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Gyurak, Gross, & Etkin (2011) - Explicit and Implicit Emotion Regulation
Gyurak, Gross, & Etkin (2011) - Explicit and Implicit Emotion Regulation
To cite this article: Anett Gyurak , James J. Gross & Amit Etkin (2011) Explicit and implicit
emotion regulation: A dual-process framework, Cognition and Emotion, 25:3, 400-412, DOI:
10.1080/02699931.2010.544160
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COGNITION AND EMOTION
2011, 25 (3), 400412
It is widely acknowledged that emotions can be regulated in an astonishing variety of ways. Most
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research to date has focused on explicit (effortful) forms of emotion regulation. However, there is
growing research interest in implicit (automatic) forms of emotion regulation. To organise emerging
findings, we present a dual-process framework that integrates explicit and implicit forms of emotion
regulation, and argue that both forms of regulation are necessary for well-being. In the first section of
this review, we provide a broad overview of the construct of emotion regulation, with an emphasis on
explicit and implicit processes. In the second section, we focus on explicit emotion regulation,
considering both neural mechanisms that are associated with these processes and their experiential
and physiological consequences. In the third section, we turn to several forms of implicit emotion
regulation, and integrate the burgeoning literature in this area. We conclude by outlining open
questions and areas for future research.
There are virtually endless ways of managing implicit emotion regulation, and outline future
unwanted and distracting emotions. Research on work aimed at linking these two approaches. Our
emotion regulation has historically focused on aim is not to provide a comprehensive review
effortful (explicit) attempts to alter the course and of emotion regulation as a field (see Gross, 1998a;
intensity of emotional responses. More recently, Gross & Thompson, 2007; Koole, 2010,
researchers have started to describe less effortful for reviews). Rather, our aim is to present a
and more automatic (implicit) forms of emotion framework that is useful for integrating research
regulation. Using a dual-process model as a on explicit and implicit emotion, thus choice
framework, our goal in this paper is to review of findings is therefore strategic rather than
and integrate existing research on explicit and exhaustive.
Correspondence should be addressed to: Anett Gyurak, Department of Psychiatry, 401 Quarry Road, MC: 5797, Stanford, CA
94305-5797, USA. E-mail: agyurak@stanford.edu
The authors would like to thank Sander Koole, Klaus Rothermund, two anonymous reviewers, the members of the Stanford
Psychophysiology Lab and the Etkin Lab for their helpful comments and suggestions with this paper.
# 2011 Psychology Press, an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business 400
http://www.psypress.com/cogemotion DOI:10.1080/02699931.2010.544160
EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT EMOTION REGULATION
taxing or exceeding the resources of the person & Williams, 2007). Encouraged by Bargh and
(Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Williams (2007), we choose to benefit from the
Developmental researchers have also long re- ‘‘hard-earned knowledge gained from the study of
cognised the relationship between emotion reg- automaticity in social cognition’’ (p. 433) and
ulatory abilities and adjustment, and emphasised define two theoretical and empirical spheres that
self- and emotion regulation as a correlate of social organise different areas of emotion regulation and
and emotional functioning in children (Campos, label these as ‘‘explicit’’ and ‘‘implicit’’. Further-
Campos, & Barrett, 1989; Cole, Martin, & more, we define explicit emotion regulation as
Dennis, 2004; Posner & Rothbart, 2003). Studies those processes that require conscious effort for
of emotion regulation in this tradition span from initiation and demand some level of monitoring
infancy (Campos et al., 1989; Posner & Rothbart, during implementation, and are associated with
2003), through childhood (Eisenberg, Fabes, some level of insight and awareness. Implicit pro-
Guthrie, & Reiser, 2000), into adolescence (Lewis, cesses are believed to be evoked automatically by the
Lamm, Segalowitz, Stieben, & Zelazo, 2006) and stimulus itself and run to completion without
old age (Gross et al., 1997). monitoring and can happen without insight and
In the past decade or so, the field of emotion awareness.
