LATI

NAMERI
CA

Lati
nAmer icai sal arger egiont hatcov ersal lt
het erri
toryint hewest ernHemi spheresout hof
theUnitedSt ates.Lat inAmer i
caconsi stsofMexi co,Cent ralAmer ica,SouthAmer i
ca,andt he
i
slandsofWestI ndi es.itisimpor tanttonot eheret hatWestI ndiesisachai noftropicalisl
ands
i
nt heAtlant i
cOceanbet weenNor thandSout hAmer i
ca.Theyl i
epr imaril
yintheCar ibbeanSea
andextendi nanar cstretching2, 400mi l
es[3,900km]f rom Cubat ot heislandofAr uba, offthe
coastofVenezuel a.TheWestl ndiesconsi stofhundr edsofi slandsandmanysandorcor al
reefscalled cay s.Si mpl yput ,Lat i
nAmer icai sar egion oft heAmer i
cast hatcompr ises
countr
ieswher eRomancel anguagesar espoken.Thesear epr i
mar ilySpanishandPor tuguese,
butalsoFr ench.Lat i
nAmer icai sdi vi
dedi nto33i ndependentcount ri
esofwhi ch20speaks
Romancel anguages.Apar tfrom the33i ndependentcount ri
es, therear e13ot herpoliti
calunits
ordependenci es( seeat tachedmap)Br azili
sbyf art helargestcount ryinLati
nAmer icabot hin
areaandi npopul at i
on.Itoccupi esmor et han40per centoft her egion'slandareaandhasabout
athir
dofi tspeopl e.

Beforet hef i
rstEuropeansset tl
edinLat i
nAmer ica,theregionhadl ongbeeni nhabit
edby
Amer i
canI ndians.Duri
ngt hel at
e1400's,peoplefrom southernEur
ope,especiall
ySpainand
Portugal,begant osett
leinLatinAmerica.Thesepeoplebroughtthei
rownl anguages,rel
i
gious
beli
efs,and cust oms wi t
ht hem.Today ,the major
it
yofLat i
n Amer i
cans speak Spanish,
Portuguese,orFr ench(Romancel anguages),eachofwhichdev el
opedf r
om Lati
n.Infact,i
tis
forthi
sr easonthattheregioniscall
edLatinAmer i
ca.Engl
ishorDutchistheoffi
ciall
anguagein
severalareasoft heregionthatwerecolonizedbyEnglandort heNetherl
ands.Andt hi
siswhy
scholarsdisagreeaboutwhet hersuchareasshouldbeconsideredpartofLati
nAmer i
ca.

Thepeopl eofLat i
nAmer i
cashar emanyt raditionsandv aluest hatspr i
ngf rom t heircommon
colonialher i
tage.Howev er
,therear egr eatlocaldi ff
erencesi nthewayofl if
et hroughoutLat i
n
Amer i
ca.Suchdi fferencesl argelyrefl
ectv ariouscombi nati
onsoft her egion'sAfrican, Amer i
can
Indian, andEur opeancul turalherit
age.Di fferencesi nthewayofl if
eal soar i
sef rom di ff
erences
i
ngeogr aphyandi neconomi cdev el
opmentf rom onepar totLat i
nAmer icant oanot her.The
term Lat inAmer ica"wasf i
rstusedi n1861i namagazi neknownasLar ev uer acesLat ines,
whichwasdedi catedt othecauseof" PanLat i
nism",someschol arsar eoft heopi niont hatthe
term" Lat i
nAmer ica"wasf i
rstusedi nPar isi nan1856conf erencebyt heChi l
eanpol it
ici
an
Franci scoBi lbaoandt hesamey earbyt heCol ombianwr it
erJoseMar iaTor resCai cedoi nhi s
poem " Two Amer icas"Chr i
stopherCol umbus,anI tali
annav igatori nt heser vi
ceofSpai n,
reachedLat i
nAmer icai n1492.Byt hattime, Indianshadbeenl ivi
ngi nther egionf orthousands
ofy ear s.SuchI ndi angr oupsast heAzt ec,I nca,andMay ahaddev el
opedhi ghlyadv anced
civi
lizat i
ons.TheEur opeanswhof oll
owedCol umbust oLat i
nAmer i
caqui cklyconquer edmost
oftheI ndiansandest abli
shedcol onies.Eur opeanr uleofLat i
nAmer icalastedabout300y ears.
Duringt heear ly1800' s,manyLat i
nAmer i
cancol oni
esgai nedt heirindependenceandbecame
republ ics.

Peopl
eofLat
inAmer
ica
Latin Amer i
can popul
ati
on was esti
mated atmor ethan 639 mil
li
on as of2016,as the
popul at
ionoft heregi
onhasmor ethantri
pledsince1960,withanar eaofapproximatel
y
19,197,000km217, 412,
000sqmi ),al
most13per centoftheeart
h'slandsurf
acearea.Lati
n
Amer icahasav ari
edpopulat
ionint er
msofancest r
y.Themai npopulat
iongroupsare:1.
Indians,2.Whit
es,3.Bl
acks,
and4.Peopleofmixedancest
ry.

I
ndi ans( RedI ndians):TheylivedinLat i
nAmer icalongbef orethefirstwhi t
eset tl
ersarriv
edi n
thel ate1400.TheI ndians,also knownast heRed I ndians,descended f rom peopl ewho
mi gratedt oNor thAmer i
caf rom Asiathousandsofy earsago.TheAzt ec,Inca,May aandot her
i
ndi ancul turesdev elopedadv ancedci vi
l
izat
ions.Thewhi tessoonconquer edmostoft he
I
ndi ansandf or
cedt hem towor kinmi nesoronpl antati
ons.Mi l
li
onsofi ndlansdiedofhar sh
treatment ,inwar far
e,orofdi seasesbroughtbyt heWhi t
es.Insomear easofLat i
nAmer ica,the
I
ndi anpopul ati
onalmostcompl etelydi
sappeared.Tosur vive,manyI ndiansmov edt ohighland
areasorr emot eforestregions.Today ,
Indiansmakeupal argepercentageoft hepopulati
oni n
Bol i
vla,Ecuador ,Guatemala,andPer u.

