CON4338A2TO160623BL Ch5 WaterRetainingStructure

STRUCTURES AND TALL BUILDINGS (CON4338)
│CHAPTER 5│
Water Retaining Structure
 Learning Objectives
⚫ Understand the design concepts and steel requirement for
aqueous retaining structures.
⚫ Apply the design procedures for crack width calculation
due to flexure and direct tension.
⚫ Apply the design procedures for thermal crack width
calculation due to creep and shrinkage.
⚫ Realize different types of waterproofing construction and
joints
Chapter 5 1
HD in Civil Engineering
5. Water Retaining Structure
Design Objectives and Recommendations
Both the HK Code of Practice for Structural Use of Concrete 2013 and BS
8007 covers the design guidelines for concrete structures to retain aqueous
liquids. Water is a common liquid to be retained, as in reservoir and water
tanks. A liquid retaining structure must fulfill the requirements for normal
structures in having adequate strength, durability and free from excessive
cracking and deflection. In addition, the structure should not allow liquid to
leak or percolate through it.
For normal structure, the important thing is to ensure the structure is stable and
will not fail under the imposed loads. In liquid retaining structures, it is usual
to find that, if the structure is designed and reinforced so that the liquid is
retained without leakage, then the strength is more than adequate, as the
serviceability requirements for water retaining structures is more stringent than
normal structures.
Chapter 5 2
Requirements of HK CoP for Structural Use of Concrete 2013

Cracking shall be limited to an extent that will not impair the proper functioning
or durability of the structure or cause its appearance to be unacceptable. Table
7.1 will generally be satisfactory for RC members with respect to appearance
and durability.
Exposure condition: 1= Mild ; 2 = Moderate ; 3 = Severe ; 4 = Very Severe
Requirements of BS 8007
BS 8007 is based on the recommendations of BS 8110 for the design of normal
concrete structure and the design and detailing of water retaining structures
should comply with BS 8110 except where the recommendations of BS 8007
vary the requirements. The main variations are :
• Section 2 of BS 8007 takes precedence over Section 2 of BS 8110 in

respect of the basis of design.
• The design ultimate anchorage bond length for horizontal bars in sections
subject to direct tension should not exceed 0.7 times the values obtained
from cl. 3.12.8.4 of BS 8110.
• The maximum calculated design crack widths are either 0.2 mm or 0.1
mm depending on the exposure conditions, rather than the assumed value
of 0.3 mm.
• The basis of design is the serviceability limit state of cracking rather than
the ultimate limit state design.
• For the design of flat slab roofs at serviceability limit states, the simplified
method of design in cl. 3.7.2.7 of BS 8110 may be used (with a proviso on
the size of the column heads).
• The provisions of BS 8007 in respect of joints are to be used.
• The provisions of BS 8007 in respect of nominal cover are to be used.
Chapter 5 3
• The provisions of BS 8007 in respect of exposure conditions are to be

used.
• The provisions of BS 8007 in respect of minimum areas of reinforcement
are to be used.
• BS 8007 contains restrictions relating to the spacing of bar reinforcement.
Structural design philosophy
Ultimate limit state

The partial safety factor for dead load is 1.4. As the imposed load due to
a liquid is known precisely, a partial safety factor of 1.4 may be used for
imposed load.
Serviceability limit state:

Flotation - A minimum factor of safety of 1.5 against floatation which is
due to the highest anticipated groundwater level whereas the
resistance is taken as the combined dead loads and permitted
anchoring resistance.
A minimum factor of safety of 1.1 against floatation where
buoyancy is due to the highest possible groundwater level
and the resistance is taken as the minimum dead loads only.
(in accordance with the Code of Practice for Foundations)
Cracking - reinforced concrete:

The maximum design surface crack widths for direct tension
and flexure are :
(1) severe or very severe exposure : 0.2 mm
(2) critical aesthetic appearance : 0.1 mm.
prestressed concrete:
The tensile stress in the concrete should be limited in
accordance with Table 7.1 of HK Code
Deflection -limits and span/effective depth ratios (cl. 7.3.4.2)
Chapter 5 4
Structural Action
All liquid-retaining structures are required to resist horizontal forces due to the
liquid pressure. Fundamentally there are two ways in which the pressures can
be contained:
(a) By forces of direct tension or compression (Fig 5.1).
(b) By Flexural resistance (Fig 5.2).
Figure 5.1 – Direct forces in circular tanks

(a) Tensile forces (b) Compressive forces
Figure 5.2 – Direct forces of tension in wall panels of rectangular tanks

Structures designed by using tensile or compressive forces are normally circular.
Rectangular tanks or reservoirs rely on flexural action using cantilever walls,
propped cantilever walls or walls spanning in two directions. A structural
element acting in flexure to resist liquid pressure reacts on the supporting
elements and causes direct forces to occur.
Chapter 5 5
Exposure and appearance

Structural concrete elements are exposed to varying types of environmental
conditions. The roof of a pump house is waterproofed with asphalt or roofing
felt and is never exposed to wet or damp conditions. The exposed legs of a
water tower are subjected to alternate wetting and drying from rainfall but do
not have to contain liquid. The lower sections of the walls of a reservoir are
always wet, but the upper sections may be alternately wet and dry as the water
level varies. The underside of the roof of a closed reservoir is damp from
condensation. The situations are shown in Fig. 5.3.
Figure 5.3 – Exposure to environmental conditions

(a) Pump house roof
(b) Water tower
(c) Reservoir
Precautions should be taken to ensure that moisture and air do not cause
carbonation in the concrete cover to the reinforcement thus removing the
protection to the steel and causing corrosion which, in turn, will cause the
concrete surface to spall. Adequate durability can be ensured by providing a
dense well-compacted concrete mix with a concrete cover of 40 mm, but it is
also necessary to control cracking in the concrete and prevent percolation of
liquid through the member (see Fig. 5.4)
Chapter 5 6
Fig. 5.4 – Effect of cracks
For the purposes of BS 8007, both faces of a liquid retaining structural member,
together with any internal walls and columns of a containment structure, are to
be considered as subject to severe exposure as defined in cl. 4.2.3.2 of HK
Code. (see Table 4.1 of HK Code)
Reproduced from Code of Practice for Structural Use of Concrete 2013
Chapter 5 7
Durability and impermeability (BS8007)

• mix proportions and concrete grades (cl. 6.3)
The minimum cement content should be 325 kg/m3. A maximum
water/cement ratio of 0.55 should be used, except when PFA is used (the
w/c should then be 0.5). The 28 day characteristic cube strength should
not be less than 35 N/mm2, and the concrete should be classified as grade
C35A.
• cover requirements (cl. 2.7.6)

The nominal cover of concrete for all steel, including links, sheathing and
spacers should be not less than 40 mm. In aggressive conditions or thin
sections where it is not possible to achieve 40 mm cover, a higher cement
content or using galvanized or epoxy coated reinforcement may be used.
• use of special reinforcement (cl. 7.2)

Galvanized, stainless steel or epoxy-coated reinforcement may be used.
Chapter 5 8
Analysis of section for SLS - Compliance with cracking requirements.
To control crack width, the structure should be provided with adequate

reinforcement at suitable spacing to resist the appropriate stresses.
Calculations for the different cases should be carried out :
(a) Direct tension in immature concrete (crack widths arising from restrained
shrinkage and heat of hydration movement). (see Appendix A of BS
8007)
(b) Direct tension in mature concrete (cracks arising from externally applied
direct tension) (see Appendix B of BS 8007). Crack widths may be
deemed to be satisfactory if the steel stress in service conditions does not
exceed the values in Table 1 (Table 3.1 of BS 8007).
(c) Flexural tension in mature concrete (cracks arising from externally

applied flexural tension) (see Appendix B of BS 8007). The crack
widths may be deemed to be satisfactory if the steel stress in service
conditions does not exceed the values in Table 1 (Table 3.1 of BS 8007).
Limiting stress design in BS8007

Crack widths may also be controlled by limiting the stress in the tensile
reinforcement under service conditions to the values given in Table 1. This
method of satisfying the limit state crack control requirements is sometimes
known as the 'deemed to satisfy' method of design, in that use of this procedure
is deemed to satisfy the crack width limitation requirement.
Table 1 Allowable steel stresses in direct or flexural tension for SLS

(Table 3.1 of BS 8007)
Design crack width (mm) Allowable stress (N/mm2)

Plain bars Deformed bars
0.1 85 100
0.2 115 130
The calculations are prepared using the elastic modular ratio method of design.
For an accurate analysis, the depth of the neutral axis must be calculated for the
applied direct tensile force and bending moment, but for many structures it will
be safe, and sufficiently accurate, to consider separately the effects for each
applied force. The calculated quantities of reinforcement are then added
together.
Chapter 5 9
5.1 Flexural reinforcement
The limit state of cracking is satisfied by ensuring that the maximum calculated
surface width of cracks is not greater than the specified value, depending on the
degree of exposure of the member. To check the surface crack width, the
following procedure is necessary:
(a) Calculate the service bending moment.