regulation has come into its own (Gross, 1998a). Figure 1 captures our conceptualisation and
Researchers interested in emotion regulation have depicts how, in our view, explicit and implicit
generally viewed emotions as whole-body re- forms of emotion regulation form distinct, yet
sponses that signal personally relevant, motivation- somewhat inter-related islands of research. Ex-
ally significant events (Frijda, 1987; Levenson, plicit emotion regulation research is positioned in
1999). From this perspective, emotion regulation the middle because researchers have repeatedly
may be defined as goal directed processes functioning tested and confirmed that it fits our definition of
to influence the intensity, duration and type of explicitness (i.e., requires monitoring during im-
emotion experienced (Gross & Thompson, 2007). plementation and demands some level of insight
Emotion regulation permits flexibility in emotional and awareness). Often when people are faced with
responding in accord with one’s momentary as well an emotion regulatory challenge, the conscious,
as one’s longer term goals in any given situation. effortful, rule-based operations of explicit emotion
A variety of classification systems exist for regulatory processes are necessary to adjust initial
emotion regulatory processes. For example, reactions. Viewed this way, explicit regulation is
Gross’s (e.g., Gross, 1998a) process model of clearly not something one can effectively engage
emotion regulation highlights the time course of in all of the time. Rather, given the high demand
emotion regulation. By contrast, Koole (2010) has for moment-to-moment emotion regulation in
Emotional
conflict
adaptation
Habitual emotion
regulation Explicit emotion Error-related
regulation regulation
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Emotion
Emotion
regulation as a
regulatory goals
result of affect
and evaluations
labelling
Figure 1. A dual-process model of emotion regulation. Explicit emotion regulation processes are depicted in the centre. Everything outside
this circle represents processes that are related to implicit emotion regulation.
elicit emotional responses including negative Neuroimaging studies (see Kalisch, 2009;
photographs depicting threat-related images Ochsner & Gross, 2005, for reviews) show that
such as accident scenes (e.g., McRae et al., 2010; explicit emotion regulation results in a dynamic
Ochsner et al., 2002; Ray et al., 2005; Urry, 2010), interchange between frontal-lobe areas implicated
or disgust-eliciting film excerpts (Goldin, McRae, in cognitive control and executive function, and
Ramel, & Gross, 2008). Other researchers have emotion-reactivity areas. Specifically, imaging
used positive stimuli in the form of erotica studies indicate that attempts to reappraise nega-
(Beauregard, Lévesque, & Bourgouin, 2001) or tive stimuli result in increased activation in
pictures of cute pets and sporting events (Kim & ventrolateral and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
Hamann, 2007). Most commonly, researchers (PFC) areas traditionally implicated in non-
have studied the effects of down-regulation emotional forms of cognitive control (Ochsner
instructions, using a wide range of strategies, but
et al., 2002). This frontal lobe activation in turn is
emotion amplification through up-regulation in-
related to reduced activation in limbic emotion-
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Our first case of implicit emotion regulation is are preceded by another incongruent trial (iI) with
based on the emotional conflict task described by incongruent trails that are preceded by a con-
Etkin and colleagues (Egner, Etkin, Gale, & gruent trial (cI), a behavioural effect shown to
Hirsch, 2008; Etkin, Egner, Peraza, Kandel, & occur outside of awareness.1
Hirsch, 2006). The task is the emotional version Parallel studies of adaptation to non-emotional
of the classic Stroop paradigm (Stroop, 1935), and conflict (Egner et al., 2008) suggest that key
takes advantage of a variant of the congruency elements of the neural circuitry involved in
sequence effects originally reported by Gratton implicit regulation of emotional conflict is specific
et al. in non-emotional conflict tasks (Botvinick, to emotional conflict. Specifically, neuroimaging
Nystrom, Fissell, Carter, & Cohen, 1999; studies of implicit emotion regulation, using the
Gratton, Coles, & Donchin, 1992). In this task, emotional conflict task, suggest a regulatory inter-
participants are presented with photographs of play between anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)/
emotional faces (fearful or happy) with a word medial PFC, and emotion reactivity regions in the
(‘‘fear’’ or ‘‘happy’’) written over them. The task is limbic system: increased activation in the ventral
to indicate whether the facial expression is happy portion of the anterior cingulate (vACC), and
or fearful by pressing a button. The word written dampened reactivity in the amygdala (Etkin
on the photo either matches the facial expression et al., 2006; Etkin, Prater, Hoeft, Menon, &
(no-conflict trials: happy face with the word Schatzberg, 2010). In the non-emotional analo-
happy written over it, or fearful face with the gue of the task, wherein subjects judged the
word fear written over it), or is incongruent with gender of emotional faces while trying to ignore
the facial expression (conflict trials: happy face incongruent gender labels, regulation was
with the word fear written over it, or fearful face achieved through a dissociable neural pathway,
with the word happy written over it). involving increased activation in the dorsolateral
Because reading is automatised (Stroop, 1935), PFC, and positive coupling to target-specific visual
during conflict trials participants need to enact cortical areas in the fusiform face area (Egner
control over reading the word in favour of et al., 2008). Importantly, there was no evidence
labelling the emotional expression. Consistent in the non-emotional conflict task of activation of
with this, conflict trials take longer to respond the vACC or dampening of amygdalar reactivity
to as compared to no-conflict trials; this (Egner et al., 2008).