Whites:Mostwhi t
eLati
nAmer i
cansar eofEur opeandescent.Atfi
rst
,nearl
yalltheregion'
s
whitesett
lerscamef rom Spai
norPor tugal.Sincet heear
ly1800'showever
,Lati
nAmer i
cahas
at
tractednumer ousimmi gr
antsfrom otherEur opeannati
ons.Thus,manypeoplef r
om Brit
ain,
Fr
ance,Ger many ,I
tal
y,t
heNet her
lands,andPol andhav esett
ledinLati
nAmerica.Today,most
ofthepeopleofAr genti
na,CostaRica,andUr uguayar ewhit
es.Brazi
landChil
ealsohavelarge
whitepopulati
ons.

Blacks:Blackswer ebr oughtfrom Af r

icatoLat inAmer i
caassl avesf r
om the1500'
stothe
1800's.Europeansbr oughtmill
ionsofbl ackpeopl etowor konpl antat
ionsintheWestIndi
es
andi ncoastalareasont hemainl andofCentralandSout hAmer ica.Today,mostofthepeopl
e
ofBar bados,Haiti
,andJamai caar eblacks.Manyot herpart
sofWestI ndiesaswellassome
tr
opicallowlandareasofCent r
al andSouthAmer ica-alsohavelar
genumber sofblacks.

Peopleofmi xedancest r
y:Throught he'centuri
es,manywhi tes,bl
acks,andI ndiansinLat in
Amer i
cahav eintermarr
ied.Asar esul
t,mostLat i
nAmer i
cansareofmi xedancestry
.Thel argest
groupsar emest i
zos[peopleofmi x
edI ndi
anandwhi tedescent]andmul at
toes[ peopleof
mixedbl ackandwhi tedescent).Mestizosmakeupamaj or
it
yoft hepopulat
ioninElSal vador,
Hondur as,Ni
caragua,Colombia,Mexi co,Paraguay,andVenezuela.Mulatt
oesar enumer ousi n
Brazi
l,Panama, andWestI ndi
es.

Asr egardsLatinAmer i
ca'sethni cpattern,let
'sexamineBr azi
l
.Herpopul ati
onderi
vesf rom f our
ethnicsources:theindigenousI ndians,thecol onizi
ngPor t
uguese,theenslavedAfri
canbl acks,
andv ari
ousimmi grantgr oupst hathav ecomef rom EuropeandAsi asince-
thecountrybecame
i
ndependent .From t he-begi nningt hepopul at
ionhasbeenamel t
ingpot .ThePor tuguese
colonist
satf i
rstcohabitedf r
eelywi t
hI ndianwomen, produci
ngagr oupknownasmamel ucos.
Witht hecomi ngofAf ricansl avesint hecol onialperi
od,extensi
vemi scegenati
onr esultedi n
mul at
to group.Agai n.t hrough t he intermar r
iage ofmamel ucos and mul at
toes.a t hird
populat
ionelementwascr eated-Cafusos,ofmixedIndi
an,Eur
opean,andbl
ackAf
ri
canst
ock.
InBrazi
l,pret
o[black]denot
esaper sonofverydarkcolour
,whil
epardo[br
own)i
susedasa
cat
chcallforany
onewi thali
ghterbrownskin.

Col
oni
alRul
einLat
inAmer
ica

In1492, Chri
stopherCol umbus, anI t
aliannav igatorwhowasi nt heserviceofSpai n,becamet he
fi
rstEuropeant or eachLat inAmer i
ca.Af terCol umbusr etur
nedt oSpain, newsofhi sdi scovery
createdgreatexci tementi nEur ope.Topr ev entdi sput esbet weenPor tugal andSpainov erwhi ch
country could cl aim t he newl y di scov ered l ands,Pope Al exanderVidr ew t he Line of
Demar cati
onin1493.Thi simagi narynor th-sout hl i
nel ayabout350mi l
es[ 563kil
omet ers]west
oftwoi slandgr oupsi nt heNor thAt lanticOcean-t heAzor esandt heCapeVer deI sl
ands.Al l
l
andswestoft hel i
nebel ongedt oSpai n,andal llandst ot heeastbel ongedt oPor tugal.
Howev er,thePor t
uguesesoonbecamedi ssat isfi
edbecauset heyt houghtt heli
negav eSpai n
toomucht err
itor y
.I n1494,Por tugalandSpai nsi gnedt heTreatyofTor desill
as,whichmov ed
theli
neabout1, 295mi les( 2,084ki l
omet er s]west .Asar esult
,Por t
ugalgainedt heri
ghtt oset tl
e
theeasternsect ionofwhati snowBr azil.Por tugalt ookpossessi onofthisar eain1500, whena
Portuguesenav igatornamedPedr oAl varesCabr allandedont heeastcoastofBr azi l
.The
conquestoft heRedI ndiansbegansoonaf tert heEur opeansar riv
edi nLat i
nAmer i
ca.Byt he
mid-1500's,asmal lgroupofSpani shadv enturer sknownasconqui stadors[conquer ors)had
defeatedthegr eatI ndi
anci v i
li
zationsandgi venSpai nasecur ehol donmostofLat i
nAmer ica.

Theconqui stadoresledr elativelysmal lbutwel l

-equippedf or ces.Theyeasi l
ydef eatedl arge
armiesofI ndians,whohadnev erseengunsorhor ses.Thef i
rstmaj orconquest soft heI ndians
occurredt nMexi coandCent ralAmer ica.Theconqui stadorHer nandoCor teslandedi nMexi co
i
n1519.By1521,hehadconquer edt hegr eatAzt ecempi re.Ev enber oret hemi li
taryconquest
ofLatinAmer icawascompl et e,Spani shandPor tugueseset t
lersbeganpour i
ngintot her egion.
Manyoft hem camei nsear chofadv ent ureandmi neralweal th,Ot hersest abli
shedpl antations
togrowsugarcane, t
obacco, andot her ,cropst oexpor tt oEur ope.Dur ingthe1600' s,theDut ch,
Engli
sh, andFr enchestablished- smal lcol oniesi nLat i
nAmer ica, chieflyinthewestI ndies.Lar ge
number sofLat inAmer i
canI ndi ansdi edofdi seasesbr oughtbyEur opeansorwer eki ll
edi n
warfare.
Dur ingt heearly1500' s,Spai nest abl i
shedt heencomi endasy st
em underwhi cht he
spanishki nggr antedcoloni stst her i
ghtt ocol lecttributef rom I ndi ansl i
vingoncer t
ainl arge
tr
actsofl andi nLati
nAmer ica.Thecol onistsf orcedt heI ndianst of armt hel andorwor kin
mines.I nr eturn,thecoloni stswer esupposedt opr otectt heI ndiansandconv ertt hem t o
Chri
stianity.Manycol oni
st st r
eat ed t heI ndi anscr uelly.Ast heI ndian population ofLat i
n
Amer i
cadecl i
ned,Europeansbegant oi mpor tblackAf r
icansassl aves.