(b) Calculate the depth of the neutral axis, lever arm and steel stress by
elastic theory.
(c) Calculate the surface strain allowing for the stiffening effect of the
concrete.
(d) Calculate the crack width.
The maximum service bending moment is calculated using characteristic loads

with f = 1.0.
The calculation for a slab is based on a unit width of 1 meter.
Fig. 5.5 illustrates the assumptions made using the elastic modular ratio method
of design with a cracked section and no tensile force in the concrete. The depth
of the neutral axis depends on the steel ratio  and may be obtained by equating
the force of tension in the steel with the force of compression in the concrete:
fs As =0.5 fcb b x (eqn. 1)
From the strain diagram:

f s E s f cb E c
= (eqn. 2)
d−x x
Fig. 5.5 – Assumed stress and strain diagram

cracked section – elastic design
Chapter 5 10
From eqn. 1
0.5bx
f s f cb =
As
From eqn. 2
E s d - x  e (d - x)
f s f cb = =
Ec x x
0.5 b x  e (d - x)
=
As x
or 0.5 b x2 = e As (d - x)
Writing  =As /bd
0.5 x2 b = e  b d (d – x)
2 2
 x  x  x  x
0.5  =  e    1 −  ,    = 2 e   1 − 
d  d d  d
 x  2 
   =  e   1 + − 1  (eqn. 3)
d  e  
Chapter 5 11
Fig. 5.6 – Elastic design chart – cracked section (b and d in mm)

fst = stress in tension reinforcement (N/mm2)
M = applied moment (kNm)
e = 15 = modular ratio
As = area of tension steel (mm2)
The value of the modular ratio e = Es / Ec may be taken as 15.

 x  2 
Therefore   = 15 ρ  1 + − 1  (eqn. 4)
d  15 ρ 
Solving equation (4) gives x.
Writing the lever arm z = d – x/3
The moment of resistance of the section based on the steel stress is given by
Mr = As fs z
Mr z x
or =    =  (1 − ) (eqn. 5)
2
bd fs  
d 3d
This relation is plotted in Fig. 5.6 (using steel percentage)
Chapter 5 12
5.2 Tension reinforcement

Assuming equal steel in each face of the section, the area of steel required to
resist a structural tensile service load of T at a service stress of fs is given by
T
As = (eqn. 6)
2f s
The value of fs used in Equation (6) must be identical to the value used in
Equation (5).
5.3. Crack Mechanism
A crack is initiated by the tensile stress exceeding the concrete strength.

Formation of crack relieves the tensile stress locally to that crack but at a
distance approximately equal to the crack height.
Once cracking has taken place, the tensile bars act as restraints. Some bond
slip may take place but this is small and therefore the height of cracks can be
assumed to be equal to the cover (cmin). Spacing of cracks for this case is
therefore between cmin and 2 cmin.
5.3.1 Crack width calculation of mature concrete due to flexure
For crack width formula to be valid, the compressive stress in the concrete and
the strain in the tension reinforcement under service conditions must be less than
the limiting value as follows:
Concrete: fcb < 0.45 fcu
Steel: s < 0.8 fy / Es or (fs < 0.8 fy )
If these criteria are met, the formula for crack width calculation may be used.
The average strain at the level surface m is assessed by calculating the apparent
strain (1) (Fig. 5.7). This is then adjusted to take into account the stiffening
effect of the concrete between cracks 2.
m = 1 - 2 (eqn. 7)
Fig. 5.7 Crack calculation – strain diagram
Chapter 5 13
The formulae for the stiffening effect of the concrete between cracks include an
assumed value of strain and therefore can only be used for particular values of
design crack width. The stiffening effect of the concrete may be assessed by
deducting from the apparent strain a value obtained from the appropriate
equation below:
For a limiting design surface crack width of 0.2 mm:

b t (h − x)(a ' − x)
ε = (eqn.8a)
3E s A s (d − x)
2
For a limiting design surface crack width of 0.1 mm :

1.5b t (h − x)(a ' − x) b t (h − x)(a ' − x)
ε = or ε = (eqn.8b)
3E s A s (d − x) 2E s A s (d − x)
2 2
The value a' in these formulae is the distance from the compression face of the
section to the point at which the crack width is being calculated. In the case of
a slab, a' is equal to the overall depth h. The maximum width of a surface
crack in a slab is along a line mid-way between two adjacent bars (Fig. 5.8).
Fig. 5.8 - Slab section indicating surface crack
Chapter 5 14
The calculated value of the lever arm z is subject to two restrictions. The upper
surface of a slab is likely to be of less well-consolidated concrete and it is
therefore recommended that the value of lever arm should be limited to a value
of 0.95d. This restriction corresponds with a similar recommendation
applicable to ultimate load design. It is convenient to apply a similar restriction
to a wall calculation.
A second restriction is necessary in order to limit the depth of the neutral axis.
In modular ratio design, the depth of the neutral axis depends on the steel ratio.
In equating the tensile force in the steel to the compressive force in the concrete,
as the steel ratio increases, the depth of the neutral axis is lowered in order to
keep the forces in balance. After the steel ratio is reached where there is a
balanced section, i.e. the permissible steel stress and the permissible concrete
stress occur together, any further increase in the steel ratio will create a section
which will fail in a brittle manner. A reasonable limit is to adopt the same
restriction as in ultimate load design of 0.5d.
The value of 1 represents the calculated average elastic tensile strain in the
concrete (using modular ratio theory), and the second term of (eqn 7) makes
allowance for the stiffening effect of the concrete between actual cracks.
(h − x) f s
ε1 = (eqn. 9)
(d − x) E s
The design surface crack width w is obtained from the formula
3a crε m
w= (eqn. 10)
 a − c min 
1 + 2 cr 
 h−x 
which is stated in BS 8007 and acr is the maximum distance between the
concrete surface and the surface of the nearest bar. A negative calculated value
of w indicates that the section is uncracked.
Chapter 5 15
Fig. 5.9 - Definition of acr
The symbols used are summarized below:

1 is the strain at the level considered, ignoring the stiffening effect of the
concrete in the tension zone.
bt is the width of the section at the centroid of the tension steel.
a' is the distance between the compression face and the point at which the
crack width is being calculated.
As is the area of steel.
fs is the service stress in the reinforcement.
acr is the distance between the point considered and the surface of the nearest
longitudinal bar (see Fig. 5.9).
m is the average strain at the level at which cracking is being considered,
allowing for the stiffening effect of the concrete in the tension zone.
cmin is the minimum cover over the tension steel.
h is the overall depth of the member.
x is the depth of the neutral axis.
Es is Young's modulus for steel.
Ec is Young's modulus for concrete.
Chapter 5 16
5.3.2 Crack width calculation of mature concrete due to direct tension
Provided that the strain in the reinforcement is limited to 0.8 fy /Es or (fs < 0.8
fy ), the design crack width may be calculated from
w = 3 acr m (eqn. 11)
The average strain at the level surface m is assessed by calculating the apparent
strain (1) using characteristic loads and normal elastic theory (i.e.
T
1 = ). This is then adjusted to take into account the stiffening effect of
As E s
the concrete between cracks 2.
m = 1 - 2
The stiffening effect of the concrete may be assessed by deducting from the
apparent strain a value obtained from the appropriate equation below:
For a limiting design surface crack width of 0.2 mm:

2b t h
ε2= (eqn. 12a)
3E s A s
For a limiting design surface crack width of 0.1 mm :

bth
ε2= (eqn. 12b)
Es As
Chapter 5 17
EXAMPLE 5.1 Limiting stress design
Calculate the necessary reinforcement in a wall panel subject to a bending

moment of 35 kNm/m together with a direct tensile force of 50 kN/m.
Wall thickness h = 250 mm Cover to MB c = 52 mm