1
The trial-to-trial adaptation (iIcI) index of emotion regulation is a variant of the full Gratton effect [(iI cI) (iC cC)].
This adaptation effect is widely used in the cognitive regulation literature and constitutes a well-accepted measure of cognitive
control. Furthermore, our studies indicate a selective deficit of iIcI adaptation among patients with GAD (Etkin et al., 2010), a
population characterised by severe emotion regulatory deficits.
This task fits our definition of implicit emotion looking at emotionally challenging negative faces.
regulation because the process is uninstructed, Similarly, Mauss and colleagues (Mauss, Cook,
effortless and proceeds without awareness; despite Cheng, & Gross, 2007) reported that individuals
careful probing, participants do not report any high on reappraisal tendencies were able to
awareness of the key processes of the task (Etkin regulate their emotions in the throes of powerful
et al., 2010). The emotion regulation process negative emotions (anger) and showed a more
described here is implicit: individuals are (i) beneficial profile of physiological responding than
unaware of the modulation of emotional control their low-reappraisal counterparts in response to
elicited by the stimuli on their behaviour (i.e., an anger provocation.
response on iI vs. cI trials) and (ii) the regulatory Habitual use of emotion regulation is also
process is carried out largely outside of awareness. related to individuals’ implicit theories about
emotions (Tamir, John, Srivastava, & Gross,
Habitual emotion regulation 2007), that is, whether they view emotions as
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efficient action control even if emotions were tendencies to control one’s emotions aid regulation
triggered subliminally (Jostmann et al., 2005). in ‘‘hot’’ anger-provoking situations.
tion regulatory goals. Specifically, they showed Bookheimer, & Mazziotta, 2000; Lieberman et al.,
that automatising goal pursuit by creating emo- 2007; Lieberman, Hariri, Jarcho, Eisenberger, &
tion regulation implementation intentions can Bookheimer, 2005). Matching emotional expres-
serve as an effective way to regulate negative sions on faces with affect label words results in
emotions. They furnished participants with im- lower limbic system activation, including reduced
plementation intentions (ifthen plans that detail activation in the amygdala, as compared to match-
the process of goal attainment) and showed that ing expressions to other expressions, matching the
these instructions through repeated practice re- gender to gender labels, or to simply viewing the
duced reactivity to accident-related threatening face. Similar to explicit forms of emotion regula-
images (Schweiger-Gallo et al., 2009), and among tion, labelling emotional faces or focusing on
spider-fearful individuals resulted in reduced physical features of an emotionally evocative scene
reactivity. Eder (2011 this issue) showed that results in increased activation in the lateral and
implementation intentions created in one task medial PFC, despite the fact that emotion regula-
context can carry over to another unrelated task tion in this paradigm is unintentional or
and powerfully influence behaviour. Taken to- implicit (Hariri et al., 2000; Lieberman et al.,
gether, these studies demonstrate the general 2005). Importantly, Lieberman and colleagues
tendency for implementation intentions to very (Lieberman et al., 2007) reported that the ventral
quickly become routinised and automatised, and portion of medial PFC activation mediates the
deploy with little subsequent awareness (Wil- relationship between lateral PFC activation and
liams, Bargh, Nocera, & Gray, 2009). decreased amygdala activation, suggesting that,
Once routinised, individual differences in atti- similar to implicit emotion regulation, it may be
tudes toward emotion regulation can be assessed the medial PFCamygdala pathway that plays a
with reaction-time tasks. Specifically, faster reac- critical role in dampening emotional-reactivity in
tion time in categorising emotion-regulation- incidental forms of emotion regulation.