PowerincolonialLati
nAmer i
carestedwi t
hthreegroups.Onegr oupconsi st
edofgov ernment
off
ici
alsappointed byEuropean rulers.In each col
ony,t heseoffi
cialscontrol
l
ed a hi ghl
y
centr
ali
zedgov ernment.Theygovernt hecolonieswitht hemai npur poseofexploiti
ngt he
natur
alresour
cest ot heful
lest
.TheRomanCat holi
cclergywasanot herpowergr oup.The
cl
ergycontrol
l
ededucat ioninthecol oniesandwaschar gedwithconv er
ti
ngtheIndiansand
blackst oChri
sti
anity.Thethirdpowergr oupincol onialLat i
nAmer i
caconsistedoflandowners
andmi neoperators.Manyset tl
ement sinLat i
nAmer i
caspr angupnearchoi cefarmlandor
i
mpor tantmineralr esources.Asar esul
t,numer ouscommuni ti
eslayfarfrom thecent r
esof
colonialgov ernment .In manysuch cases,t hel ocall and ownersormi neoperatorsheld
economi candpol iti
calcont r
ol.Howev er,Europepr of i
tedtremendouslyfrom Lati
nAmer i
ca'
s
mi neralwealthandagr i
cult
uralproducts.Shipsf il
ledwi thsilverandgoldr egul
arl
ydepar t
ed
fr
om Lat inAmericanPoet sforEurope.Agricult
uralexpor tsincl
udedcof f
eecot t
on,sugarcane
andt obacco.Ov erthey ears,Spain'
seconomybecamei ncreasi
nglydependentonLatinAmer i
ca.
Letusnowexami necol onialrul
einsomeLat i
nAmer icancount r
ies.

Mexi coi st he' nor thernmostoft heLat i

nAmer icanr epubl ics, situat edbet weent heUni t
edSt ates
andCent ralAmer icawi thlongcoast li
nesont hePaci ficOceanandt heGul fofMexi co.Among
thecount riesofLat inAmer ica,onlyBr azi landAr gent i
naar el ar geri nar eathanMexi co, andonl y
Brazilhasal ar gerpopul at
ionandgr ossnat i
onalpr oduct .Af terCol umbusdi scov eredt heNew
Wor l
di n1492, noor gani zedgr oup.l andedi nMexi cobef orer econnai ssanceexpedi t
ionssentpy
thegov ernorofCubai n1517and1518.Thus,i n1518,Her nanCor teswas-commi sSI onedt o
under taket heconquestofMexi co, but' het hrewof ft heaf terl andi ngont heMexi canGul fcoast ,
Cortesf oundedt hepor tcityofVer acruzandbeganest ablishi ngcont actswi thnear byI ndi an
groups.Al though Cor t
esor i
ginalar mynumber ed onl yabout500 Spani ards,hewasl ater
accompani edbyt housandsofnat iveMexi canwar riorswhor esent edAzt ec'shegemony .The
whitemenwer er egar dedwi thawebyt heI ndians, notonyf ort heirl ightskinsbutal sobecause
theyseemedi nv inciblei nbat tl
e.Thewhi temenal sohadcer t
ainf actorst hev erysi gni ficant
advant agegi venbyhor ses.Anunexpect edal lyoft hei nv ader swassmal lpox, whi chspr eadwi th
devast atingef fectamongt heindians, whohadnoi mmuni tyt ot hedi seaseandt herefor edi edi n
greatnumber s.Mosti mpor tantly,theSpani ard' sar ri
v alinMexi cocoi ncidedwi tht hepr omi seof
Topiltzin-Quet zal coat ltor eturnf rom t heeastt or ecl aim hi st hronei nt hey earof" OneReed" ,
whichhappenedt or ecurin1519.TheI ndi ansbel iev edi nt hel egendofTopi ltzin-
Quet zal coat
andal sobel ievedt hatCor t
esf it
tedhi stradit i
onaldescr iptionofbei ngf air-
skinnedandbear ded.
Thisf actgav eCor tėsapsy chologi caladv antageov ert heAzt ecemper orMont ezuma.Atl engt h
theSpani ardswer eadmi tted t o Tenocht itl
an and Mont ezumawasev ent ual lyki l
l
ed.Af ter
rei
nfor cementf r
om t heCar i
bbean,Cor t
esl aunchedanamphi biousat tackonTenocht itlanand
onAugust13,1521,af teraher oicdef enseoft hreemont hsl edbyCuauht emoc,t heAzt ec
capital fel
l toSpani ards.

