Canadian Geographies G Ographies Canadiennes - 2017 - CARTER - The Role of Housing and Neighbourhood in The Re Settlement

The role of housing and neighbourhood
in the re-settlement process: a case study

of refugee households in Winnipeg
THOMAS S. CARTER
Department of Geography, University of Winnipeg, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3B 2E9, Canada (e-mail: t.carter@uwinnipeg.ca)
CHESYA POLEVYCHOK
Department of Geography, University of Winnipeg, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3B 2E9, Canada (e-mail: m.polevychok@uwinnipeg.ca)
JOHN OSBORNE
Department of Geography, University of Winnipeg, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3B 2E9, Canada (e-mail: j.osborne@uwinnipeg.ca)
Access to adequate, affordable housing is an essential Le rôle du logement et du quartier dans le processus
first step in the re-settlement process for immigrants de réinstallation : une étude de cas sur les ménages
and refugees. It is the basis from which newcomers de réfugiés à Winnipeg
look for jobs, language training and other services.
La première étape dans le processus de réinstallation
Without such housing, newcomers may have limited
des immigrants et réfugiés est de pouvoir bénéficier
security of tenure, compromised health, jeopardized
d’un logement de qualité et abordable. Celui-ci sert de
education and employment opportunities and
base d’opérations aux nouveaux arrivants à la
impaired social and family life. Refugees generally
recherche d’un emploi, d’une formation linguistique,
face the greatest challenges of all newcomers and
et d’autres services. Les nouveaux arrivants privés de
find their housing choices constrained by many
l’accès à un tel logement disposeraient d’une sécurité
factors. This article presents the results of a study of
d’occupation limitée, d’une santé fragile, d’un niveau
refugee housing circumstances in Winnipeg. Key
d’éducation et de possibilité d’emploi inadéquats, et
socio-economic, housing and neighbourhood
d’une vie sociale et familiale déficiente. De manière
characteristics important to successful re-settlement
générale, les réfugiés sont ceux parmi les nouveaux
are documented and analyzed. The longitudinal
arrivants qui sont confrontés à d’énormes défis et
nature of the study facilitates exploration of
plusieurs facteurs restreignent les possibilités de se
trajectories in a variety of indicators over time. The
trouver un logement. L’article rend compte des
picture that emerges is one of the improving
résultats d’une étude sur les conditions de logement
trajectories in many key indicators but also of very
des ménages de réfugiés à Winnipeg. L’étude a permis
difficult circumstances that negatively affect the
de recueillir et d’examiner des données relatives aux
re-settlement process and the effective integration of
principales caractéristiques socioéconomiques, du
The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien 53, no 3 (2009) 305–322

DOI: 10.1111/j.1541-0064.2009.00265.x

C / Canadian Association of Geographers / L’Association canadienne des géographes
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306 Thomas S. Carter, Chesya Polevychok and John Osborne
refugee households. The article ends with suggestions logement et du quartier, lesquelles sont
for policy and program changes that would improve déterminantes pour la réinstallation. Utilisant un
the housing circumstances of newly arrived refugee devis longitudinal, une exploration des trajectoires
households. des ménages au fil du temps a pu être menée en
Key words: refugees, housing, neighbourhood, fonction de divers indicateurs. Il se dégage un tableau
re-settlement mitigé avec une amélioration des trajectoires sur
plusieurs indicateurs clés, mais qui s’accompagne de
conditions difficiles portant préjudice au processus de
réinstallation et à l’intégration de facto des ménages
de réfugiés. Pour terminer, l’article propose certaines
modifications qui pourraient être apportées aux
politiques et programmes afin d’améliorer les
conditions de logement des ménages de réfugiés
récemment installés.
Mots clés: réfugiés, logement, quartier, réinstallation
Introduction This research contributes to the discussion on

the relationship between refugee housing circum-
Housing is an important component of the re- stances and their re-settlement and integration
settlement experience of immigrants and refu- into a host society. The significance of the study
gees. A positive housing situation facilitates is that it is longitudinal in nature, spanning as
many aspects of the re-settlement and integra- it does, the three years, 2006 to 2008. This fa-
tion process and there is ample evidence to cilitated development of trajectories in key hous-
suggest poor housing circumstances can inhibit ing and socio-economic indicators. The focus on
integration into a new society and lead to poor Winnipeg, a tier two city, is also significant. Most
health, social and economic outcomes. Although research on refugee housing circumstances in
immigrants to Canada have historically matched Canada has focused on Toronto, Montréal and
the housing status of other Canadians over a pe- Vancouver, and very little of this has been lon-
riod of a couple of decades (Murdie et al. 2006), gitudinal. Consequently, the focus on Winnipeg
recent immigrants are failing to achieve similar helps extend our understanding of refugee hous-
gains and are more likely to experience distress ing circumstances to smaller cities with very
than their predecessors. Refugees are likely to different housing market circumstances. The re-
experience even higher levels of housing distress search also contributes to a better understand-
than immigrants. ing of policy and program initiatives that could
The purpose of this study was to examine the contribute to better housing experiences for new
housing experiences of recently arrived refugees arrivals. Given that market rents are lower in
in Winnipeg. The study focused on the quality smaller centres like Winnipeg, the hypothesis is
and type of housing the refugees were able to that refugees are likely to experience fewer af-
find, the cost and affordability of their housing, fordability problems and better housing circum-
their level of housing satisfaction and their rela- stances than refugees in the larger centres. It is
tionships with landlords and caretakers. The anticipated, however, that despite better housing
influence of neighbourhood circumstances on circumstances than in major centres, housing dif-
housing satisfaction and mobility and the role ficulties, and neighbourhood characteristics will
of social support groups and community orga- still negatively affect the re-settlement process.
nizations in helping refugees to access housing
were also a focus of the analysis. Detailed socio-
economic characteristics were collected so that The Methodology
changes in income, employment and other char-
acteristics of the household likely to affect their The broad objective of the research was to exam-
access to housing could be documented. ine the changing housing experience of recently
The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien 53, no 3 (2009)