Concrete grade 35 Steel fy = 500 N/mm2
Limiting crack width = 0.1 mm
Allowable tensile stress in steel = 100 N/mm2 (from Table 1)
Effective depth d = 250 – 52 - /2 (assume bar size 16 mm)

= 250 - 52 - 8
= 190 mm
M x 108 35 x 108
= 3 = 0.97
bd 2 f st 10 x 190 2 x100
From graph  = 1.14
Area of tensile steel to resist bending moment

1.14 x 10 3 x 190
As =
100
= 2166 mm2
Area of steel to resist direct tensile force

T 50 x 10 3
As = = = 500 mm2
fs 100
Total area of tensile steel in face of section resisting tension due to bending
moment
A1 =2166 + 0.5 x 500 = 2416 mm2
On opposite face, a minimum of A2 = 0.5 x 500 = 250 mm2
Chapter 5 18
Minimum steel required to resist early thermal movement is greater than this
value -- say 0.15% each face.
A2 = 0.15% x 1000 x 250 = 375 mm2
Face 1 use T20 at 125 (2510)

Face 2 use T12 at 250 (452)
Strength calculation - Ultimate limit state
Use γf = 1.4 for the service bending moment
The design moment = 1.4 x 35 = 49 kNm

M 49 x 10 6
K= 2 = 3 2
= 0.039
bd f cu 10 x 190 x 35
 K   0.039 
z = d 0.5 + 0.25 − = + −
0.9   0.9 
190 0.5 0. 25
 
> 0.95 d
Hence z = 0.95 x 190 = 180.5 mm
As = M / (0.87 fy z ) = 49 x 106 /( 0.87 x 500 x 180.5)

= 624 mm2
Note that the reinforcement calculated for ULS is smaller than the reinforcement
required to limit crack width to 0.1 mm (2166 mm2).
Chapter 5 19
EXAMPLE 5.2
(To calculate the design crack width in a flexural member).
A wall of 300 mm overall thickness is reinforced with T16 bars at 200 mm

centers. Given Cover = 50 mm, Concrete grade 35 and short-term Ec = 27
kN/mm2.
Calculate the design crack width for an applied service moment of 44 kNm/m.
Solution
Reinforcement area = 1005 mm2/m
d = 300 - 50 - 8 = 242 mm
As
ρ =
bd
1005
= = 0.00415
1000 x 242
Es = 200 kN/mm2
Ec = 0.5 x 27 = 13.5 kN/mm2 (for long–term Ec)
e = Es / Ec = 14.8
e  = 0.0615
Depth of neutral axis is given by

x  2 
= 0.0615 1 + − 1
d  0.0615 
= 0.295 and x = 71.3 mm
Lever arm z = d – x /3 = 242 – 24 = 218 mm
Steel tensile stress fs = Ms /( z As)

= 44 x 106 / (218 x 1005) = 201 N/mm2
Concrete compressive Stress

fcb = 2 Ms /( z b x)
2x 44 x 10 6
= 3
= 5.66 N/mm2
218 x 10 x 71.3
Chapter 5 20
Check Stress levels:

0.45 fcu = 0.45 x 35 = 15.7
fcb = 5.66 < 15.7 O.K.
0.8 fy = 0.8 x 500 =400

fs = 201 < 400 O.K.
(h − x) f s
ε1 =
(d − x) E s
(300 − 71.3) 201
=
(242 − 71.3) 200 x 10 3
= 1.347 x 10 -3
Assume crack width = 0.2 mm

b t (h − x)(a ' − x)
ε2=
3E s A s (d − x)
1000 (300 − 71.3)(300 − 71.3)
=
3 x 200 x 10 3 x 1005 (242 − 71.3)
= 0.508 x 10-3
Average surface strain

m = 1 - 2
= (1.347-0.508) x 10-3 = 0.839 x 10-3
Design surface crack width

3a crε m
w=
 a − c min 
1 + 2 cr 
 h−x 
s   
2 2
a cr =   + c +  −
 2  2 2
Chapter 5 21
3 x 107.6 x 0.839 x 10 -3
hence w= = 0.18 mm
 107.6 − 50 
1+ 2  
 300 − 71.3 
Note: The result of this calculation is approximately 0.2 mm. If the result
had been near to 0.1 mm it would have been necessary to repeat the
calculation using the second formula for the stiffening effect of the
concrete. Should the first calculation be negative then the section is
uncracked. If the result is appreciably greater than 0.2 mm then a
thicker section or more reinforcement is required.
Chapter 5 22
EXAMPLE 5.3
(To calculate the design crack width in a section subject to direct tension.)
A wall of 300 mm overall thickness is reinforced with T16 bars at 200 mm

centers. Given cover = 40 mm, Es = 200 kN/mm2.
Calculate the design crack width for an applied direct tension of 440 kN/m.
Reinforcement area = 1005 mm2/m per face (2010 mm2/m per wall)
Apparent strain 1 = T/ As Es
= 440 x 103 / (2010 x 200 x 103)
= 1.09 x 10-3
Required design crack width = 0.2 mm
Stiffening effect of concrete for 0.2 mm crack width

2b t h
ε2= = 2 x 103 x 300/ (3 x 200 x 103 x 2010)
3E s A s
= 0.5 x 10-3
Average surface strain

m = 1 - 2
= (1.09 - 0.5) x 10-3 = 0.59 x 10-3
s   
2 2
a cr =   + c +  −
 2  2 2
= 1002 + 482 - 8 = 103 mm
Crack width w = 3 acr m = 3 x 103 x 0.59 x 10-3

= 0.18 mm
Note : If the calculation provides an unsatisfactory crack width, the

reinforcement must be increased.
Chapter 5 23
5.4. Flotation
An empty tank constructed in water-bearing soil will tend to move upwards in
the ground, or float. This tendency must be counteracted by ensuring that the
weight of the empty tank structure is greater than the uplift equal to the weight
of the ground water displaced by the tank. The safety margin required is a matter
for the judgment of the designer. Dependent on the certainty with which the
ground water level is known, the factor of safety may vary between 1.1 and 1.5.
Fig. 5.10 – Methods of preventing flotation

(a) Additional dead weight
(b) Provision of a heel
The weight of the tank may be increased by thickening the floor or by providing
a heel on the perimeter of the floor to mobilize extra weight from the external
soil (Fig. 5.10). Whichever method is adopted, the floor must be designed
against the uplift due to the ground water pressure. In calculating the weight of
the soil over the heel, it is important to realize that the soil is submerged in the
ground water. The effective density of the soil is therefore reduced (see
calculation (b) below).
The designer should consider conditions during construction, in addition to the

final condition, and specify a construction sequence to ensure that the structure
is stable at each phase of construction.
Chapter 5 24
EXAMPLE 5.4
A tank of overall size 5.0 x 5.0 m x 4.0 m deep is to be constructed with the
underside of the floor at a level 3.5 m below ground level. The walls and floor
are 300 mm thick.
Check stability against flotation if the ground water level is 0.5 m below the soil
surface, and the required factor of safety against flotation is 1.1.
Weight of empty tank:

Floor 24.5 x 0.3 x 5.0 x 5.0 = 184
Walls 24.5 x 0.3 x 4.7 x 4 x 3.7 = 510
Total weight of empty tank = 694 kN
Uplift due to ground water

= 9.81 x 5.0 x 5.0 x 3.0 = 736 kN
Required dead weight = (factor of safety) x (uplift)
= 1.1 x 736 = 810 kN
extra weight required = 810 - 694 =116 kN
Chapter 5 25
Try two possible solutions.