Themostsi gni
fi
cantinstit
uti
onr egardi
ngI ndian-Spanishr el
ati
onshipsi nthepost conquest
peri
od was t he encomienda.The encomi enda was desi gned tor ewardt he disgruntl
ed
conquerorsandtopr ovi
deasy st
em f orthecont rolandconv er
sionoft heindi
ans.Individual
spaniar
dswer eassignedI ndi
anv i
l
lages,whosepeopl ewer et opayt r
ibut
ei nKindt ot he
Spaniard(theecomender o)andt ocont r
ibutel abouraswel l.Theecomender oint ur
nwas
obli
gatedtoseet otheconv ersi
onandgener alwel l
-bei
ngofhi sIndiancharges.Thust he
conquerorwouldhaveincomeonwhi chtol i
veandt heIndi
answoul dbecomeChr i
sti
ans.Byt he
endoft he16cent ur
yfewoft heecomender oswer estil
lli
vi
ngandt hemaj or
it
yoft heIndians
wer epay i
ngt ributet othecr own.I tisimpor tantt onot eher et hatwhi l
emostensl avedi ndians
hadbeenf reedundert heNew Lawsof1542,anot herl aw waspassedi n1549,r eleasi ng
encomi endaI ndiansf r
om t hel abourobl i
gation.Asar esultoft hist herewasal abourshor tage
whi chf orcedt heSpani ar dst oadoptacoer civel abourdr aftcal ledt her epar ti
mi ento.Thi sl evy
requi redev eryv il
laget omakeasmal lper centageofi tsmenav ail
ableeachweekf oral abour
pool .Al t
houghi twasf orcedl abour ,thegr oupswoul dber otat ed,andwor ker swer et obepai d
andwel ltreat ed.Ther epar ti
mi ento,wasabol i
shedear lyi nt he17cent ur y
,exceptf ormi ne
l
abour .Cor tesnamedt heconquer edl andNew Spai n.Mexi cowasknownasNew Spai nf or
threecent uries.Cor t
eswasgov er noroft hecol onyf oraf ew y ear sunt i
lt heSpani shki ng
repl acedhi m wi t
hr oyalof fi
cials.Emper orChar l
esV, theki ngofSpai n, creat edf orNewSpai na
rulingbodycal ledanaudi enci a,whi chbegani t
sadmi nist
rat i
oni n1528.Al thought heaudi enci a
i
nMexi coCi tywasacour tofappeal sjustasi nSpai n,itsjudgesal sohadl egislativefunct ions,
andi twast heywhohadt hegov erningpower s.Theki nglaterconcl udedt hatt hecol onyneeded
to be gov er ned bya di r
ectr oy alr epr esentative,a man oft he hi ghestqual i
ti
es and of
unquest i
onedl oy alt
yt ot hecr own.Thef i
rstmant ohol dthisposi ti
on, vicer oyofNewSpai nwas
DonAnt oniodeMendoza, whoassumedof ficeinMexi coCt yin1535.Thev iceroywast hemost
power fuli
ndi vidual ,buttheaudi enci ashar edsomedut i
esofgov ernment .Becauseoft hesi zeof
thev i
ceroyalty ,therewer ef urtherpr ov i
ncialdi vi
sionsundert hecont rolofal caldesmay orsorof
cor regidores,whosemal treatmentoft heI ndianswasnot or i
ous.Ther ewer e,inaddi ti
on,many
treasur yof fi
ci alsandot her si nt hecompl exbur eaucracy.Col onialr uleundert heHabsbur g
dy nast ywhi chr uledi nSpai nunt il1700washamper edbybur eaucr aticr edt ape.I nt he18t h
cent uryhowev er,thenewBour bondy nast yofSpai nmadesomeneededr efor ms.

Asr egar dst heMexi caneconomyundercol onialrule,acol ony'smai npur posewast oenricht he
mot hercount ryandmakei tmor eself
-suffi
cientbypr oduci ngpr eciousmet als,bysuppl
y i
ngr aw'
mat erialsf rom whi chf i
nishedgoodscoul dbemadei nSpai n,andbyser v i
ngasamar ketf or
Spani shmanuf acturers.Thatis,undert hemer cantil
i
steconomi cphilosophyofSpai n.Inor der
topr otectt hemer chant sandmanuf acturersinSpai n,li
ttl
ei ndust r
ywasal l
owedi nthecolonies.
Manyi temst hatcoul deasi l
yhav eproducedl ocal l
yhadt obei mpor t
ed.Alov er
seastradewas
conduct edbySpani shshi psandchannel edt hrought hepor tsofVer acruzandAcapul co.An
annualt radef airwashel df ormer chantsi nthet wopor t
s.NewSpai n[ Mexico]wasav aluable
colony .Itpr oducedmor esi l
verthananyot herr egionoft hewor ld,al
ongwi t
hsomegol d.Sugar ,
vanill
a,hi des,andcacaof ort heproduct i
onofchocol atewer eot herimpor tantexports.The
i
nternaleconomywasessent i
ally
.agricultur
al,wi ththel abouronbot hst ockranchesandon
far
msper formedbyl ndi
ans, bl
acks,andi ndivi
dual ofmixedr ace.

Asr egardst hechurchandr eli

gioni ncolonialMexicoSpani shki ngswer egrantedspecial
pri
vi
legesbyt hepapacy ,makingthem ineffectheadsoftheRomanCat holi
cChurchinSpanish,
dominions.Thisforallpract
icalpurposesmeantt hatthechur chandst atewerealmostasone.
Shortl
yar tert
heconquest ,member sofv ar
iousorders(Franciscans,Domi ni
cans,August
ini
ans
andot hers)beganarrivi
ngt oconv erttheconqueredpeopl es.Duringt hefi
rsthalfcent
uryof
col
onization,missi
onarieschr i
sti
anizedlargenumber sofI ndiansundercondi t
ionsofgreat
hardshipthatsomet i
mesl edt ot
hemar t
yr dom offriarsandconv ert
s.Ther oleoft hechur ch
wentf arbeyondsimpl yreli
giousfuncti
onsascl er
gymenandnunsf ormedt helargestgr oupof
educatedculturedpeopl eanddomi natededucat i
onf rom elementar
ygr adest hroughgr aduate
studi
esi nuniv
ersit
ies.Theyal sor
anhospi talsandwer einchar geofcharitablewor ks.Member s
ofthechur chhier
ar chytookanact i
vepar tinpol i
ti
cs,andsomeser vedint hecapaci tyofroy al
offi
cial
s,incl
udingt hepositi
onofv icer
oy.I n1571,t heI nquisi
ti
onwasf ormallyest abli
shedi n
Mexico.Itspri
mef unct i
onwast opreservet hepurit
yoft heRomanCat holi
cf ait
h.