The role of housing and neighbourhood in the re-settlement process 307
arrived refugees over a three-year period. The with their mental and physical health they
methodology consisted of a literature review de- wished to acknowledge rounded out the
tailing the findings of related research in Canada. survey.
Focus groups with refugees who had been in The interviews provided the detailed data
Canada for up to five years provided an idea of necessary to develop changing housing and
the difficulties they faced in their transition into neighbourhood circumstances and to determine
a new society, and the role that housing played the role these circumstances played in the re-
in surmounting those obstacles. An analysis of settlement and integration of the refugees. In
the market circumstances during the three years the first year of the study, refugees who had
of the study provided information on the rents, been in Winnipeg for a year or less were inter-
vacancy rates and stock characteristics in the viewed. The interview, conducted with an adult
market place that refugees faced in their hous- member of each household, required approxi-
ing search. mately two hours for completion. Interpretation
The insights obtained in the focus groups was provided when necessary and a $50.00 hon-
and the literature review helped structure a orarium was given to each participant.
comprehensive questionnaire that was imple- The study faced a number of challenges. The
mented by a personal interview and provided initial challenge was finding participants as there
both quantitative and qualitative data to evaluate is no database providing contact information
the housing and neighbourhood experiences of for new arrivals, particularly after their first
the refugees. The interview collected household move. The team solicited the help of several
characteristics such as size, composition and community organizations working with refugees.
family status as they affect the housing needs Staff in these organizations made initial contact
and settlement challenges households face. with potential interviewees to explain the nature
Housing histories since arrival were constructed of the research project and gain permission
to document mobility, reasons for moving, lo- for the researchers to telephone and set up an
cations and housing types as well as additional interview in their home or a location of their
details on their dwellings at the time of each choice. Notices asking for volunteers were also
interview such as tenure, unit type, number of posted in agencies frequented by recently arrived
bedrooms, the condition and need for repairs. refugees. The initial households interviewed were
Satisfaction with size, air quality, temperature also asked for referrals (snowball sampling).
control, storage, lighting and other facets of de- The second challenge was maintaining retention
sign as well as any safety or health issues they over the three-year period. During the initial
had with their dwelling were documented. Their interview, it was explained to respondents that
understanding of tenant and landlord rights and they would be contacted a year later for another
responsibilities was determined. Questions on interview. They were given a form to fill in and
neighbourhood characteristics explored issues return to the team (self-addressed stamped enve-
such as access to services, transportation, prox- lope) so that they could contact the researchers
imity to family, friends, members of their ethnic to provide new addresses, phone numbers, and
or racial group, relationships with their neigh- e-mail if these changed or they moved. Team
bours and their sense of safety and security in members also called every three months to
their neighbourhood. Details on employment, job check on the participants. These efforts certainly
characteristics, work experience, information on helped maintain contact and retention. The third
household income and household expenditures, challenge was language. Several interviews had
debt levels and ability to save money provided to be carried out with the aid of interpretation,
a good overview of the general financial circum- although the team’s ability to speak several
stances of the refugees. Comparing household different languages was an asset. Despite these
income with the detailed housing costs that challenges, 75 households were interviewed
were collected permitted calculation of housing in the initial year. In the second year, 55 of
affordability. Questions exploring their social the original households were re-interviewed (a
support network, supports and services they had retention rate of 73 percent), and in the third
received or felt were missing and any problems year, 39 of the 55 second year households were

re-interviewed, a 52 percent retention rate based tance rates well below the rising cost of hous-
on the initial 75 households. ing and living in general, legislation that gener-
The sample was a good representation of all ally favours landlords, long waiting lists for so-
refugees arriving in Winnipeg in the first year cial housing and the lack of any significant pub-
of the study. In that year (2006), approximately lic initiative to increase the supply of afford-
1,200 of the 1,241 refugees arriving in Manitoba able housing in recent years (Zane 2002; Wayland
settled in Winnipeg. Approximately 43 percent 2007; Carter et al. 2008). The limited availabil-
were government assisted, 52 percent were pri- ity of affordable private rental and social hous-
vately sponsored, and five percent were refugee ing is one of the most difficult challenges facing
claimants. In the study, the breakdown was 40, low-income refugee households. Access to social
56 and 4 percent, respectively (Manitoba Labour housing provides certain advantages for refugee
and Immigration 2007). The 75 households in- households—lower rents and units that are more
terviewed in this initial year contained approx- suitable for the size of the households for exam-
imately 275 people, representing 23 percent of ple (Carter et al. 2008) but can also lead to ghet-
the refugee population arriving in Winnipeg that toization and isolation of a marginalized group
year. (Murdie 1992, 1994).
The data from the interviews were coded and Another theme in the literature identifies the
entered into an SPSS software database. Frequen- characteristics of refugee households themselves
cies and cross-tabs were run for a range of as barriers such as low incomes and limited
variables that indicated how the refugees’ hous- language skills. Their lack of knowledge of the
ing, neighbourhood and socio-economic circum- housing market, the renting process, their rights
stances changed over the three years. The data as tenants and the rights and responsibilities of
provide a point-in-time perspective for each year landlords also make their search for good hous-
and a picture of the changing circumstances of ing more difficult (CMHC 2004a; Carter et al.
those households followed throughout the three- 2008). Geronimo et al. (2001) and Chan et al.
year period. The results presented in this article (2005) cite other personal characteristics as bar-
draw on both point-in-time cross-sections as well riers including household size, ethnic origin and
as the longitudinal database. lack of assets which were either destroyed or
left behind. Low education levels contribute to
their poor performance in the labour market
The Literature leading to high unemployment and poverty levels
that also limit refugees’ ability to access housing
A review of the literature helps character- (Hum and Simpson 2004; Picot et al. 2004; Picot
ize the housing difficulties and neighbourhood et al. 2007).
circumstances that refugees face, the housing Studies highlight other personal characteristics
conditions they experience and the various in- related to trauma, torture and many years spent
dicators used to measure housing trajectories. in refugee camps as key influences on the re-
The following discussion of the literature is or- settlement process and housing needs. The after
ganized under several theme areas: market char- effects of such experiences include mental dis-
acteristics, public policy failures, characteristics orders, such as anxiety, depression, eating dis-
of the refugee households, housing problems and orders, grief, post-traumatic stress and loss of
neighbourhood characteristics. personal and cultural identity. Common physical
Market place characteristics present a num- health problems include nutritional deficiencies,
ber of challenges. High rents, low vacancy rates intestinal parasites, dental, visual and hearing
and a limited number of three and four bed- problems, HIV/AIDs, tuberculosis and hepati-
room rental units required by the generally much tis B and C (Canadian Mental Health Associa-
larger households limit access to adequate, af- tion 2003; Houston 2005; Parsons 2005; Suzuki
fordable housing (Canada Mortgage and Hous- 2005). The years in refugee camps have pre-
ing Corporation (CMHC) 2004a). These market vented many refugees from attaining a formal
circumstances are exacerbated by public policy education, acquiring skills or work experi-
failures that have kept increases in social assis- ence. Houston (2005) in a study of Sudanese