(a) Increase floor thickness to 900 mm (normally in downwards direction for
maintaining the same storage volume, therefore the uplift force
increases).
Extra weight provided

= 24.5 x 0.6 x 5.0 x 5.0 = 367 kN
Total dead load = 694 + 367 = 1061 kN
Uplift due to ground water

= 9.81 x 5.0 x 5.0 x 3.6 = 883 kN
Required dead weight = (factor of safety) x (uplift)
= 1.1 x 883 = 972 kN
< 1061 kN
This is satisfactory.
(b) Provide heel on outside of floor.
Provide a heel 0.5 m wide around outside

walls.
Unit weight of soil = 18 kN/m3
Unit weight of soil submerged in ground
water = 18 – 9.81 = 8.19 kN/m3
Weight of soil carried by heel if tank

attempts to lift = 8.19 x 0.5 x 3.2
= 13.1 kN/m run
Perimeter of heel = 4 x 5.5= 22 m

Total weight of soil = 13.1 x 22
= 288 kN > 169 kN
This is satisfactory.
Chapter 5 26
5.5. Distribution reinforcement and joints: Design against shrinkage and

thermal stress
Cracks are induced in reinforced concrete members by the action of applied
loads, by hydration of cement and by environmental conditions. This section
considers the effect of environmental conditions on concrete slabs which are
assumed to be otherwise unloaded. A typical practical example is in the
longitudinal direction of a cantilever reservoir wall. In circumstances where a
wall spans in two directions, the steel to resist thermal stresses can also be
considered as resisting flexural action, i.e. the required areas of reinforcement
for each action are not additive.
Fig. 5.11 – cracking in concrete elements

(a) Small cube free to move
(b) Long reinforced element restrained by reinforcement
5.5.1 Cracking in reinforced concrete

If a small cube of concrete is cast (such as a test cube), it will not exhibit
cracking apparent to the naked eye. However, if a long specimen with
relatively small cross-sectional dimensions is made containing reinforcement,
and the ends of the reinforcement are held to prevent any movement, after a few
days it will be found that fine lateral cracks are present (Fig. 5.11). Depending
on the relation between the quantity of reinforcement, the bar size, and the
cross-sectional area of concrete, either a few wide cracks, or a larger number of
fine cracks will form. The cracks are induced by the resistance of the
reinforcement to the strains in the concrete caused by chemical hydration of the
cement in the concrete mix.
Chapter 5 27
5.5.2 Causes of cracking
Heat of hydration
When materials are mixed together to make concrete, a chemical reaction takes
place between the cement and water during which heat is evolved. This heat of
hydration causes the temperature of the concrete to rise until the reaction is
complete, and the heat is then dissipated to the surroundings. A typical curve
illustrating the temperature rise in concrete during the first few days after mixing
is shown in Fig. 5.12a. By the sixth day, the temperature is usually back to
normal. The value of the maximum temperature is dependent on the quantity
of cement in the mix, the thickness of the concrete section, and any insulation
that is provided, deliberately, or by formwork. Concretes which are rich in
cement will emit larger quantities of heat than concretes with a low cement
content. A thick concrete section (over about 800 mm) will not cool very
quickly, because the ratio of surface area to total heat emitted is lower. Recent
work on the avoidance of cracking has shown that it may be advantageous to
allow thick sections to cool slowly by preventing rapid loss of heat. This is
achieved by covering the exposed concrete with an insulating blanket. For
normal structural work, the formwork should not be removed for three or four
days, otherwise cold winds may cause surface cracking of the warm concrete.
During the period when the concrete temperature is increasing, expansion will
take place. If the expansion is restrained by adjoining sections of hardened
concrete, some creep will occur in the relatively weak concrete, relieving the
compressive stresses induced by the attempted expansion. As the concrete
subsequently cools, it tries to shorten but, if there are restraints present, tensile
strains will develop leading to cracking (Fig. 5.12b). This is known as 'early
thermal movement'.
Chapter 5 28
Figure 5.12 (a) Rise in temperature of freshly placed concrete

(b) Thermal strains
Chapter 5 29
Drying shrinkage
As concrete hardens and dries out, it shrinks. This is an irreversible process. If
a RC member is considered under no external stress (Fig. 5.13), it will be
apparent that free shrinkage of the concrete is prevented by the steel
reinforcement. The steel is therefore in compression and the concrete in
tension, with longitudinal bond forces present on the surface of the
reinforcement. The magnitude of these forces is dependent on the concrete
properties, and the ratio of the area of steel to the area of concrete. If a high
ratio of steel is present, and there is no external restraint applied to the element,
no cracks will form but, if the steel ratio is relatively small or external restraints
are present, cracking is certain. The cracks may form at close centers and be
fine in width, or may be further apart and be correspondingly wider in order to
accommodate the total strain. It is important that there is sufficient
reinforcement to control the cracking. If this is not the case, a few very wide
cracks will form, and the reinforcement will yield at the crack positions. The
various possibilities are illustrated in Fig. 5.14.
Fig. 5.13 – Drying shrinkage in reinforced concrete
Chapter 5 30
Fig. 5.14 – Development of cracks related to reinforcement in a wall

(a) Insufficient steel – wide cracks, steel yields
(b) Controlled cracks – average spacing and width
(c) High proportion of steel – well controlled cracks of narrow width
and close spacing.
Chapter 5 31
Environmental conditions
An elevated concrete water tower will be subjected to strains due to changes
between summer and winter temperatures. In temperate climates (such as the
UK), it is not usual to consider these effects for normal types of structures, but
in countries where temperatures are more extreme, some allowance may need to
be made.
The effect of the sun in heating part of the surface of a structure may produce
differential strains between one side and another. Again, in temperate climates,
these are usually ignored in calculation, but in hot countries they will have to be
considered.
5.5.3 Crack distribution
Cracking due to early thermal movement may be controlled by reinforcement

(Fig. 5.15). The objective is to distribute the overall strain in the wall between
reinforcement and movement joints, so that the crack widths are acceptable or, if
considered desirable, that the concrete remains uncracked. There is no single
solution to the design problem of controlling early thermal cracking. The
designer may choose to have closely spaced movement joints with a low ratio of
reinforcement, or widely spaced joints with a high ratio of reinforcement. The
decision is dependent on the size of the structure, method of construction to be
adopted, and economics.
Fig. 5.15 – Relation of movement joints and reinforcement in

controlling strain in a wall
Critical steel ratio
Fig. 5.16 shows part of a reinforced concrete slab. The concrete section is
taken as an area on each side of the bar, corresponding to half the distance to the
Chapter 5 32
next reinforcing bar. Alternatively, a unit width of one meter may be defined,
and the total area of steel within this width may be read from bar spacing tables.
The steel ratio in a concrete section is defined as the ratio

As
ρc =
bh
and is often expressed as a percentage, where
As is the total area of reinforcement (in both faces)
b is the width of the concrete section
h is the overall thickness of the concrete section, required to distribute the
cracking, 'concrete section' being the surface zones given in Figure A.1
and A.2 of Appendix A of BS 8007.
The strain in a slab is largely due to temperature gradients across the depth of
slab. The strains at the center depth of a slab are much smaller. Indeed, the
best method of reducing thermal strains in a newly placed slab is to keep the
faces warm rather than allowing it to cool quickly. In a thick slab (>500 mm),
it has been found that it is not necessary to increase the total amount of thermal
reinforcement beyond that necessary for a 500 mm thick slab. Having
calculated the required steel ratio, it is just necessary to convert the
reinforcement by considering the two surface zones in walls or slabs.
Fig. 5.16
Chapter 5 33
Definition of Service Zone (Refer to Fig. 5.17)
For walls and suspended slabs

where h  500 mm, assume each reinforcement face controls h/2 depth
of concrete.
where h > 500 mm, assume each reinforcement face controls 250 mm
depth of concrete, ignoring any central core beyond this surface depth.
For ground slabs,

where h  300 mm, assume top reinforcement face controls h/2 depth of
concrete and no bottom reinforcement.
where 500 > h > 300 mm, assume top reinforcement face controls h/2
depth of concrete and bottom reinforcement controls 100 mm depth,
ignoring any central core beyond this surface depth.
where h > 500 mm, assume top reinforcement face controls 250 mm
depth of concrete and bottom reinforcement controls 100 mm depth,
ignoring any central core beyond this surface depth.
Fig. 5.17 – Surface zones in walls, suspended slabs & ground slabs
Chapter 5 34
If a section contains a low steel ratio, the strength of the steel at yield will be
less than the ultimate concrete strength in tension and when cracks form, the
steel will yield. Thus the cracks will be wide and unrestrained.
At a certain critical steel ratio, the reinforcement yields and the concrete reaches
its ultimate tensile stress at the same time. If the section is reinforced, so that the
actual steel ratio is not less than the critical ratio, then any cracks which form
will be restrained and of moderate width.
Considering the section in Fig. 5.18, the critical steel ratio may be obtained by
equating the yield force in the steel with the tensile force in the concrete. The
compressive force in the steel between cracks may be neglected. Hence
As fy = b h fct
 As  f
and   = ρ crit = ct (eqn. 13)
 bh  crit fy
The control of cracking is critical during the early life of the concrete, and
therefore a value of concrete tensile strength at 3 days should be used. Typical
values of crit and fct are given in Table 2.
Table 2 Values of critical steel ratios