Inthecol onialMexi cansoci et

y,theI ndianswer eoverwhelmi ngl
yinthemaj orit
y,intheear ly
decades,butt heirnumberdecl inedcat astrophicall
y,mainl
ybecauseoft hespr eadofEur opean
diseases.Rightf r
om t hev erybegi nni
ngwhi temenmi xedf reelywit
hIndi anwomenpr oducing
thenewet hnictypecal l
edmest i
zo.Af ewbl ackswer epresentdur i
ngtheconquest ,andmor e
wer ei mport
edassl av est owor kinmi nesandonsugarest atesaswellasi notherpursuit
s.By
1810,60%oft hepeopl eofNewSpai nwer eIndians,18%wer ewhites(includi
ng0. 3%Spani sh-
born) ,and0.2% wer ebl acks.Ther emaining22% wer eofmi xedrace.TheBour bonofFr ance
camet opoweri nSpai naf terthedeat hoft hel astSpanishHabsbur gmonar chi n1700.The
Bour bonreformsar ei mpor t
anti nthepol it
icalandeconomi cspheres.InMexi co,200pr ovincial
offi
cialswer ereplacedby12wi ththet i
tleofi ntendant
.Letusnow exami neBrazilundert he
Portuguesecol onialrule.

Brazilist hel argestandmostpopul ouscount ryofSout hAmer i

ca.Cr editf orthediscov eryof
Brazilisgener allygiv entoPedr oAlv aresCabr al,whor eachedthecoasti n1500andcl aimedt he
l
andf orPor t
ugal .Dur ingthenext150y earsot herEur opeanpower snot abl yFranceandt he
Nether l
ands, tri
edt oconquerandset tlepartsofBr azi
lbutwer eult
imat elyunsuccessf ul.Brazi
l's
mul t
iracialpopul ationisdr awnf r
om ev eryinhabi tedcont i
nentexceptAust rali
aunt i
lthe1530' s,
thePor tugueseshowedl i
tt
leinteresti nBr azilbecauseoft heirpr eoccupat i
onwi thcol onial
expansi oninAf ri
caandI ndia.Inordert opr omot eeconomi cdev elopmentandcol onizati
on, t
he
Portuguesecr ownsetupdonat ar
ysy stem inBr azil.Beginni
ngi n1533i tgrant edtodonat ri
os, or
l
andspr opietor, l
andsext endingusual l
y50l eagues( 150mi l
es,or240km)al ongthecoastand
forani ndefinitedist anceinland.Thel ordsoft hesel andswer ealsoknownascapt ai
nsandt heir
grantscapt ai
nci es.Themostf amousandr i
chestcapt ai
ncywasPer nambuco,wi thi t
ssugar
estates, sugarmi l
ls,brokers,ari
stocr atsandsl av es.Thedonat arysyst em last eddownt othe18
century, whent hecr ownt ookbackt hosel andst hathadnotal readyr evertedt oit
.

Howev er,in1549agov ernorgeneralwasappoi ntedt ocent ral

izeandsuper vi
set heser oyal
grants.Hiscour twasatBahi a(nowSal vador),whi chwast hecapi talofcol oni
alBrazilfort wo
centuri
es.Popul ati
onincreased,andcult
urallifeflouri
shed.Thev astpr ofi
tsofsugar ,shipping
andt heslavetradewi t
hAf r
icaalsoaddedtot heimpor tanceofBahi a.Int hesout hwestofBahi a,
alongthecoastwast heprosperouscaptaincyofSaoVi ncente.Inl and,bey ondacost alrange,
l
iesapl ateauwher et
hehaml etofSaoPaul ocamei nt
obei ngin1554.Thepeopl eofSaoPaul o
knownasPaul istasbecamet hepathfi
nderstot hef arfl
ungi nteri
or .Again, amongt hef oremost
pioneersofBr azilandearl
ymol dersofci
v i
li
zationwer etheJesui ts, t
hef i
rstofwhom ar ri
v edin
1549.Thei radministr
ati
veandeducat i
onalcent rewasBahi aandt hei rgreat estfi
guresint he16
centurywere ManuelNobrega and Jose Anchiet
a.Jesuitconversi
on ofthe I
ndians was
accompanied bygreati
nfl
uence overt hem.The Jesuitswere especi
all
yfavoured bythe
Portuguesecr
ownandpossessedendowment s,coll
eges,pl
ant
ati
onsandsemi nari
es.Butthe
orderbecamet oopower
fulforthePor t
uguesegov ernmentandwasexpel l
edfrom Brazi
lin
1759.

IntermsofBr azil
'
seconomi candsoci aldev elopmentundercol onialrule, t
radewi tht heI ndi
ans
forbr azil
woodwasf ol
lowedbyt hecul ti
vationofsugar canewhi chwasmadepr of itablebyt he
useofbl acksl avelabouronl argeplant ations.Thel argescal ei mpor t
ati
onofsl av esf rom Africa
tonor theaster nBrazilbegani nthe1530' s.Soonav asttradegr ewupbet weenBr azi landWest
Afri
ca,basedonanexchangeoft obacco( growni nBahi a)f orsl avesandgol d.Thet radewas
regardedasessent i
alt ot heeconomybecausei tsuppl i
edt hesugarpl ant ati
onswi ncheap
l
abouri ntheabsenceofal arge,poori ndigenousori mmi grant sEur opeanpopul at ioncapabl eof
cont i
nuous har d wor k undert ropicalcondi ti
ons.Sugarexpor tsi nt ur n sust ai ned Br azil'
s
profit
abl et r
adewi t
hwest er
nEur ope.Nor theasternBr azil'
seconomi csy st
em gav er iset oa
whitel andownerar istocr acyandacl assofmer chantsandshi pper s,al
lofwhom pr ofitedfrom
theslav et r
ade, asdidt hePor t
uguesecr own.Meanwhi l
e, somePor t
uguesecol oni stsandsome
blackAf ricanwomenwer epr oducingt her acialmixturethati schar acteristicoft henor theastern
regiont oday .Thebandei ranteoft heSout hdiscov eredgol di nMi nasGer aisandpenet r
atedt he
prairi
esoft heSout nernl ands.ThePaul istapi oneersbr edwi t
hI ndianwomen,andt helocal
nameofmamel uco st uckt ot hechi ldren ofsuch r elationshi ps.Af t erthei rf ailurei nt he
northeasti nt hefir
sthal fof16t hcent ury,theFr enchat tempt edagai nt oest ablishacol onyon
thebayofRi odeJanei roi nt hesecondhal foft hecent ur yi n1555.Theywer eev ictedbyt he
Portuguesef iveyearslat er.In1567, thePor tuguesef oundedt heci t
yofRi odeJanei ro.