families in Edmonton found most families had provide social support networks are neighbour-
been in refugee camps for up to 15 years, hood characteristics that can play an important
100 percent lacked urban skills, and 100 per- role. The importance of the social support net-
cent of the women were illiterate. These char- works is highlighted by the fact that refugees
acteristics not only make searching for and are not prominent amongst the homeless pop-
retaining housing more difficult, they also high- ulation even though the very high risk nature
light the importance of good housing circum- of their housing circumstances suggests they
stances that provide the stable base refugees can be considered amongst the ‘hidden home-
need to access the services they need to address less’. It appears that the social networks oper-
these problems. ating within newcomer groups mitigate against
Housing affordability problems of refugees is the worst forms of homelessness (Hiebert et al.
another theme well documented in several stud- 2005).
ies (Geronimo et al. 2001; Rose and Ray 2001; Positive trajectories in indicators chosen from
CMHC 2003; Murdie 2003, 2005; Chera 2004; these theme areas such as improving hous-
Chan et al. 2005; Preston et al. 2006; Social Plan- ing affordability, increasing levels of housing
ning Council of Winnipeg (SPCW) 2006; Prueg- and neighbourhood satisfaction, improvements
ger 2007). These studies reveal that for many in income, declining poverty rates and improv-
refugees affordability is the major barrier to ing employment circumstances facilitate the re-
accessing adequate and suitable housing. Their settlement and integration process and reduce
low incomes leave them in a situation where long-term costs to society in other areas such
their rent often exceeds 30 percent of their as health, education and income support (Carter
gross, before tax, household income. This is the and Polevychok 2004).
traditional standard used in Canada to identify
households with affordability problems. Spending
more than 30 percent leaves low-income house- Settling in Smaller Communities:
holds with too little money to address other ba- Advantages and Disadvantages
sic necessities.
Mattu (2002), in a study of housing problems Although refugees settling in Winnipeg face
faced by refugees, adds overcrowding, substan- many of the challenges identified in the litera-
dard, dirty, unpleasant and poorly maintained ture, there are other disadvantages, as well as
housing conditions to the affordability problems advantages, to settling in smaller cities. In Win-
of refugees. Rose and Ray (2001), in their study nipeg, housing is less expensive. Average rents
of refugees in Montréal, in addition to high hous- for two and three bedroom apartments are ap-
ing costs, identified inadequate transportation proximately $350 per month lower in Winnipeg
for the housing search, lack of familiarity with than in Toronto and close to $400 lower than
the city and discrimination by landlords as ma- in Vancouver. This may result in less housing
jor barriers. Refugees, particularly those who are stress. Despite lower rents, vacancy rates of one
visible minorities often experience discrimination percent in Winnipeg, amongst the lowest of all
when attempting to access housing (CMHC 2002; the Metropolitan centres (CMHC 2007), restrict
Ghosh 2006; Murdie et al. 2006). As a vulnerable, access to this more affordable housing.
marginalized population, refugees are at consid- Smaller cities, like Winnipeg, may also try
erable risk of housing exploitation. harder to facilitate the re-settlement of refugees.
Studies also note that housing issues inter- Tier two cities have never been a significant des-
sect with neighbourhood characteristics that can tination for newcomers—immigrants or refugees.
have both a positive and a negative impact on In 2006, for example, almost 40 percent of all
people’s life chances, either enhancing or de- new arrivals chose Toronto as their destina-
tracting from housing circumstances (Germain tion with approximately 15 percent in each of
and Gagnon 1999). Safety and security issues, Montréal and Vancouver. Winnipeg attracted four
the presence or absence of services, the prox- percent. The destination of refugees is similar.
imity of friends, family and people of the same Fifty-eight percent of the 32,515 refugees arriv-
ethnic, and religious or racial groups that can ing in Canada in 2006 moved to Ontario, the

majority to Toronto, 22 percent to Quebec, most and education in many aspects of re-settlement
to Montréal, and a smaller proportion to British and cultural awareness, a greater emphasis on
Columbia (six percent), most to Vancouver. Win- recognition of foreign credentials, money to pro-
nipeg attracted four percent of the national to- vide more affordable housing. These initiatives
tal, although this proportion of the national total make Winnipeg a more attractive and hospitable
has more than doubled in the last 10 years (Citi- place for refugees. The activity of sponsoring
zenship and Immigration Canada (CIC) 2007). To and community service organizations that work
attract and retain refugees and immigrants evi- with refugees like the International Refugee Com-
dence from other studies suggest smaller centres mittee of Manitoba, the Anglican Dioceses, and
try harder to be more welcoming communities. the Mennonite Central Committee, amongst oth-
Brochu and Abu-Ayyash (2006) mention London, ers, have also been growing in strength. The ef-
Ontario’s efforts at creating a welcoming en- forts by these non-profit organizations, as well
vironment by increasing access to social ser- as governments, have resulted in an increase in
vices, including housing, and the development refugee arrivals in the city from levels of under
of community events and activities to ensure 600 in the late 90s to between 1,000 and 1,300
broader community support and acceptance. Der- each year since 2003. In the three years encom-
wing and Krahn (2008) mention similar efforts passing the longitudinal study, just over 3,300
in Calgary and Edmonton. Many smaller commu- refugees arrived in the city (Manitoba Labour and
nities in Australia have developed ‘Refugee Wel- Immigration 2007).
come Zones’. Local Councils develop community Economic changes have also made a difference.
activities and events, public forums to introduce Until the most recent decade, Winnipeg, and the
refugees to the community and fund commu- Province as a whole, have been characterized by
nity based projects to support their re-settlement a very slow, some would suggest stagnant, econ-
(Refugee Council of Australia, 2008). Cooper omy. Very few jobs and significant out migra-
et al. (2002) mention similar efforts in smaller tion made Winnipeg an unlikely destination and
centres in Britain. Despite these efforts, Cooper prompted secondary outmigration as those who
et al. (2002) found that community organizations did come often moved quickly to other larger
in smaller communities often lack the capacity, centres like Toronto. Since the late 1990s, this
expertise, or resources necessary to adequately has changed with a more buoyant economy and
handle re-settlement, and smaller host commu- job creation. One could argue that the economic
nities often have little knowledge or experience circumstances combined with more substantive
of multiculturalism and refugee issues which can attraction and retention initiatives have made a
lead to racism and discrimination in general, and smaller centre like Winnipeg a more welcoming
the housing market in particular. place for refugees.
Another disadvantage facing smaller commu-
nities is the size of particular ethnic groups. Households Characteristics Present
With a growing number of countries of origin, Challenges in the Re-settlement
refugees are coming to smaller centres where Process
there are few others of their particular ethnic
or racial group. This reduces their social support The distribution by country of origin of the sam-
network, the attraction of the centre and the like- ple and all refugee arrivals in 2006 was a very
lihood they will stay in the community. good match. Close to 70 percent of the sample
Initiatives have been introduced to make Win- were from Africa and the Middle East, 16 per-
nipeg a more welcoming community. In an effort cent from South and Central America and ap-
to address labour force shortages and the de- proximately ten percent from Asian and Pacific
mographics of an aging population, the Province countries. Many of the refugees fall into the cat-
and the Federal Government have introduced egory of ‘visible minority’. This often raises the
more substantive attraction and retention strate- potential for discrimination and several of the
gies, which includes more support for refugees study households stated they had faced discrimi-
as well as immigrants. More funding for language nation in the housing market and the workplace.
training, an entry program providing training Top countries of origin included Ethiopia, Sudan,