Concrete
grade fct fy crit
2
(N/mm ) (N/mm2) (N/mm )2
%
35 1.6 500 0.35
250 0.64
30 1.3 500 0.31
250 0.52
25 1.15 500 0.27
250 0.46
where fct = direct tensile strength of the concrete at 3 days.
fy = characteristic yield strength of reinforcement.
crit = critical steel ratio (the minimum required to control
cracking in a restrained section).
Chapter 5 35
Crack spacing
If sufficient reinforcement is provided to control the cracking (c > crit), then
the probable spacing of the cracks may be estimated. As the shrinkage strain
increases cracks form in sequence when the bond force between the
reinforcement and the concrete becomes greater than the tensile strength of the
concrete. The bond stress between concrete and the surface of the steel that
accompanies the formation of a crack extends for a length equal to half the crack
spacing (Figure 18). Equating the two forces gives
fb s  us = fct b h (eqn. 14a)

where
 us = total perimeter of bars in the width considered
fb = average bond stress adjacent to a crack
s = bond length necessary to develop cracking force
fct = tensile stress in concrete
bh = area of concrete
 As 
Writing steel ratio = ρ c =   (neglecting concrete area taken up by steel)
 bh 
total perimeters u s
and the ratio, =
total steel area As
π  x (number of bars) 4
= = (eqn.
π 2
 x (number of bars) 
4
14b)
where  = bar size (or equivalent size for square or ribbed bars), substitution in
(eqn. 14a) gives
4 
f b s  A s  = f ct b h
 
 f  1   
 s =  ct   
 f b   c  4 
f   
=  ct  
 fb  c 
4 
and the maximum crack spacing
 f   
smax = 2 s =  ct   (eqn. 15)
 b  c 
f 2 
Chapter 5 36
Fig. 5.18 – Bond stress and crack formation
The ratios ( fct /fb ) for various types of bars are given in Table 3. The ratios
relate to concrete properties at an age of about 3 days.
Table 3 Ratios of ( fct /fb ) at early ages
Bar type Ratio

Plain bars 1
Deformed bars type 1 4/5

(Twisted squares)
Deformed bars type 2 2/3

(Ribbed)
Chapter 5 37
Calculation of crack width due to temperature and moisture effects
The number and width of cracks which form will depend on the total contraction
strain that is unrelieved by joints in the length of the section. The contraction
strain is the sum of the shrinkage strain and the thermal strain (due to changes in
temperatures).
Assuming that the steel ratio is greater than the critical steel ratio and with full
restraint (i.e. no joints), the tensile strain in the concrete may be assumed to vary
from zero adjacent to a crack to a value of ult (ultimate concrete strain) midway
between cracks at a distance smax apart. The average strain is therefore 0.5 ult .
The strain due to the maximum crack width is given by

 w  1
  =  te +  cs −  ult (eqn. 16)
 smax  2
where w = maximum crack width
smax = maximum spacing of cracks
te = thermal contraction from peak temperature
cs = total shrinkage strain is about 100 x 10-6
ult = ultimate concrete tensile strain, assumed to be 200 x 10-6
The thermal strain is due to cooling from peak of hydration temperature T1 to

ambient temperature. There is also a further variation in temperature T2 due to
seasonal changes after the concrete has hardened. When considering the strain
due to temperature T1 an effective coefficient of expansion of one half of the
value for mature concrete should be used due to the high creep strain in
immature concrete.
 w  1
  =  te +  cs −  ult
 smax  2
= 0.5 α (T1 + T2) + 100 x 10-6 - 0.5 x 200 x 10-6
= 0.5 α (T1 + T2)
Crack width w = 0.5 α (T1 + T2) smax (eqn. 17)
where α is the coefficient of linear expansion of concrete
Chapter 5 38
Typical value of T1 for Ordinary Portland Cement concrete members up to 500

mm thick shall be taken from Table 4. For sections thicker than 500 mm the
values in Table 4 shall be increased by 10 ºC. If Sulphate Resisting Portland
Cement is used, the values from Table 4 shall be reduced by 20%.
Table 4 Typical value of T1 ( ºC ) for Hong Kong condition

Cement content Steel Formwork 18 mm Plywood
3
(kg/m ) Formwork
Winter Summer Winter Summer
300 12 18 20 28
350 15 23 27 35
400 17 27 32 43
Typical values of T2 shall be taken as 20 ºC for summer concreting and 10 ºC for

winter concreting.
Alternatively, equation (17) may be expressed as

Crack width w = R α (T1 + T2) smax (eqn. 18)
where R is the restraint factor, being the restrained proportion of the theoretical
linear thermal or shrinkage movement (taken as 0.5 for immature concrete with
end restraints). R represents the amount of restraint to lateral and shrinkage
movement which is actually provided, normally by the previously cast elements
of the structure. The value of R depends on the nature of the structural
elements concerned. Detailed description of R is NOT given here.
Chapter 5 39
EXAMPLE 5.5
A 250 mm thick concrete slab of Grade 35A (cement content = 350 kg/m 3) is
exposed to severe exposure condition. Calculate the minimum reinforcement
required for crack control against thermal and shrinkage movement. Assuming
the design crack width is 0.2 mm and the slab is cast against steel formwork in
the summer. Given the coefficient of linear expansion of concrete = 12 x 10-6 /
ºC.
From eqn. 17
Design crack width w = 0.5 α (T1 + T2) smax
From Table 4, T1 = 23 ºC and T2 = 20 ºC

Hence, 0.2 = 0.5 x 12 x 10-6 (23 + 20) smax
Max. spacing of cracks smax = 775.2 mm
Assume using T16 bars, fy= 500 N/mm2 and  = 16 mm. From Table 3,
for deformed bar Type 2, ( fct /fb )= 2/3.
From Table 2, for Grade 35 concrete, crit = fct / fy = 0.35%
Using eqn. 15
 f   
smax =  ct  
 b  c 
f 2 
2  16 
 
3  2  c 
775.2 =
c = 0.0069 or 0.69 % > crit O.K.
As = 0.69 x 1000 x 250 /100 = 1725 mm2
USE T16 at 200 c/c E.F. as distribution steel (2010 mm2) (each face 1005)
Chapter 5 40
EXAMPLE 5.6
Design a 6.5 m high cantilever wall section of thickness 650 mm to retain water
in a service reservoir. The normal height of stored water is 6 m. The wall is
exposed to severe exposure condition. Assuming the design crack width is 0.2
mm and the slab is cast against timber formwork in the winter. Given the
coefficient of linear expansion of concrete = 10 x 10-6 / ºC (HK Code), unit
weight of water = 10 kN/m3, nominal cover = 40 mm. Use Grade 35A
concrete (cement content = 350 kg/m3) and high yield steel with fy = 460
N/mm2.
Solution
Consider 1 m length of wall
Strength calculation - Ultimate limit state (γf = 1.4)
Use maximum possible height of 6.5 m to calculate BM for ULS

1 2 H H3
Bending moment = ( γ w H ) * =γ w *
2 3 6
= (9.81 * 6.53)/6 = 449.0 kNm
The design moment = 1.4 * 449.0 = 629 kNm
d = 650 - 40 -20 – 25/2 = 577 mm

(assume main steel T25 bars, D.B. T20 bars)
 K 
z = d 0.5 + 0.25 −
 0.9 
= 539 mm
As = M / (0.87 fy z ) = 629 * 106 /( 0.87 * 460 * 539)

= 2910 mm2
USE T25 -150 c/c (3273 mm2)
Chapter 5 41
Check Shear
Ultimate shear force at base of wall V = 0.5 * 1.4 * 9.81 * 6.52

= 290 kN/m
Shear stress = = 0.50 N/mm2
100 As/bd = 100 * 3273/1000 * 577 = 0.57
From Table 6.3 of the code vc = 0.52 * (1.1) = 0.57 > 0.50 N/mm2
O.K.
Limit state of cracking
Use nominal height of 6 m to calculate BM for SLS

1 2 H H3
Bending moment = ( γ w H ) * =γ w * = (9.81 * 63)/6
2 3 6
= 353 kNm
Service moment = 353 kNm
 = As / bd = 3273 /(1000 * 577) = 0.00567 and assume e = 15
therefore e  = 15 * 0.00567 = 0.0851
Using section 2.1 eqn.3
x  2   2 
= α e ρ  1 + − 1  = 0.0851 1 + − 1 
d  αeρ   0.0851 
= 0.336 [Note : x = 0.336 d = 194 mm]
z = d - x/3 = 577 - 194/3 = 512 mm
Equating the moment of resistance Mr to the service moment (353 kNm)