TheSpani shoccupat ionandr ul

eofPor tugalbet ween1580and1640al somadeSpai nmast er
ofBr azil.TheDut chcont r
olledpartsoft henor theastbet ween1624and1654.The18t hcent ury
wast heer aoft hemi ningcy cleinBr azilianeconomi chi story.Gol dwasdi scover edi nwhati s
nowMi nasGer aisint he1690' sanddi amondsi nt he1720' s.Thenewcapt aincyofMi nasGer ais
soonov ershadowedt heol dercaptainciesi nweal thandi mpor t
ance.Thei mpor tanceofRi ode
Janei rowasr ecogni zedasar esultoft hemi ningboom.Theci ty,lyingj ustsout hofMi nas
Ger ai
swaswel lsi t
edf orami ntandt heexpor tofmet als.I
n1763, Ri
odeJanei rowasmadet he
capi t
alofBr azi l
.Thet r
eatiesofMadr i
d( 17500)andSanl defonso( 1777)expandedBr azil'
s
frontiers.Byt heendof18t hcentury,Br azilwasoneoft helargestcol oni esint hewor ld.l
tssi ze
andr ichesf rom agr i
cultureandmi neshel pedPor tugal toforgetitsoncev astempi rei nAsiaand
Af r
ica.Howev er,i n1807,John( Joao) ,pr incer egentofPor t
ugal ,fl
edwi tht her oy alfamilyt o
Brazilaf terFr encht roopshadi nvadedPor tugal.Johnt ookhi scour t,cabi net,andsomeoft he
culturalappar atusofPor tugalalongwi thhi m.Saf einRi odeJanei r
o,hemadei tt hecapitalof
thePor tugueseempi reonhi sarri
valther ein1808.Ev enthoughher etur nedt oLi sbonasKi ng
JohnVii n1821, hehadmeanwhi leset t
ledmonar chysof ir
ml yonBr azi
lt hatitlastedunt i
l1889.
In1815t heActofuni oncr eatedtheKi ngdom ofPor t
ugalandBr azi l
.ThusBr azilwaspr omot ed
tocol oni alstatust oequal itywithmet ropol itanPor tugal.AfterKi ngJohn' sreturnt oPor t
ugali n
1821,hissonPedr o,t
hecrownpri
nce,remainedinBrazi
lasregent.Earl
ythenextyearPrince
Pedro defi
ed a summon oft hePortugueseparli
amenttor ej
oin hisfatheri
n Lisbon.On
September7,1882,hedecl ar
edBraz
il
'sindependencefr
om Portugal.OnDecember1oft hat
year
, t
heregentwascrownedemperorofBrazilasPedr
o(Pet
er)I

St
ruggl
esf
orI
ndependencei
nLat
inAmer
ica

Strugglesforindependencei nLat i
nAmer icawer et r
iggeredbyev entsinNor thAmer i
caand
Europe,mostespeci al
ly,thesuccessoft heRev olut
ionarywari nAmer ica(1775-
1783)andthe
FrenchRev olut
ion(1789-1799).Again,Spai
nandPor tugalwer elosingt hei
rimportanceasworl
d
power sast heforcesofNapol eonBonapar t
einvadedandconquer edPor t
ugalin1807andalso
sackedt heSpanishmonar chthefol
lowingyear.Spain'
scont r
olov eritscoloniesweakenedasa
result
,andmanyLat i
nAmer i
canstookt heopportuni
tytofightforindependence.

Mexi cobegani t
sr evoltagainstSpaini n1810.Thest r
uggl ewasf ir
stledbyt woRomanCat holi
c
priests,Mi guelHi dalgoyCost il
l
aandJoseMar i
aMor elosyPav on.I tishowev eri mpor t
antt o
stateher et hatext ernalex amplesandev entspushedt hecol oniststowar dindependence.The
FrenchRev oluti
on,fori nst
ance,hadast rongimpactoni ntel
lectual
si nMexi coandr evolutions
i
nt heBr iti
shcol oniesandFr ench-ruledHai tibr oughtsuccesst oi ndependencemov ement s
agai nstthewor ldgr eatpower soft het ime.Itisi mpor tantt onot eher et hatMexi co'
sst ruggle
forindependencef r
om Spai nwasr oot edi nthepol i
ti
cal ,economi candsoci alinadequaci esof
thecol oni
alsy stem.Fori nstance,t herewer eeconomi cr estri
cti
onst hatf av ouredSpani sh
i
nt erestsatt heexpenseofcol oni
alt radersand,mer chant s.Andagai n,thesoci alstructure
def i
nedbySpani shj uri
sprudenceandi mpl ement edbySpani shof fi
cialswaspr ejudicialagainst
thoseSpani ardswhohadbeenbor nonMexi cansoi l.Thest ruggl ef orindependenceand
rebel l
i
onagai nstSpai nwasgr eatyai dedbyt hei nvasionoft hecount r
y( Spain)byNapol eon's
troopsi n1808.Oneoft heconsequencesoft hecount rybei ngoccupi edbyt heFr enchwast hat
theSpani shki ngwasmadepr i
soner .Thus,wi t haf oei gnr ul
ermaki ngpol icyi nSpai n,t he
colonistsinMexi comadepl anstotakemat t
ersorgov ernmentundert heirowncont r
ol.