Somalia, Eritrea, Afghanistan and Columbia. only two percent of the rental universe surveyed
Sponsoring organizations in Winnipeg focus very by CMHC in the city (CMHC 2007).
heavily on African countries, explaining the high
proportion of refugees from Africa (Manitoba
Labour and Immigration 2007). The sample dis- The Findings
tribution changed very little during the three
Unskilled positions with low rates of pay
years of the study.
are the norm
Nearly all the refugees came directly from
refugee camps and suffered from many of the Access to employment that provides a reason-
same personal problems identified in the litera- able income is crucial to improving housing
ture. Many had experienced severe trauma, been trajectories for refugees but many find it dif-
victims of torture and had suffered long peri- ficult to find jobs that pay a reasonable wage
ods of malnutrition which had left them with and have advancement potential. Work by Lamba
a range of health problems, both mental and (2003), Broadway (2007) and Wilkinson (2008),
physical. A study by Magoon (2005) found that for example, identify the labour force difficulties
29 percent of refugees of school age or older refugees face: relegation to unskilled positions
arriving in Winnipeg had no formal education often unrelated to their field of expertise; lack
and another 55 percent had not graduated from of Canadian job experience and Canadian refer-
secondary school. These problems leave them ences; low education and skills levels and cre-
poorly equipped to deal with the difficulties of dential recognition problems for education and
settling in a new country. Stable, secure, afford- training they do have; low levels of job satisfac-
able housing can play a significant role in help- tion; and high levels of temporary employment
ing refugees deal with these circumstances. and unemployment.
The average sample household size of 3.9 per- The situation in Winnipeg is similar although
sons was much larger than the 2.4 persons for the labour force characteristics of the study
all Winnipeg households (Statistics Canada 2008). households improved during the study period.
One-third of the sample households were non- The percentage of households with at least
family while two-thirds were family units. In Win- one person employed full time increased from
nipeg, the respective percentages are 38 and 49 percent to 72 percent (Table 1). Thirty-nine
62 percent. However, a much higher percentage percent of the interviewees who had looked for
of the refugee families were extended or multi- work during year three still reported difficulty
ple family households; 12 percent compared to finding a job. The difficulties they noted as bar-
only four percent in the Winnipeg population. riers to their job search had changed little from
The age distribution of the study population was the previous two years: language/accent prob-
markedly younger than the Winnipeg population. lems, lack of job experience and/or references
Thirty-five percent were under 15 years of age in Canada, and credential recognition problems.
compared to 18 percent of the Winnipeg popu- Some were unable to work because they had
lation, only one percent was 65 and older com- health problems, were caring for family or were
pared to 14 percent of Winnipeggers (Statistics
Canada 2008). The study sample is characterized Table 1
by large households, the majority of them young Labour force characteristics show modest improvement
families with many living in extended or multi-
ple family situations. Over the three-year period, Year Year Year
one two three
household size declined slightly, the proportion
of non-family households increased and family Employed 49 62 72
households declined, but the proportion of ex- Working in field of expertise – 39 43
tended and multiple family households remained Difficulties finding a job – 38 39
the same. Compared to the host population in Working more than one job 25 29 32
Satisfied with job 65 67 67
Winnipeg, these characteristics dictate a need for
Happy with employment income 63 67 57
a higher proportion of larger three and four bed-
room family housing units but they make up SOURCE: Survey of Study Households.

going to school or university. The proportion Table 2

Income trajectories are positive
working in their field of expertise increased over
the study period but was still low at 43 percent % change
in the third year. Job satisfaction improved Year Year Year year one to
marginally from the first to the second year, one % two % three % year three
but remained the same in the third year at
67 percent. People were unhappy with their Under $20,000 29.4 28.6 14.7 −14.7
$20,000–$29,999 52.9 34.3 23.5 −29.4
labour force experience because they were not $30,000–$39,999 17.6 14.3 26.5 +8.9
working in their field of expertise, they were $40,000–$49,999 2.9 14.3 17.6 +14.7
overqualified, the pay was poor, and they lacked $50,000+ 0.0 8.6 17.6 +17.6
job security, benefits or opportunities for ad- Mean $23,636 $28,276 $35,411 +49.8
vancement. Although 38 percent arrived with Median $23,208 $26,400 $30,570 +31.7
some university education and approximately
SOURCE: Survey of Study Households.
one-quarter had college or trade certificates,
close to 80 percent were still working in sales
and services in the third year. Fifteen percent (Figure 1). Just over 40 percent indicated that
were working in construction and manufacturing. they had difficulty meeting expenses each month,
Only two employees were in what would be con- down from 60 percent in year one and the pro-
sidered professional positions. The labour force portion unable to save money had declined from
circumstances of the study groups show some 69 to 49 percent from year one to year three.
improvement, but the majority of the employed There were significant changes in the source of
occupy low-paying unskilled positions with lim- income. In year one, 35 percent of the house-
ited earning potential which restricts their ability holds depended entirely on income from gov-
to access affordable housing. ernment transfers. This proportion fell to nine
percent in year three. Employment income as a
percentage of all income increased from 37 to 68
Poverty is pervasive percent over the three years. Despite these im-
The precarious income circumstances of refugees provements, the lower incomes of refugee house-
have been well documented. DeVoretz et al. holds limit their access to housing, particularly
(2004), when discussing the economic experience
of refugees, refer to the very high dependence
on social assistance and the near destitute lev-
els of income. This situation has also been high-
lighted in work of the United Way of Toronto
and the Canadian Council on Social Develop-
ment (2002). The Winnipeg experience is simi-
lar, although the modest improvements in the
employment circumstances of the households are
reflected in modest improvements in income and
rates of poverty over the three-year period. Mean
incomes increased 50 percent from year one to
year three with the proportion earning more than
$50,000 increasing from zero to almost 18 per-
cent (Table 2). The mean income of $35,400 is,
however, only 56 percent of the average income
of households in the city of Winnipeg. Poverty
levels, although declining, are 2.6 times higher
than the level in the city. Ninety-one percent
were below the poverty level as defined by Statis- Figure 1
tics Canada’s Low Income Cut Off (LICO) in year Declining incidence of poverty.
one. By year three, this had fallen to 53 percent SOURCE: Survey of Sample Households.