Mr = As fs z
6
353 * 10 = 3273 * fs * 512
fs = 353 * 106 / (3273 * 512) = 210 N/mm2
Chapter 5 42
Check steel and concrete service stresses

Steel: s < 0.8 fy / Es or (fs < 0.8 fy )
fs = 210 N/mm2 < 0.8 * 500 = 400 N/mm2 OK
Concrete: fcb < 0.45 fcu

Since Ms = 0.5 fcb b x z , hence fcb = 2 Ms / ( b x z )
fcb = 2 * 353 * 106 / (103 * 194* 512) = 7.11 N/mm2
< 0.45 x 35 = 15.75 N/mm2 OK
Elastic strain at surface

(h − x) f s
ε1 =
(d − x) E s
= 1.25 x 10-3
For a limiting design surface crack width of 0.2 mm: (a' = h)

b t (h − x)(a ' − x)
ε =
3E s A s (d − x)
2
10 3 (650 − 194)(650 − 194)

=
3 x 200 x 103 x 3273 (577 − 194)
= 0.28 x 10-3
Average surface strain m = 1 - 2 = (1.25 - 0.28) x 10-3

= 0.97 x 10-3
bar spacing s= 150 mm

c = cmin = 40 + 20 = 60 mm
 = 25 mm
s   
2 2
a cr =   + c +  −
 2  2 2
= 91.8 mm
Design surface crack width
Chapter 5 43
3a crε m
w=
 a − c min 
1 + 2 cr 
 h−x 
hence
= 0.24 mm > allowable 0.2 mm
Re-calculate using T25-125 c/c (3927 mm2)

fs = 353 * 106 / (3927 * 512) = 176 N/mm2 < 0.8 fy
(h − x) f s
ε1 =
(d − x) E s
= 1.05 x 10-3
b t (h − x)(a ' − x)
ε =
3E s A s (d − x)
2
10 3 (650 − 194)(650 − 194)

=
3 x 200 x 103 x 3927 (577 − 194)
= 0.23 x 10-3
Average surface strain m = 1 - 2 = (1.05 - 0.23) x 10-3

= 0.82 x 10-3
s   
2 2
Now bar spacing s= 125 mm, a cr =   +  c +  − = 83.2mm
 2  2 2
hence
= 0.19 mm Just O.K.
Therefore use T25-125 c/c (3927 mm2) as main steel.
Chapter 5 44
Distribution steel (for shrinkage and thermal crack control)
From eqn. 17
Design crack width w = 0.5 α (T1 + T2) smax
From Table 4, T1 = (27+ 10) ºC and T2 = 10 ºC

Hence, 0.2 = 0.5 x 10 x 10-6 (27 + 10 + 10) smax
Max. spacing of cracks smax = 851 mm
Assume using T20 bars, fy= 500 N/mm2 and  = 20 mm. From Table 3,
for deformed bar Type 2, ( fct /fb )= 2/3.
From Table 2, for Grade 35 concrete, crit = fct / fy = 0.35%

Using eqn. 15
 f   
smax =  ct  
 b  c 
f 2 
2  20 
 
3  2  c 
851 =
c = 0.0078 or 0.78 % > crit O.K.
For walls over 500 mm thick, only need to consider 500 mm when calculating
distribution steel.
As = 0.78 x 1000 x 500/100 = 3916 mm2
USE T20 at 125 c/c E.F. as distribution steel (5024 mm2) (each face 2512)
Chapter 5 45
5.6. Vapour Exclusion
The problem
In recent years there has been a trend towards ever larger buildings in city
centers, and because of the shortage of land, there are frequently one or more
basements below ground level. The basements may be used for car parking,
storage, or as office or shop accommodation.
It have addressed the design of structures to retain aqueous liquids, and by using
the same principles, it is possible to design structures to exclude groundwater -
as in a basement situation. When a structure is designed to BS 8007 to exclude
liquid, it is accepted that there may be a damp patch or two on the walls, but
there should be no leakage of water. A basement in this condition will be
acceptable for use as a car park, but for use as a retail sales floor, passage of
water vapour (or damp) must be prevented. For reasons of health, the Building
Regulations require all habitable rooms to be designed so that vapour may not
pass through the external enclosure below ground level.
Properly compacted concrete will prevent the passage of water, but will still
allow water vapour to migrate through the structural elements, particularly if the
basement is heated and/or ventilated. If water vapour is to be excluded, then
additional measures are necessary.
The following section deals with the ways in which a vapour excluding concrete
structure may be achieved. Guidance may be obtained from manufacturers'
information sheets, and also from BS 8102: Code of Practice for Protection of
structures against water from the ground. It is assumed that the underground
structure is of new in situ reinforced concrete construction.
Chapter 5 46
Design requirements
BS 8102 defines the levels of protection required for various specified uses as
types A, B and C. These are reproduced in Table 5 together with the grades,
usages, and corresponding performance levels. To satisfy each of these criteria,
a structure may be designed in several ways, each being designated by the type
letter as follows:
Type A - Tanked protection

The structure itself is not water excluding and protection is provided by a
membrane system applied either externally or internally. The tanking may
either be water and vapour excluding or only water excluding.
Type B - Structurally integral protection

The structure is designed to BS 8007 to be water excluding but will not be
vapour excluding unless an external or internal membrane system is applied.
Type C – Drained protection

A drained and possibly ventilated cavity wall construction is provided together
with drained cavity floor construction. The floor construction also includes a
damp excluding membrane.
Chapter 5 47
Table 5 Guide of level of protection to suit basement use

Grade Basement usage Performance level Form of construction
1 Car parking; plant Some seepage and Type B. Reinforced
rooms (excluding damp patches concrete design in
electrical tolerable accordance with BS 8110
equipment);
workshops
2 Workshops and No water Type A.
plant rooms penetration but Type B. Reinforced
requiring drier moisture vapour concrete design in
environment; retail tolerable accordance with BS 8007
storage areas
3 Ventilated Dry environment Type A.
residential and Type B. With reinforced
working areas concrete design to BS
including offices, 8007
restaurants etc., Type C. With wall and
leisure centers floor cavity and DPM
4 Archives and stores Totally dry Type A.
requiring controlled environment Type B. With reinforced
environment concrete design to BS
8007 plus a vapour proof
membrane.
Type C. With ventilated
wall cavity with vapour
barrier to inner skin and
floor cavity with DPM
Fig. 5.19 – 5.22 show examples of these types of construction, and Table 5
includes recommendations of their application for the various grades of
protection required. It should be noted that more than one type of construction
is available for each level of protection. As stated above, it is not possible to
'design' reinforced concrete to prevent the passage of vapour and hence an
additional barrier of an appropriate material is necessary. The essential feature
of the barrier is that it should be continuous, with particular attention being
given to the junction between floor and walls and to the effective sealing of any
pipes or services which pass through the walls or floor.
Chapter 5 48
Fig. 5.19 External membrane protection
Fig. 5.20 Internal membrane protection
Chapter 5 49
Fig. 5.21 Structurally integral protection
Fig. 5.22 Drained Cavity construction
Chapter 5 50
Barrier materials
The essential properties for a barrier material are that it should be inherently
vapour excluding and that it should be of a form that can be conveniently
applied to the main structure. This includes the ability to negotiate corners and
changes of level and to remain stable in a vertical application to a wall. The
structure onto which the barrier material is placed should not contain
uncontrolled cracks which might rupture the material. Hence, design of
concrete to BS 8007 is to be preferred. Details for any movement joints should
be prepared to preserve the exclusion of vapour, and also at any change in
backing material (e.g. brick to concrete). It should be noted that a vapour
excluding barrier would also prevent water penetration, assuming that the barrier
material is not forced away from the structure by water pressure. The main
materials in use are described below. To specify each material in detail it is
necessary to consult BS 8102 and other appropriate British Standards and
manufacturers' literature.
Protection of the material is generally required after it has been placed. This
applies both on the outside of a structure before backfilling and on the inside by
providing a loading material to prevent vapour pressure blowing the material
away from the structure.
Mastic asphalt
Mastic asphalt is a material which has been used widely for many years. It is
applied hot and worked into position by hand. It is normally applied in two or
three coats of 10 mm per coat. In vertical work, it may require support at
intervals due to the weight of the material. The joints in each layer are
staggered to avoid possible paths for leakage. Where asphalt is applied to the
exterior of the structure, it requires protection before backfill is placed.
Bitumen sheet
This material consists of a sheeting material coated with bitumen. It is supplied
in rolls of various weights and widths, and applied by being stuck to the
structure with a priming coat of liquid bitumen. The surfaces onto which the
material is applied should be smooth and free from rough edges. At least two
layers are required, with the lines of the joints being staggered in position.
Chapter 5 51
Cement-based renders
These are mixed on site from sand, cement and a waterproofing admixture or a
polymer resin. Water is added and the mixture applied in two coats with
staggered joints. These renders are not necessarily entirely vapour excluding.
It is important to ensure that the backing materials are in a satisfactory condition
to receive the render and that the backing is stable and uncracked. Rendering
over a change in materials is not likely to be satisfactory as cracks will form in
the render over the lines of change. No protection to the render is normally
necessary.
Polyurethane resins
Various products are available which are supplied as a liquid or semi-liquid and
are applied by roller, trowel or other means specified by the manufacturer. The
resin cures after a period of one to two days forming a jointless vapour
excluding sheet.
Chapter 5 52
5.7. Joints
Construction joints
It is necessary to design and locate joints that allow the contractor to construct
the elements of the structure in convenient sections. In liquid-retaining
structures, the design of the structure against early thermal movement and
shrinkage is closely allied to the frequency and spacing of all types of joints, and
it is essential for the designer to specify on the drawings exactly where
construction joints will be located. At the junction between a base slab and a
wall, it is convenient to provide a short 'kicker' which enables the formwork for
the walls to be placed accurately and easily. Details are shown in Fig. 5.23.
Fig. 5.23 – Construction Joints

