSHEM). In this sub-section, the basic principle of operation is
first highlighted based on the different excitation topologies, and thereafter a synthesis of the doubly
salient BSMMs—in terms of analysis of important EV performance metrics such as torque and flux
weakening capability—are undertaken.

2.1.1. Doubly Salient PM Machine (DSPMM)

The basic topology of a three-phase 6-stator-pole/4-rotor-tooth (6/4-pole) DSPMM machine is shown in
Figure3a [ 45]. It has six slots in the stator, four salient poles in the rotor, and two pieces of
circumferentially magnetized PMs inserted in the stator yoke.

Torque Ripple Minimization

Due to presence of salient poles in both the stator and rotor, DSPMMs suffer high- torque ripple [53,56].
The torque ripple greatly affects their performance in EV applications by producing motor acoustics and
vibrations. Three categories of torque ripples can be described in DSPMM machines [56]:

First, torque ripple due to double-salient geometry under ideal operating conditions. This torque ripple
is expected in any machine with such a topology and is called operating torque ripple.

Second, torque ripple due to operating conditions of the machine such as magnetic saturation, the
nature of stator current, and the fringing effect. This torque ripple is dependent on the operating
condition and is called practical torque ripple.

Third, torque ripple introduced due to imperfections in the factory production of the machine. Some of
the production imperfections that introduce this torque ripple are machine asymmetry and the
eccentricity of some rotating parts. This torque ripple is called manufacturing torque ripple.

To minimize torque ripples and improve the performance of DSPMMs, several studies have been
carried out, many of which focus on either the design method [57–59] or control method [60–62]. While
the proper sizing of PMs in DSPMM eliminates vibrations and ensures stability [57], a proper winding
configuration minimizes toque ripple [58]. In [59], the performance characteristics of DSPMMs with
different stator iron core segments were compared. It was shown that p core exhibits the best torque
capability and smallest torque ripple.

For the control method, a tremendous reduction in torque ripple factor, from 81% to 21%, were seen in
[60] by optimizing the conduction angle of DSPMM using a genetic algorithm. In [61], a new harmonic
current method was proposed to minimize the torque ripple of a DSPMM, while in [62], a remedial
brushless ac (BLAC) operation was proposed and implemented for fault tolerant DSPMM drives. It was
shown that BLAC operation can maintain an average torque and reduce torque ripple while retaining
self-starting capability under an open-circuit fault.
TLI Group 5
4. Electrical Contact Micromorphology Parameters
4.1. Calculation of Fractal Dimension D
The precise fractal dimension D of the contact points of the strap fingers can be further obtained via
combination with the grayscale image method. The acquisition of fractal dimension D is divided into the
following three steps:
(1) The three-dimensional structure of the contact area is scanned before and after the test with a laser
confocal microscope to obtain real shot, color, and grayscale images.
(2) The grayscale image of 256 _ 256 pixels is intercepted, MATLAB is used to identify the image, and
the corresponding three-dimensional stereogram is drawn.