for larger households requiring the more expen- mately one-quarter of the study households lived
sive larger units. in social housing at the time of the interview.
In years two and three, this had increased to
Renter affordability improves by sacrificing other 40 percent of the households. With rents set at
housing and neighbourhood circumstances 27 percent of gross (before tax) household in-
come 1 , social housing units are more affordable.
The modest improvements in income are Households living in social housing paid $150 to
reflected in improving housing circumstances. over $200 less per month for rent over the study
The average income of renters increased from period than did households in the private sector.
$20,522 per annum in year one to $27,743 in The size and location of the accommoda-
year three. This represents a 35 percent increase, tion renters occupied also helps explain the
much lower than the 50 percent increase for the improvement in affordability. The majority of
sample as a whole. The average rent paid only households in the sample lived in cheaper but
increased modestly over the three-year period, smaller units—often too small for the size of
from $537 to $541, although rents ranged from the household—and in older units in the inner
$236 to $1,000 per month depending on the size city. Three-quarters of the households lived in
and type of unit. Average shelter-to-income ratios apartments, with 80 percent of this group in one
for renters dropped from 31 percent in year one and two bedroom units. The other 25 percent oc-
to 22 percent in year three (Table 3) and the pro- cupied row, town or semi-detached houses, and
portion of renters paying 30 percent or more for two-thirds of this group lived in three bedroom
housing fell from 46 percent in year one to 23 units. Throughout the study period, the major-
percent by year three. The proportion of renter ity of households lived in the inner city, just
households with affordability problems for the over three-quarters in year one and still over
study population is actually lower in year three 60 percent in year three. Rents for the older
than for Winnipeg renters as a whole (23 versus units are lower in the inner city.
37 percent) (Statistics Canada 2008). Taking all these aspects into consideration,
Ignoring for the moment, the adequacy and refugee households that rent live in accommo-
suitability of the housing occupied there has dation that is considerably cheaper than the av-
been quite a significant improvement in renter erage rents in Winnipeg. Average rents for the
affordability. A number of other factors, when sample in year three were $236 per month for
combined with income, contribute to this im- bachelor or rooming house accommodation, $463
provement. Access to social housing certainly for one bedroom units, $470 per month for two
plays a role, reducing rental housing costs for bedrooms and $728 for three bedrooms. Aver-
refugee households. In the first year, approxi- age rents for units of the same size in Winnipeg
are $451, $578, $740 and $874 (CMHC 2007).
Table 3 The study sample, living in bachelor or rooming
Positive trajectories in housing indicators house accommodation, rent for $215 per month
less. Those in one, two, and three bedroom units
Year Year Year rent for $115, $270 and $146 less. This is $100
one % two % three %
and $130 per month lower than newer one and
Owners 2 13 15 two bedroom suburban rental units.
Renters 95 85 82 Accessing this cheaper accommodation means
Rent apartment 76 70 72 many of the households end up in older units of
Rent houses 24 30 28 poorer quality and live in crowded circum-
Shelter-to-income ratio (all households) 31 26 23
Shelter-to-income ratio (renters) 31 27 22
stances. The average household size declined
Paying 30% or more for shelter 48 27 29 from approximately four persons per household
(all households) in year one to 3.7 in year three. Still, over half
Renters paying 30% or more for shelter 46 27 23 the households contained four or more people.
Owners paying 30% or more for shelter 100 33 75
Units do not meet NOS 49 28 31
1
The rent-to-income ratio is set by the Manitoba Department of
SOURCE: Survey of Study Households. Family Services and Housing.

Despite their large size, the majority of house- (Table 3). In the city, slightly less than 12 per-
holds live in accommodation with two bedrooms cent of owners were paying 30 percent or more
or less. The relationship between household size on shelter (Statistics Canada 2008). Despite the
and composition and the number of bedrooms fact that a high proportion of the small num-
meant that just over 30 percent of households ber who have become homeowners have serious
lived in units which did not meet National Oc- affordability problems, 87 percent of those still
cupancy Standards (NOS)—they were crowded 2 . renting plan to buy a home in the near future,
With respect to condition in the third year, one- although 70 percent admitted that they did not
third of the households also stated their units know enough about the purchase process or op-
needed repairs ranging from missing floor tiles erating a home to feel comfortable about becom-
to defective steps, missing bricks or siding, to ing owners.
defective plumbing, heating, wiring and struc-
tural problems with walls, floors and ceilings.
The inner city neighbourhoods are also char- Trends in housing indicators: summary
acterized by urban decline. Issues associated comments
with crime, safety and security result in lower When all households are considered, average
rents but also add further challenges to the re- shelter-to-income ratios fell from 31 percent in
settlement process. The fact that 40 percent of year one to 23 percent in year three. The aver-
study households have been able to access social age shelter-to-income ratio in Winnipeg in 2006
housing where rent is a fixed percentage of gross was just under 17 percent (Statistics Canada
household income is, however, the most signifi- 2008). The proportion of all households paying
cant factor in reducing their housing costs. Hous- 30 percent or more fell from 48 percent in year
ing affordability reflects a positive trajectory, but one to 29 percent in year three (Table 3). In year
in many cases at the expense of other aspects one, ten percent were paying 50 percent or more
of housing and locational circumstances that de- of their income for shelter. This proportion fell
tract from a good quality of life. to three percent in year two and zero in year
three. Although they were not longitudinal stud-
Homeowners face severe housing affordability ies, similar circumstances, perhaps worse, were
problems confirmed by Murdie (2005) in a study on of
refugee housing circumstances in Toronto. Most
The proportion of refugees who have become
households in the study spent over 50 percent
homeowners is small, increasing from two per-
of their income on rent. Most of the partici-
cent in year one to 15 percent in year three.
pants in the Murdie study indicated that due to
Those who became homeowners were among the
cost, their expectations about housing in Canada
higher income households in the study with an
had not been fulfilled, leaving them in a posi-
annual average income of $50,124, much higher
tion of having to make trade-offs between shel-
than the average for renters. All these house-
ter, food, clothing and other essentials. Similar
holds had multiple members who were employed
circumstances are noted in studies in Vancouver
in both years two and three. Their average mont-
(Chan et al. 2005), in Edmonton (Chera 2004) and
hly mortgage payment was $800 and adding
by Rose and Ray (2001) for refugees in Montréal
monthly costs for taxes and utilities results in
three years after they had arrived.
average monthly payments of $1,156. The aver-
As previously noted, only rental households
age shelter-to-income ratio was 33 percent and
are experiencing improving affordability trajecto-
75 percent of the owners were spending in
ries. Owners present a considerably different pic-
excess of 30 percent of their income on shelter
ture. Although the sample is small, 75 percent
have an affordability problem despite their much
2
According to Canadian National Occupancy Standards, there higher incomes. This is almost seven times the
should be no more than two persons per bedroom, spouses
proportion of owners in the same situation in
and couples share a bedroom, parents do not share a bed-
room with children, dependents aged 18 or more do not share the city. The average shelter-to-income ratio for
a bedroom and dependents aged five or older of the opposite owners at 33 percent is 11 percentage points
sex do not share a bedroom (CMHC 2004a). higher than for renters. There is little literature