(a) Horizontal joint between base slab and wall
(b) Vertical joint
Joint surface preparation is important and it consists of removing the surface

laitance from the concrete without disturbing the particles of aggregate. It is
preferable to carry out this treatment when the concrete is at least five days old,
either by sandblasting or by scabbling with a small air tool. The use of
retarders painted on the formwork is not recommended, because of the
possibility of contamination of the reinforcement passing through the end
formwork. If a construction joint has been properly prepared and constructed,
it will retain liquid without a waterstop. Extra protection may be provided by
sealing the surface as shown in Fig. 5.24. Waterstops may be added to
construction joints. However it should be noted that workmanship is critical
when installing waterstops in order to ensure the water tightness.
Chapter 5 53
Fig. 5.24 – Construction joint sealed on the liquid face
Movement joints
Movement joints are designed to provide a break in the continuity of a slab, so
that relative movement may occur across the joint in the longitudinal direction.
The joints may provide for the two faces to move apart (contraction joints) or, if
an initial gap is created, the joint faces are able to move towards each other
(expansion joints). Contraction joints are further divided into complete
contraction joints and partial contraction joints.
Contraction joints.
Complete contraction joints have discontinuity of both steel and concrete across
the joint, but partial contraction joints have some continuity of reinforcement.
Fig. 5.25 and 5.26 illustrate the main types. In partial contraction joints, the
reinforcement may all continue across the joint, or only 50% of the steel may
continue across the joint.
Contraction joints may be induced by providing a plane of weakness which

causes a crack to form on a preferred line. In this case, the concrete is placed
continuously across the joint position, and the action of a device which is
inserted across the section, to reduce the depth of concrete locally, causes a
crack to form. A typical detail is shown in Fig. 5.27.
Chapter 5 54
Fig. 5.25 - Complete contraction joints
Fig. 5.26 - Partial contraction joints
Chapter 5 55
Fig. 5.27 – Induced contraction joint in floor
Expansion joints.
Expansion joints are formed with a compressible layer of material between the
faces of the joint. The material must be chosen to be durable in wet conditions,
non-toxic (for potable water construction), and have the necessary properties to
be able to compress by the required amount and to subsequently recover its
original thickness. An expansion joint always needs sealing to prevent leakage
of liquid. In a wall, a waterstop is necessary containing a bulb near to the
center which will allow movement to take place without tearing (Fig. 5.28).
The joint also requires surface sealing to prevent the ingress of solid particles.
By definition, it is not possible to transmit longitudinal structural forces across
an expansion joint, but the designer may wish to provide for shear forces to be
carried across the joint, or to prevent the slabs on each side of the joint moving
independently in a lateral direction. The slabs on either side of an expansion
joint may be prevented from relative lateral movement by providing dowel bars
with provision for longitudinal movement. The dowel bars must be located
accurately in line (otherwise the joint will not move freely), be provided with an
end cap to allow movement, and be coated on one side of the joint with a
de-bonding compound to allow longitudinal movement to take place (Fig. 5.29).
Chapter 5 56
Fig. 5.28 – (a) Wall Expansion Joint & (b) Floor Expansion Joint
Fig.5.29 – Expansion joint including dowel bars

to prevent lateral movement
Chapter 5 57
Spacing of movement joints
The provision of movement joints and their spacing are dependent on the design
philosophy adopted, i.e. whether to allow for or restrain shrinkage and thermal
contraction in walls and slabs. At one extreme, the designer may exercise
control by providing a substantial amount of reinforcement in the form of small
diameter bars at close spacing with no movement joints. At the other extreme,
the designer may provide closely spaced movement joints in conjunction with a
moderate proportion of reinforcement. Between these extremes, control may
be exercised by varying the reinforcement and joint spacing, an increase in
spacing being compensated for by an increase in the proportion of reinforcement
required. The three main options for the designer are summarized in table 5.1
of the code as follows.
(a) In option 1 (design for full restraint) no contraction joints are provided
within the area designed for continuity, and crack widths and spacing
are controlled by the reinforcement. Construction joints become part
of the crack pattern and have similar crack widths.
(b) In option 2 (design for partial restraint) cracking is controlled by the

reinforcement, but the joint spacing is such that some of the daily and
seasonal movements in the mature slab or structural member are
accommodated at the joints, so reducing the amount of movement to
be accommodated at the cracks between the joints.
(c) In option 3 (design for freedom of movement) cracking is controlled

by the proximity of the joints, with a moderate amount of
reinforcement provided, sufficient to transmit movement at any
cracked section to the adjacent movement joints. Significant
cracking between the adjacent movement joints should not occur.
The options given in table 5.1 are for horizontal movement. Vertical
movement in walls should also be considered, but it will NOT be
covered here.
Chapter 5 58
Table 5.1 of BS 8007
8 Testing for Water Tightness
The method of test depends on the visibility and position of the elements of the
structure. The walls of over ground structures can be inspected for leaks on the
outer face and, if the walls are finally to be backfilled with soil, the inspection
can be made before the fill is placed. The walls of underground structures can
be inspected if there is sufficient working space available. The floor slabs of
all structures built on soil cannot be inspected for leaks, and other methods of
test have to be used. The floor of an elevated reservoir (or water tower) can be
inspected in the same way as walls, as can the underside of a flat reservoir roof.
Chapter 5 59
(d) Definition of water tightness

The term 'water tightness' is not sufficiently precise for the purposes of a
contract specification. Essentially, a watertight structure is built to contain (or
exclude) a liquid, but some loss of liquid is inevitable due to evaporation or slow
diffusion through the concrete. Also, actual leaks may occur through fine
cracks in the concrete. These may heal autogenously (i.e. without any
treatment). This occurs as water percolates through the crack and dissolves
calcium salts from the cement. As the process continues, the crack is slowly
filled and eventually the water penetration ceases. The process may take up to
about one week with cracks of 0.1 mm width, but up to three weeks for cracks of
up to 0.2 mm width. Cracks over 0.2 mm thick may not self-seal at all. The
result of autogenous healing is a white excrescence along the line of the crack,
but no further loss of liquid. This may be acceptable as a permanent feature in
some types of structure such as underground tanks, but could not be allowed in
the walls of an elevated water tower. A further form of leakage consists of
damp patches on the surface of a wall. The liquid flow is very small, but the
appearance may not be acceptable.
It is essential that the required standard of water tightness is clearly described in

the contract specification so that there is no misunderstanding of the quality of
result required from the contractor.
(e)
(f) Water tests
A completed structure may be tested by filling with water and measuring the
level over a period of time. The concrete in the structure must be allowed to
attain its design strength before testing commences, and all outlets must be
sealed to prevent loss of water through pipes, overflows and other connections.
The structure should also be cleaned.
The structure is slowly filled to its normal maximum operating level. If the
structure is filled too quickly, the sudden increase in pressure is likely to cause
cracking. As a guide, a swimming pool or relatively small tank could be filled
over a period of three days, but a large reservoir will take much longer to fill
because of the volume of water required. BS 8007 limits the rate of filling to a
uniform rate of not greater than 2 m in 24 hours.
To allow the concrete to become completely saturated with water, a stabilizing