Thel
eader
shi
pofi
ndependencecause,
howev
er,
camef
rom anuni
i
kel
ysour
ce:

Mi guelHi dalgoyCast il
la,aparishpr iest.Withasmal lgroupoff ell
ow liberals,Hi dalgobegan
planningt hesepar ationofMexi cof rom Spai n.Thus, ont hemor ningofSept ember16, 1810, he
summonedhi spar i
shionerstomass i nt hesmal lchur chofDol oresandaskedhi sf ollower sto
takeupar msagai nsttheirSpanishoppr essorsinwhati scall
edGr i
todeDol or es(Dol or esCall).
Thi scal lhemade i nstead oft heusualser mon.Thusa smal lindependencear myt hat
i
ncl udedIndiansandMest i
zos,cont inual l
yaugment edov erthenextf ew mont hs,begant o
attackSpani shout posts.Thus,byt heendofOct ober1810,Fat herHidalgo'sf orceswer eready
tocont estSpanisht r
oopsont heout skirt
sofMexi coCi ty,havingscor edv ictoryaf terv i
ctory
withsur pri
singease.Ther ebelswont heBat tl
eofLasCr ucesont hehi ll
ssur roundi ngt he
capi t
al,butthev ictorypr ovedindecisiveast hi
sinsur gentarmydi dnotmov ei ntoMexi coCi t
y
i
tsel f
.Thus,Hi dal go ordered a retreat ,probablybecause ofi nsuffi
cientammuni tion,and
perhapsbecauseofsomet i
midi
tyonhispart
.Unfor
tunat
elyf
orHidalgoandhi
sar my,thei
rlost
mil
itaryadv antagewasnoteasil
yregai
nedandhi sfort
unesdecl
i
nedast heviceregaltroops
undert hecommandofGener alFel
ixCall
ejaassumedt heoff
ensiv
e.Hidal
gowasul ti
mat el
y
defeated,capturedandi
nthesummerof1811executed.

Ther ebell eader shi pev ent ual lyf elltoJoseMar iaMor el os,anot herpar ishpr iestandadev otee
ofHi dal go.I n 1813,Mor el os conv ened a congr ess t hati ssued a f or maldecl ar ation of
i
ndependencei nt het ownofChi l
panci ngosout hofMexi coCi ty.Ear lythef ol lowi ngy ear ,t his
sameassembl y,t hati st hecongr ess, draftedt heConst itutionofApat zi
ngan, pr omi singpopul ar
sov er eignt y,uni v er salmal esuf f rage,andt heabol i
tionofsl av ery .Butt hev iceroy '
st roops
defeat edMor elosi nbat tlebef oret heconst itutioncoul dbeputi nt oef f
ect.Fat herMor eloswas
arrest ed,t ri
ed,conv ictedand,j ustl ikeHi dalgo,execut ed.Bet ween1816and1820t heMexi can
i
ndependencemov ementwasi ndi sarrayandr ebelf ortunesdi dnoti mpr ov eunt ilt hef allof
1820.Thechangewasbr oughtaboutbyCol .August inedeI turbide,ar oy alof fi
cer .I turbide
defect edandj oinedt hei ndependencecausewi tht he2500t r
oopsunderhi scommand.Ot her
royal of ficer sf ollowedhi sexampl eandwi thr ebel sscor ingr epeat edv i
ctories, JuandeO' Donoj u,
the l astSpani sh v icer oyofMexi co was f or ced t o si gn t he Tr eatyofCor doba i n 1821,
acknowl edgi ngt hati ndependencehadbeenwon.Thi st reat ydi sappoi ntedt hosewhosuppor ted
thei ndependencecour seast henewl yi ndependentnat ion,i .
eMexi cowoul dnowbeor gani zed
asamonar chyi nst eadof republ i
c.Thus, theindependentMexi co' sf i
r stpoliticalexper i
mentwas
at otalf ai l
ur easI tur bideconni vedt ohav ehi msel fnamedemper or .Thisai m heachi ev edi n
1822,butMexi canssoongott i
redoft hel ackofdeci sivel eader shipi naddr essi ngcr uci al
political ,economi c,and soci alpr oblems.The opposi tion gr ew i nr esponse t oI turbide' s
author itariani sm andul timat elyt heant imonar chistsf oundachampi oni nAnt oni oLopezde
Sant aAnnawho,wi th suppor tf rom ot hermi li
tarymen t hroughoutMexi co cal led f ort he
over thr owoft heempi r
e.Ther ebel ssucceededi nthisai m asI tur bideabdi cat edhi st hroneaf ter
onlyni nemont hsasemper or .Wi thI turbide'sabdi cation, anewassembl ymetf ort hepur poseof
defini ngMexi co'sf utur e.Thus,t heconst i
tut i
onpr omul gat edi n1824pr ov idedt hatMexi co
woul dbeor gani zedasaf eder alrepubl i
cmadeupof19st atesandf ourt erritor i
es.Thef irstt wo
presi dent s,Guadal upeVi ct oriaandVi cènt eGuer rero,wer ehonestl eader sandmenofgoodwi l
l
butencount ered endl essf r
ust rat i
on i n managi ng t heaf fai
rsofst ate ast heyi nher i
ted a
count rydi suni tedbysuspi cionandacr imony .Asar esul tofpeopl e' sdissat isf actionwi tht he
earlyl eader s,t hepr esidencypassedt oSant aAnna,t henat i
onalmi litaryher oandchampi onof
l
iber alism i n1833.I ti showev ert ot hecr edi tofVi ctor iaandGuer rerot hatt hedi plomat ic
recogni tion- ofmuchofEur opeandoft heUni tedSt ateswasobt ained.I ti sal soi mpor tantt o
stateher et hati twasunderPr esi dentGuer rer ot hatMexi coabol ishedsl av eryi n1829,al most
fourdecadesbef oret heUni tedSt ates, itsnor thernnei ghbour .

CentralAmer
icahadlit
tleeconomicimportanceandsoSpai nlargelyignor
edt heareaasa
resul
tofwhicht heywont hei
rindependencewi t
houtbloodshed.Thushav ingobtainthei
r
i
ndependenceCostaRica,EISalvador
,Guatemala,HondurasandNi car
aguabecamepar tof
Mexicoin1822.Theybrokeawayin1823t oformtheUnitedProvincesofCentralAmeri
ca.By
1841,eachort hem hadbecomeani ndependentr epubli
c,f
oll
owingt hecol l
apseoft heirunion.
The two gr eatesther oes inthe f ightf orindependence in Spanish Sout hAmer ica wer e
theVenezuelangener alSimonBol ivarandt heArgentinegeneral
,JosedeSanMar tin.Bolivar
helpedwinf reedom forBoli
v i
a,Colombi a,Ecuador,Peru,andVenezuel a.SanMar ti
nf oughtf or
theindependenceofAr gent
ina,Chil
e, andPer u.I
nt heSouth,l
andowner si nChiledeclaredtheir
country'
sfreedom in1810.Howev er,Spanishf or
cesov erwhel
medt hem.Last i
ngindependence
waswonf orChi l
ein1818byar miesl edbySanMar t
inandtheChileanher o,Bernar
doO' higgi
ls.