on ownership amongst recently arrived refugees Table 4

Neighbourhood characteristics lead to higher mobility
in other parts of Canada but work by Murdie
(2008) refers to almost negligible rates of own- Year Year Year
ership in Toronto. Hiebert and Mendez (2008), one % two % three %
in research based on data from the Longitudi-
nal Survey of Immigrants to Canada, note that Like neighbourhood 76 77 72
in the Canadian housing market in general, the Do not feel safe 33 15 18
Living in inner city 77 62 62
overwhelming majority of refugees cannot afford Want to move to different 76 58 61
to buy a home even four years after arriving neighbourhood
in Canada. However, the percentage of refugee Would prefer to live in non-inner city 77 90 87
home owners, they point out, does rise to almost
20 percent by the fourth year, although many of
these owners still dedicate more than 30 percent
of their income to housing costs. It seems that refugee households do like: proximity to services,
Winnipeg is not atypical. being close to immigrant and refugee support
agencies, cheap housing, proximity to friends
and better public transportation, to name a
Winnipeg’s inner city is not a preferred
few. However, because of issues associated with
residential location choice
crime, safety and security most people would
The majority of the study households live in prefer to live in a suburban area. Some of the
the inner city—over three-quarters in year one quotes from those interviewed substantiate this
falling to approximately 60 percent in years situation:
two and three. Many of the neighbourhoods in
Winnipeg’s inner city where refugees live are The only reason I live here [the inner city] is be-
characterized by urban decline. Poverty and cause I can afford it. Nothing else is good about
unemployment rates are high and the incidence it.
of crime, both property and personal crime A bunch of kids asked for cigarettes and then
such as murder, attempted murder, rape and jumped me. Not a good place for kids. Kids will
assault, is much higher in these neighbourhoods. learn things that are not good for them. Bad
The housing stock is also older and of poorer activities.
quality. Despite these characteristics, approxi-
mately three-quarters of the sample in all three The area is not safe. Many bad persons drinking
years indicated they liked their neighbourhood, and people who are drunk. There are gangsters
although in year one, one-third of the house- on the next street. Two of our family have been
holds indicated they did not feel safe in their chased on their way home: one from Safeway at
neighbourhood. In years two and three, this pro- 7 p.m. and another at 8 p.m.
portion fell to 15–20 percent (Table 4). Despite Everything is close. Easy to get a bus to go every-
what seems to be reasonably high levels of satis- where. It is walking distance to all you need.
faction, three-quarters of the sample in the first
year wanted to move to a new neighbourhood
with this proportion remaining around 60 per- Satisfaction with housing design and condition
cent in years two and three. Close to 90 percent declines over time
of the sample in years two and three indicated Despite the fact that many of the households
they would prefer to live in non-inner city areas. lived in older, poorer quality and sometimes
Regardless of what appears to be relatively crowded accommodation, there was a reason-
high satisfaction levels with neighbourhood, ably high level of satisfaction with their housing,
most households want to move and there is a and the trajectory of a number of indicators
strong preference not to live in the inner city. was positive. In year one, less than 40 per-
More detailed analysis of household preferences cent indicated they liked the size of their place.
clearly indicate that there are many aspects of By year three this proportion had increased to
living in the inner city neighbourhoods that 82 percent (Table 5). In year one, approximately