related words as positive has been shown to relate
to better regulation, and lower emotional reactivity
Error-related regulation
in response to anger provocation (Mauss, Evers,
Wilhelm, & Gross, 2006), and greater well-being, The emotional conflict adaptation task (Etkin
fewer depressive symptoms, and better social et al., 2006) captures the ability to dynamically
adjustment (Hopp, Troy, & Mauss, 2011 this adapt control parameters in the context of emo-
issue). Finally, activating control tendencies im- tionally conflicting stimuli and successfully carry
plicitly through priming seemed to confer similar over regulation from one trial to another. This
benefits during anger provocation (Mauss, Cook, adaptation process can be viewed as the ability of
& Gross, 2007), suggesting that automatic knowing when to ‘‘speed up’’ in emotionally
evidenced by increased activation of the defensive grown by leaps and bounds in recent years, raising
motivational system following errors (Hajcak & important questions about the measurement and
Foti, 2008). operationalisation of these processes. We know
Scalp EEG studies and intracranial recordings from existing research that conscious deployment
show that error-related processing is marked by of emotion regulation can reliably and positively
the presence of a characteristic negative deflec- shape the course of emotional responses, but it is
tion, called the error related negativity (ERN) less clear whether deploying and executing reg-
and is dependent on the interplay between ulation without awareness can have similar ben-
efits. We also expect future research to assess
cognitive areas (ACC) and emotional (amygdala)
whether understanding the temporal unfolding of
brain regions (Olvet & Hajcak, 2008; Pourtois
an emotional response will help conceptually
et al., 2010). Furthermore, the size of the ERN
organise implicit emotion regulation in the way
has been studied as a marker of emotion regula-
that it has for explicit regulation (Gross &
tion abilities in children (Dennis & Hajcak,
Thompson, 2007). Finally, another important
2009) and shown to be related to psychopathol-
issue is whether the effects of implicit emotion
ogy characterised by emotion dysregulation
regulation can be measured on subjective experi-
(Holmes & Pizzagalli, 2008; Olvet & Hajcak, ence without perturbing the process.
2008; Pizzagalli, Peccoralo, Davidson, & Cohen, As suggested by the studies cited above, there
2006). Furthermore, and in line with the func- is growing evidence that explicit regulation in-
tional properties of post-error adjustment, volves lateral PFC regulatory sites, while at least
Robinson and colleagues found that greater some forms of implicit regulation involves vACC
error-related slowing is associated with greater or medial PFC sites (Phillips, Ladouceur &
well-being (Robinson, 2007) and better stress- Drevets, 2008). At the same time, the affect-
regulation abilities (Compton et al., 2008). labelling studies (e.g., Lieberman et al., 2007)
Collectively, these studies argue that efficient and a study by Meyer and colleagues (Meyer,
post-error adjustment depends on an interplay Berkman, Karremans, & Lieberman, 2011 this
between cognitive and emotional areas. Illustrat- issue) examining implicit regulation in response to
ing the complexity of implicitness in this work, a face of an attractive and available dating partner
research shows that the behavioural marker of indicate that implicit emotion regulation can
error-related slowing is more strongly associated involve lateral PFC systems. Both the medial
with consciously perceived errors, but that ERN is and lateral PFC have been broadly associated with
detectable after both conscious and non-conscious goal-directed behaviours, deliberate actions, and
errors (Nieuwenhuis, Ridderinkhof, Blom, Band, executive functioning (e.g., Miller & Cohen,
& Kok, 2001). 2001), but it is not clear whether activation in
this area is uniquely associated with either explicit regulation appropriately, but also by inflexible use
or implicit forms of emotion regulation, or rather, of emotion regulation, as exemplified by the role of
as part of a regulatory network, the neural source worry in GAD (Borkovec, Alcaine, & Behar,
of regulation that is dependent on task context. 2004). More research is needed to clarify the role
of implicit processes in psychopathology.
Functional consequences
Training and modifying emotion regulation
A growing body of evidence suggests that con-
Another important area for future research is to
textually appropriate and flexible use of emotion
explore ways in which explicit forms of regulation
regulation may be a marker of mental health. For
can be made more implicit and vice versa. For
example, explicit emotion regulation, particularly
example, one way in which explicit regulatory
cognitive reappraisal, has been shown to result in
processes may be made more implicit (and hence
lower physiological reactivity and less intense
potentially more resource efficient) is through
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