period is allowed after filling has been completed. The length of the stabilizing
period depends on the design surface crack width and hence the time required to
complete any autogenous healing which may be necessary. For a design crack
width of 0.1 mm, a period of one week may be required, but for a design crack
width of 0.2 mm, a period of up to three weeks is necessary.
After the stabilizing period the level of the liquid surface should be recorded at
24 hours intervals for a period of seven days. The difference in level over the
period of seven days is then used to assess the result of the test. The levels
may be measured by fixing scales to the walls, or by making marks on the walls
Chapter 5 60
above water line and measuring down to water level with a moveable scale or
other device. The level should be recorded at four positions, but with a large
reservoir at eight to twelve positions, to guard against errors in reading and local
settlements.
Fig. 5.30 – Arrangement for water test
An open structure (or a closed structure where the air above the water is affected
by wind movements) may lose moisture by evaporation, or may gain water due
to rainfall. In assessing the results of the water level readings during the test,
allowance must be made for these variations. A simple method of achieving
this is to moor watertight containers 80% filled with water at points on the water
surface. The water surface inside the container is subject to the same gains and
losses as the water in the main reservoir. By taking measurements (x) of the
water level in the container from the top edge of the container, the gains or
losses due to rainfall and evaporation in the main reservoir may be assessed (Fig.
5.30).
Acceptance
A water test will enable a net loss of water to be measured due to leakage and
further absorption into the concrete structure. The acceptable fall in water
level should be stipulated by the designer before the test is commenced. BS
8007 recommends an acceptable limit of 1/500 of the average water depth or 10
mm or other specified amount.
If the test is judged to be unsatisfactory after seven days, and if the daily
readings indicate that the rate of loss of water is reducing, the designer may
decide to extend the test period by a further seven days. If the net loss of water
Chapter 5 61
is then no greater than the specified value during the second period of seven
days, the test may be considered satisfactory. If the test is judged to be
unsatisfactory, then it should be repeated after measures have been taken to
locate and deal with leakage.
(g) Remedial treatment

It is particularly difficult to isolate defects in floor slabs, but joints and areas
where the concrete surface is irregular or honeycombed should be inspected
very thoroughly. When water has been drained out of a structure, and the
surface is drying, areas containing defects may be the last parts to remain wet or
damp, due to water being trapped in the defective area.
Small leaks and damp patches are usually self-healing after two to three weeks.
After the healing is complete, accretions on the outside of the leak may be
scraped off the surface. More persistent leaks require treatment with
proprietary products, preferably from the water face. Chemicals are available
which are applied to cracks as a slurry and are drawn into the crack by the water
flow. Fine crystals are formed which close the crack. A similar effect occurs
when the slurry is applied to a porous area. Areas of severe honeycombing or
wide cracks may be repaired with pressure grouting techniques or, if there is
severe leakage, a whole section may need to be cut out and replaced.
Chapter 5 62
 Revision
Read reference 2
 Main Reference
1 BS8007:1987: Code of practice for design of concrete structures for
retaining aqueous liquids.
2 Design of Liquid Retaining Concrete Structures, 2nd Edition, R.D. Anchor,
Edward Arnold.
3 Code of Practice for Structural Use of Concrete 2013, Buildings
Department, HKSAR
Chapter 5 63
│TUTORIAL 5│
Q1. A wall of 350 mm overall thickness is reinforced with T16 Bars at 150 mm centers as M.B. and
T12 bars at 100 mm centers as D.B. Given that:
Cover to main reinforcement = 50 mm

Grade of concrete = 35 (cement content = 350 kg/m3)
Modulus of steel bar = 200 kN/mm2
Short term modulus of concrete = 27 kN/mm2
Calculate the flexure crack width for an applied service moment of 55 kNm/m and the early
thermal crack width. Assuming that the design crack width is 0.1 mm and the wall is cast
against steel formwork in winter. The coefficient of linear expansion of concrete is 12 x 10-6 / oC.
Q2. A water tank wall that can be designed as a cantilever wall is 5.0 m high above the base slab.
Determine the thickness of the wall and main reinforcement required (assume D.B. diameter 10
mm in outermost layer) if the limiting crack width is 0.2 mm. Given Grade of concrete = 30,
nominal cover = 40 mm, e = 15, Es = 200 kN/mm2 and use high yield bars fy = 500 N/mm2.
Q3. Calculate the total crack width in a wall panel subject to a service bending moment of 50 kNm/m
together with a direct tensile force of 280 kN/m. Given that:
Wall thickness h = 350 mm Cover to main bar, c = 52 mm

Concrete grade = 35 N/mm2 Steel fy = 500 N/mm2
Limiting crack width = 0.2 mm Main bar = T16@200 c/c E.F.
Modulus of steel bar = 200 kN/mm2 Short term modulus of concrete = 27 kN/mm2
Q4. A tank of overall size 7.0 x 5.0 m x 3.5 m deep is to be constructed with the underside of the floor
at a level 3.5 m below ground level. The walls and floor are 300 mm thick. Check stability
against flotation if the ground water level is 1 m below the soil surface if the required factor of
safety against flotation is 1.1. Justify with calculation a remedial proposal if it is inadequate.
2.5m
7m x 5m water tank
Chapter 5 64

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CON4338A2TO160623BL Ch5 WaterRetainingStructure

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STRUCTURES AND TALL BUILDINGS (CON4338)

Water Retaining Structure

5. Water Retaining Structure

Design Objectives and Recommendations

Requirements of HK CoP for Structural Use of Concrete 2013

Exposure condition: 1= Mild ; 2 = Moderate ; 3 = Severe ; 4 = Very Severe

• Section 2 of BS 8007 takes precedence over Section 2 of BS 8110 in

• The provisions of BS 8007 in respect of exposure conditions are to be

Structural design philosophy

Ultimate limit state

Serviceability limit state:

Cracking - reinforced concrete:

Deflection -limits and span/effective depth ratios (cl. 7.3.4.2)

Figure 5.1 – Direct forces in circular tanks

Figure 5.2 – Direct forces of tension in wall panels of rectangular tanks

Exposure and appearance

Figure 5.3 – Exposure to environmental conditions

Fig. 5.4 – Effect of cracks

Reproduced from Code of Practice for Structural Use of Concrete 2013

Durability and impermeability (BS8007)

• cover requirements (cl. 2.7.6)

• use of special reinforcement (cl. 7.2)

Analysis of section for SLS - Compliance with cracking requirements.

To control crack width, the structure should be provided with adequate

(c) Flexural tension in mature concrete (cracks arising from externally

Limiting stress design in BS8007

Table 1 Allowable steel stresses in direct or flexural tension for SLS

Design crack width (mm) Allowable stress (N/mm2)

5.1 Flexural reinforcement

(a) Calculate the service bending moment.

The maximum service bending moment is calculated using characteristic loads

fs As =0.5 fcb b x (eqn. 1)

From the strain diagram:

Fig. 5.5 – Assumed stress and strain diagram

Writing  =As /bd

Fig. 5.6 – Elastic design chart – cracked section (b and d in mm)

The value of the modular ratio e = Es / Ec may be taken as 15.

Writing the lever arm z = d – x/3

5.2 Tension reinforcement

5.3. Crack Mechanism

A crack is initiated by the tensile stress exceeding the concrete strength.

5.3.1 Crack width calculation of mature concrete due to flexure

Fig. 5.7 Crack calculation – strain diagram

For a limiting design surface crack width of 0.2 mm:

For a limiting design surface crack width of 0.1 mm :

Fig. 5.8 - Slab section indicating surface crack

The design surface crack width w is obtained from the formula

Fig. 5.9 - Definition of acr

The symbols used are summarized below:

5.3.2 Crack width calculation of mature concrete due to direct tension

For a limiting design surface crack width of 0.2 mm:

For a limiting design surface crack width of 0.1 mm :

EXAMPLE 5.1 Limiting stress design

Calculate the necessary reinforcement in a wall panel subject to a bending

Wall thickness h = 250 mm Cover to MB c = 52 mm

Effective depth d = 250 – 52 - /2 (assume bar size 16 mm)

Area of tensile steel to resist bending moment

Area of steel to resist direct tensile force