Table 5 first year interviews, 93 percent of the house-

Housing conditions generate concerns for refugee households
holds had lived in more than one place. How-
Year Year Year
ever, many of these moves were from the homes
one % two % three % of sponsors or from transitional housing to their
first place of their own. Nevertheless, one-quarter
Like size of place 39 74 82 of the households at the time of the first inter-
In good condition 74 56 67 view had lived in three or more places since ar-
Repair problems not addressed 26 44 33
Not safe for children 23 15 13
riving in Winnipeg. Mobility rates declined after
Contributes to health problems 29 11 10 the first year. One-third of the households moved
between the first and second years and one-fifth
SOURCE: Survey of Study Households. between the second and third years. The over-
all mobility rate from year one to year three was
one-quarter indicated their home was not safe 51 percent. Some of these households moved
for their children and about the same propor- multiple times. Although mobility rates are de-
tion felt their home contributed to personal or clining, they are still much higher than mobility
family health problems. However, by year three rates for the population as a whole in the Win-
these proportions had declined to approximately nipeg Census Metropolitan Area (CMA) with one
ten percent. Satisfaction with elements of design year and five year rates of 15 and 40 percent
such as the ability to control temperature, air (Statistics Canada 2008).
quality, lighting, floor plan, cooking and kitchen Much of this mobility is related to movement
facilities and storage areas all improved from out of the inner city. In year one, three-quarters
year one to year three. of the households in the inner city moved. This
Unit condition and problems getting repairs proportion dropped to just over 60 percent in
made present a somewhat different picture. In years two and three. In the non-inner city, 23
the first year, three-quarters of the households percent of the households moved in the first
rated their home as being in good condition and year and the amount of movement increased to
only one-quarter reported a problem with nec- approximately 39 percent in years two and three.
essary repairs not being addressed. The second Examining all the moves that took place, peo-
year saw a dramatic reversal in these indicators ple moved within the inner city, from the inner
with only 56 percent rating their home in good city to non-inner city areas and within the non-
condition and 44 percent suggesting necessary inner city. However, there were very few moves
repairs were not being undertaken. There was from the non-inner city to the inner city. Figure
only a modest improvement in these indicators 2 illustrates mobility between year one and year
in the third year. Interviews in the second and two and the pattern was similar although at
third years strongly suggest that in the first year a reduced level between year two and three.
many households were unaware of the standard Mobility data seem to reinforce that, for many
they should be able to expect and they were also refugee households, the inner city is not a de-
reticent to express their true opinions. By year sirable place to live if it can be avoided. When
two, they were more aware of the level of over- asked why they had moved, one-half of the re-
all quality of housing on the market and were far spondents moving between years two and three
less timid and reluctant to express their opinions stated that it was to find better quality housing
on the state of repair of the unit and the service and better neighbourhood circumstances. Other
they should be able to expect from landlords and reasons included obtaining more space, more pri-
caretakers. vacy, a more convenient location to work and
school, cheaper housing or being accepted into
The search for better housing and social housing. Two households moved because
neighbourhood circumstances generates high they had purchased their own home. In year
mobility one, more respondents had moved because their
Concern about safety and security in the inner housing was unsuitable, in very poor condition
city and their search for more affordable hous- or unsafe, or they were concerned about safety
ing led to high mobility rates. At the time of the and security in their neighbourhood or building.

Figure 2
Mobility pathways of 21 households who moved between year one and year two: Winnipeg’s inner city and suburban areas.
Fifteen percent of all third year households A lack of information makes the housing
said that they had tried to find another dwelling, search difficult
either to move to a safer neighbourhood or ob-
tain housing that was more spacious and in In a study in the Niagara Region, CMHC (2004b)
better condition. However, their search was not noted the need for government and community
successful. The proportion of households in sim- to collect and communicate improved housing in-
ilar circumstances in years one and two was formation to refugee households. This need was
higher at 26 and 23 percent, respectively. When confirmed by the households in the Winnipeg
asked why they were not able to find another study who stated that their efforts to find hous-
place, most indicated that they could not find ing were made more difficult by the absence
a place in their price range in a neighbourhood of a source of reliable, comprehensive and cur-
they liked. Other reasons included waiting for rent information on housing, the housing mar-
public housing or being unable to break their ket and the characteristics of neighbourhoods. In
lease. It is obvious that mobility rates would year one, they relied to a great extent on their
have been much higher had they not been con- sponsors if they were privately sponsored, but
strained by inability to pay, plus other factors. government sponsored refugees did not have this

advantage. Other sources of information included and credit because of the lack of an employ-
family and friends, if they had any in the city. In ment history in Canada, lack of a credit history,
years two and three, their sources of information and because they could not find an eligible co-
had broadened to include government agencies, signer. Nevertheless, over 70 percent of those
real estate and rental agencies and their own who applied for a loan in years two and three
efforts of walking and driving around, if they were accepted. In year one, 74 percent of the
had a vehicle. Despite this broadening of infor- households were making monthly debt repay-
mation sources, they still expressed the concern ments, although repayment of the immigra-
that they had to visit too many agencies and of- tion/transportation loans accounted for most of
ten received conflicting or incorrect information. this debt. In years two and three, 46 and 51
As a result, they often made bad decisions on percent of households had debt repayments but
choice of housing and location. They expressed the type of debt had shifted from the immigra-
frustration that there was no one agency or location/transportation loans to personal debt. Car
tion where they could get the comprehensive re- loans, student loans, credit card debt and mort-
liable information they needed to improve their gage debt for the few who had become home-
search for housing. owners were common. The average monthly debt
repayment for those households who had debt
Renters lacked knowledge of tenant and landlord increased from $189 in year one to $202 and
responsibilities $365 in years two and three, respectively. These
figures represent a 193 percent increase in
The majority of households found caretakers
monthly debt repayment from year one to year
and landlords of both private and social hous-
three, an increase that is much higher than the
ing helpful, 54 percent in year one, and 76 per-
increase in average income.
cent in years two and three. Nevertheless, many
expressed frustration related to their lack of
knowledge of tenant/landlord rights and respon- Social housing is better?
sibilities, a common theme in the literature from
As already noted, a significant proportion of the
other cities. Their lack of knowledge was often
study households had been able to access sub-
attributed to poor language and literacy skills.
sidized housing—40 percent by years two and
They could not read the terms and conditions
three (Table 6). In some respects, the households
of the lease they signed and/or did not under-
in social housing experienced better housing cir-
stand the explanation they were given. Some did
cumstances than those in the private sector.
not understand that they had signed a year-long
More households were living in units that met
lease and paid a financial penalty when they
NOS. In the first year, 56 percent in subsidized
moved before the lease expired. Some were also
housing lived in units that met NOS compared
not aware of the landlord’s responsibilities and
to 48 percent in the private sector. The percent-
were afraid to ask for repairs when there were
age of households living in units meeting NOS
problems with the unit or the appliances. Their
increased in both sectors, but remained higher in
understanding certainly improved over time, but
subsidized housing, although the difference nar-
in the first year and even in the second, misun-
rowed to 69 versus 65 percent in the third year.
derstandings associated with tenant and landlord
In the first year, a much higher percentage of
rights and responsibilities created problems for
households in subsidized housing were happier
several households.
with their home—88 versus 62 percent in the
private sector. Satisfaction levels remained high
Increasing levels of debt but good access to in social housing but increased significantly for
loans and credit people living in private sector units. A greater
Discussions during the interviews suggest several percentage of private sector occupants felt their
households struggle with increasing debt. The lit- housing and neighbourhood was safe compared
erature also highlights the difficulties new ar- to those in social housing. Over the three years,
rivals face in accessing loans and credit. Some of the proportion of social housing occupants who
the households in the study were refused loans felt their housing was safe declined from 78 to