Letusnowl ookatAr genti

na'smar cht oi ndependence.I nthel ate18t hcenturySpai nunder took
cl
osersuper vi
sionoft hev i
ceroy al
tyt hrought heestablishmentofacust omhouse( 1779) ,
severali ntendanci es(gov er
nor ships)wi thmi ltaryandf iscalr esponsi bi
li
ti
es( 1782),andan
audienci a,oradmi ni
str
ativecour t.Howev er,eff
or t
sbyBr it
aint ocapt ureBuenosAi resin1806
and1807pr obabl yhastenedt hear ea'ssepar ati
onf r
om t heSpani shEmpi re.Al thought he
Spani shv i
ceroyf led,l
ocalmi li
ti
at wicedef eatedt heBrit
ishandf orcedt heirevacuat ionf r
om t he
Riodel aPl at
a.I nMay1810t heCr eolel eader s,secondedbyl ocalmi l
iti
aunits,exer t
edpr essure
onthet owncounci l,
orcabi l
do,t orepl acet hev i
ceroywi t
haj untat hatwouldgov ernint hename
ofFer di
nandVI l,whohadbeendeposedf r
om t heSpani sht hronebyNapol eon.Thej unta,
namedonMay25,secur edaut onomyi nst eadofi ndependence.Af terFerdinandwasr est ored,
heref usedt or ecognizeCr eoledesi resf orsel f
-gov er
nment ,andaci vil
-warsituat i
ondev el
oped
betweenBuenosAi r
esandr oyali
stcent resi nPer uandUpperPer u.Theseev entsledt oan
outr
ightdecl arat i
onofi ndependenceonJul y9,1816, byrepresentativesf r
om sev er
alAr gent i
ne
provincesmeet ingatTucuman.

Itishowev erimpor t
antt ost ressher ethatt heFor t
enomi li
taryattemptst osubj ugat eAsunci on
andMont evideof ai
l
edi mmedi ately.Asar esul tofthis,t hoset woar easwentt hei rownway s-
Paraguaybecomi ngani ndependencenat ioni n1813whi l
eUr uguayhadt owai tunt il1828
beforeachi evi
ngherowni ndependence.Butt heconf lictwasmor econfusedi nt hei nteri
orof
Argentinaduet or oyali
stef fort
sf r
om UpperPer utoreconquert henor t
hwest ernpr ovinces.The
congressofTucuman had pr oduced t he hi ghlycent r
alized constit
uti
on of1819 butwas
dissolvedwhenf acedwi thunani mousr epudi ati
onbyt hepr ovi
nes.Thei ndividualpr ov i
nces
becameaut onomousuni tsi nthi schaot i
csi tuationundert heiri
ocalchieftai
nsorCaudi ll
os, wi
th
BuenosAi r
esacqui ringpr omi nence.Thus,t hepr ovinceofBuenosAi r
esf urtherdev elopedit s
l
eader snipunderBer nadinoRi v adavia,mi nisterofgov ernmentf rom 1821t o1824.Meanwhi le,
effort
st oi mplantacent ralizedconst it
utioni n1826r esultedi nRivadavia'
sbr i
efpr esidencyov er
theUni tedPr ovincesoft heRi odePl ata.Thef orcesofpr ovinci
alautonomyhowev ercompel l
ed
himt or esignthef ol
lowingy ear.

Afterabriefi
ntervalpunct uatedbypol
iti
calcri
ses,awealthycattlemanandl ocalCaudl
lof r
om
southernBuenosAi res,JuanManueldeRosasr estor
edor derundertheaut onomistbannerand
wasev entual
lyelectedgov er
norofBuenosAi resin1829.Hewasabl etoimposeadef acto
controloverthepr ovinces,despitei
nter
mittentcivi
lwarov erthei ssueofcent ral
ism versus
autonomyt hataf fi
ict
edAr genti
nafortwodecadessi ncehet ookr einsofpower .Hewas
eventual
lyoverthr
owni n1852.I n1853,representat
ivesoft hepr ovi
ncesgat heredtodr afta
consti
tut
ionthatwasmodeledclosel
yont hatoftheUni
tedStatesofAmer
ica.Feari
ngthati
t
wouldloseit
sdomi nantr
olei
nsuchaf ederaluni
on,t
heprov
inceofBuenosAiresseceded.I
n
1854,thegovernorofEnt
reRi
os,Just
oJosedeUr qui
zawaselectedast
hefir
stpresi
dentofa
decapi
tatedArgenti
ne.

Conf eder
ationof13pr ovincesl acki
ngt hetradit
ionalcapi talofAr gent
ina.Si xy earslater
,
BuenosAi restempor aril
yrejoinedt heothersundert hepr esidencyofSant i
agoDer qui.Civ
ilwar
broke outbr iefl
y after and f ol l
owing Darqui'
sr esignation and t he dissoluti
on of t he
confederati
oni n1862,Bar tolomeMi tr
e,thegovernorofBuenosAi r
eswasel ect
edpr esidentof
the14uni tedpr ovi
ncesoft heAr genti
neRepublic.Ev ent houghhewassucceededbyDomi ngo
F.Sar mientof rom SanJuanpr ov i
ncein1868,t hatel ectioni ni
ti
atedani nstit
utionali
zedand
usual l
ypéacefultransferofpower .Andlastl
y,i
tisimpor tanttostressheret hatthesecondhal f
of19t hcent ur
ymar kedt heemer genceofAr genti
naasanat ionandsawt heest abli
shmentof
trendsandpat ternsthatdomi nateAr genti
natothisday .