Table 6
Is social housing better?
Year one % Year two % Year three %
Private Social Private Social Private Social
Proportion of sample 76 24 59 41 61 39
Meets NOS 48 56 65 79 65 69
Happy with home 62 88 85 79 90 85
Housing is safe 74 78 90 69 95 67
Neighbourhood is safe 69 56 84 78 93 46
Mean rent $585 $388 $617 $384 $602 $451
67 percent. Social housing occupants who felt viewed as key to successful settlement in a new
the neighbourhood was safe also declined from country. Refugees stated it provided the initial
56 to 46 percent from year one to three. By stability needed to get their lives in order.
year three, over 90 percent of occupants of pri- It appears that community-based organizations
vate sector units felt that both their housing need more resources. Many of the interviewees
and neighbourhood were safe. The poorer rating indicated that their settlement counsellors did
by social housing tenants of these two indica- not have enough time to provide the help they
tors may be explained by the fact that most of needed. Organizations generally only help new
the social housing occupied by the study house- arrivals find their first place. If that does not
holds is in Winnipeg’s inner city where safety work they are on their own. There is also a
and security are issues of concern. The greatest need for an organization with a mandate to pro-
advantage for those in social housing, however, vide better housing market and neighbourhood
was the savings in monthly housing costs. So- information and educational material on ten-
cial housing occupants paid approximately $200 ant/landlord rights and responsibilities. Refugees
less per month for shelter—certainly an advan- face difficulties finding affordable housing but
tage for those with low incomes. their search is made more difficult by a lack of
current, reliable and comprehensive information
Changes to Policies and Programs on the housing market, characteristics of neigh-
Could Make a Positive Difference bourhoods, and knowledge of tenant/landlord
rights and responsibilities. Often they make mis-
A number of policy and program initiatives takes in their housing choices and residential
would help reduce the barriers and challenges location decisions and are vulnerable to exploita-
faced by newly arrived refugees. Certainly a tion because they do not understand leases, what
priority has to be an increase in the supply is expected of them as tenants or what they
of affordable housing. Some of the advantages should expect of landlords. Development and
of gaining access to subsidized housing were dissemination of this material in a number of
obvious, particularly from an affordability per- different languages and in video form is nec-
spective. An increase in the number of larger essary. Development of similar educational ma-
(three and four bedroom) units to accommodate terial for caretakers and landlords to enhance
the larger refugee families and extended fam- cultural awareness and help prevent misunder-
ily households would reduce crowding. As the standings between tenants and property manage-
private sector is unlikely to address this need, ment personnel is also necessary.
public policy will have to respond to this re- Good housing, however, is only part of a com-
quirement. The development of more transitional plex set of initiatives that contribute to suc-
housing would also help facilitate re-settlement, cessful integration and re-settlement. Policies and
as a safe place immediately upon arrival was programs to encourage the development of safe,

inclusive and welcoming communities are also several of these homeowners have housing plus
necessary. Organizing community events and ac- other debts that they may not be able to carry.
tivities to ensure broader community support Although indicators suggest that there is a rel-
and acceptance of new arrivals and education atively high level of satisfaction with the neigh-
and awareness building for the host population bourhoods they live in, there are safety and
as well as the refugees helps facilitate the re- security concerns in inner city neighbourhoods,
settlement process. Adequate language training, and many of those living in the inner city want
success in the labour force and a host of other to move to non-inner city neighbourhoods. The
factors also make a contribution. Housing is only evidence also suggests that a limited knowledge
part of a broader strategy required. Adequate, af- of the housing market, tenants’ rights and re-
fordable and suitable housing cannot address all sponsibilities and the characteristics of neigh-
re-settlement issues, but it can provide the stable bourhoods often lead to poor housing choices,
basis from which refugees can deal more easily housing behaviour related to regulations in the
with other challenges. rental leases and residential location decisions.
This lack of knowledge is a particular problem in
the first two years. Market conditions have cer-
Conclusion tainly presented some challenges for new arrivals
as vacancy rates are very low, both rents and the
After three years, the housing, neighbourhood price of houses have been rising and little new
and socio-economic circumstances of the refugee affordable rental stock has been built.
households present a ‘glass half empty, half full’ Overall, the evidence illustrates positive trajec-
scenario. Incomes have improved but after three tories and refugees, particularly those that rent
years are still far below the average of the host in Winnipeg, do not face the serious housing af-
population. With most of the refugees who are fordability problems common for refugee house-
working employed in unskilled service and sales holds in larger cities like Toronto and Vancouver.
positions, significant improvements in income in Despite these better housing affordability circum-
the immediate future are unlikely. Although the stances, refugees in Winnipeg face many of the
income of some households is still dependent on same barriers and challenges common to other,
government transfer payments, by the third year generally larger, centres in Canada.
employment is the major source of household in-
come. Poverty levels are still very high compared
to the level for all households in Winnipeg. Acknowledgements
Despite the somewhat discouraging income
This study was made possible with funding provided by
and employment trends, housing circumstances the Metropolis Project (Prairie Centre) and the Homelessness
have improved, particularly affordability for ren- Partnering Secretariat of Human Resources and Skills Devel-
ters. Although the improvements in affordability opment Canada. A special note of thanks goes to the partici-
are a positive trend, these improvements come pants of the project who kindly agreed to be interviewed. We
would also like to thank staff from different settlement or-
at a price. Many households live in older, poor ganizations for their support and assistance with this study.
quality stock in the inner city in neighbourhoods The research and recommendations are the responsibility of
they do not always view as a positive living envi- the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the
ronment. Some households also live in crowded funders.
circumstances. The fact that a significant pro-
portion of the study households have been able
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Canadian Geographies G Ographies Canadiennes - 2017 - CARTER - The Role of Housing and Neighbourhood in The Re Settlement

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The role of housing and neighbourhood

in the re-settlement process: a case study

The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien 53, no 3 (2009) 305–322

Introduction This research contributes to the discussion on

The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien 53, no 3 (2009)

The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien 53, no 3 (2009)

The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien 53, no 3 (2009)

The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien 53, no 3 (2009)

The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien 53, no 3 (2009)

The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien 53, no 3 (2009)

going to school or university. The proportion Table 2

The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien 53, no 3 (2009)

The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien 53, no 3 (2009)

The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien 53, no 3 (2009)

on ownership amongst recently arrived refugees Table 4

The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien 53, no 3 (2009)

Table 5 ﬁrst year interviews, 93 percent of the house-

The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien 53, no 3 (2009)

The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien 53, no 3 (2009)

The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien 53, no 3 (2009)

Year one % Year two % Year three %

Private Social Private Social Private Social

SOURCE: Survey of Study Households.

The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien 53, no 3 (2009)

The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien 53, no 3 (2009)

The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien 53, no 3 (2009)

The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien 53, no 3 (2009)

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