Bridge Engineering Notes - Latest

The Technical University of Kenya
School of Civil & Resource Engineering
COURSE EECI 4165 BRIDGE ENGINEERING

Eng. Lordficus Wesamba
January, 2023.
Course EECI 4165 SLIDE No. 2
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Course content.
 History of bridge-building.
 Types of bridges.
 Materials for modern bridges.
 Loads on bridges: standard truck and lane loading.
impact loads.
wind and seismic loads.
thermal loads.
 Serviceability criteria – deflection and fatigue.
 Non-composite vs. Composite Design.
 T-Beam, Plate Girder Bridges – general approach.
 Box Girder Bridges.
 Pressurized Concrete Bridges.
 Optimum Bridge Proportioning.
 Bridge Aesthetics, Inspection, Rehabilitation.
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1.2. Examination
(i). Coursework - 30%
(ii). Final examination - 70%.
(iii). Important Notes:

- Carry everything you need for exam including extra
pens. No borrowing or sharing of items during examination.
- Be prepared to sit 2hr exam without leaving
exam room. Carry drinking water if needed.
- Avoid exam irregularities.
- Avoid missing scheduled exams with petty excuses
Reason for missing exam must be given in writing
with
supporting evidence (preferably in advance where practical.
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2. HISTORY OF BRIDGE BUILDING

A bridge is a structure which is built over some physical obstacles such as a body of
water, valley, or road, and its purpose is to provide crossing over that obstacle. It is
built to be strong enough to safely support its own weight as well as the weight of
anything that should pass over it. Bridges were and can be built out of different
materials and in different designs, depending on its intended function, terrain where
the bridge is built, the material used to make it, and the available funds.
The first bridges appeared in nature by themselves. A log could fall across a stream and
form a natural bridge or stones could fall into a river from a nearby cliff. When humans
started building bridges, they built them in simple form out of cut wooden logs or
stones placed across a stream.
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Later planks with a simple

support and crossbeam
arrangement was used,
sometimes with natural
Fibers woven together to
hold materials.
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3. TYPES OF BRIDGES
3.1 Types of bridges by structural form.
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3.2 Types of bridges by use.
Highway Pedestrian
Railway
Services
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3.3 Types of bridges by construction material.
Concrete
Steel
Composite steel/concrete
Timber
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3.4 Types of bridges by crossing.
Marshland crossing
Valley crossing
Railway crossing Highway crossing

Waterway crossing
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3.5 Types of bridges by ability of superstructure to

move.
Fixed bridge
Lift bridge
Drawbridge Swing bridge

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3.6 Anatomy of a bridge.
ELEVATION
SECTION THROUGH THE SUPERSTRUCTURE

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Precast concrete T-beams and cast in-situ slab

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4. LOADS ON BRIDGES (EN 1991-2)

4.1 Standard truck and lane loading.
4.1.1 Notional Lanes
Concrete use for sustainable development 20
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Proposed Kampala-Jinja Expressway

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4.1.2 Load Model 1
Recommended to load all lanes equally due to lack of lane discipline on our
roads.
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4.1.3 Load Model 1 – Tandem System

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4.1.4 Load Model 2

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4.1.5 Load Model 3

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4.1.6 Load Spread For All Wheel Loads

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4.1.7 Load Model 4

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4.1.8 Footway, Cycle Tracks, & Footbridges

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4.1.9 Horizontal Force Due to Braking and Acceleration

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4.1.10 Centrifugal Force
r = horizontal radius of the carriageway centerline.

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4.1.11 Horizontal force due to skidding
A force Qtrk = 0.25 x braking or acceleration force, acting in any

direction, applied together with the centrifugal force.
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4.2 Impact Loads.

4.2.1 Collision forces on piers and other supporting members.
Force in direction of travel = 1,000 kN.
Force perpendicular to direction of travel = 500 kN.
Height above adjacent ground = 1.25 m.
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4.2.2 Collision forces on bridge deck.

The loads in the Table may be used. Also specific loads may be
defined in National Annexes. Recommendation to provide protection
against collision with as forces are highly variable and effect can
catastrophic.
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4.2.3 Impact from river and canal traffic.

In the absence of specification in National Annexes the forces in the Table may
be used. The forces to be multiplied by an amplification factor of 1.3 for frontal
impact and 1.7 for lateral impact.
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4.2.4 Collision forces on kerbs.

A force of 100 kN acting 50 mm below the top of the kerb over a
length of kerb of 500 mm and spread out behind the keb at 45o.
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4.2.5 Collision forces on vehicle barriers.

A force of magnitude shown on the Table depending on the defined
class of road. Applied 100 mm below the top of the restraint or 1 m
above the carriageway or footway, whichever is lower. Force applies
over a 500 mm length of barrier.
The supporting structure should be designed to

resist a force of the characteristic load on the
barrier.
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4.2.6 Collision forces on structural members.

Should be the same as defined in 4.2.1, unless defined otherwise in
National Annex.
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4.3 Wind and Seismic Loads.

4.3.1 Wind Forces (EN.1991.1.4.2005)
(a). Introduction
Wind exerts force on structures in 3 ways:
(i). Direct pressure on external surfaces of a
structure. (ii). By exerting pressure inside closed areas.
(iii). By friction drag on surfaces swept by wind.
(iv). By differences in pressure between opposing surfaces.
Since wind intensity fluctuates with time, vibratory motion can be excited in
the structure.
Wind forces are determined from basic wind velocity which is the 10 minute
mean wind velocity with an annual risk of being exceeded of 0.02, irrespective
of wind direction, at a height of 10 m above a flat open country terrain.
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(b). Basic wind pressures
(i). Basic velocity pressure,

qb = ½ ρ vb2.
where ρ = 1.25 kg/m2 unless stated otherwise.
vb = cdir.cseason.vb,0
vb,0 = fundamental basic wind velocity, usually
obtained from meteorological data.
cdir = 1.0, unless otherwise stated.
cseason = 1.0, unless otherwise stated.
Therefore essentially,
qb = 0.625 vb2 .
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(ii). Peak velocity pressure at any height ,z,
qp(z) = [1 + 7.Iv(z)]. ½ ρ v m2(z).
where ρ = air density at the height considered.

Iv = turbulence intensity.
vm(z) = cr(z).c0(z).vb.
cr = roughness factor.
cr(z) = kr.ln(z/z0) for zmin < z < zmax
cr(z) = cr.(zmin) for z < zmin
Values of z0 and zmin are given in Table 4.1.
c0(z) = 1.0 unless stated otherwise.

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(ii). Wind pressure on enclosed

surfaces External surface,
we = qp(ze).cpe
Internal surface,
wi = qp(zi).cpi
where cpe & cpi = pressure coefficients.
ze & zi = respective heights under consideration.
Net pressure on a surface,
w = we - wi
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(c). Wind force on bridge deck,

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(i). Wind force across the bridge deck,
Fw = ½.ρ.vb2.C.Aref.x
where ρ = density of air.
vb = basic wind speed.
C = wind load factor = ce.cf.x.

ce(z) = qp(z) / qb
qb = ½.ρ.vb2
cf.x = friction coefficient = 1.3 unless otherwise
given.
Aref.x = reference area as per Table 8.1.

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(ii). Wind in vertical direction.
Fw = ½.ρ.vb2.C.Aref.z
C = wind load factor = ce.cf.z.

ce(z) = qp(z) / qb
qb = ½.ρ.vb2
cf.z = friction coefficient = + 0.9 unless otherwise
given.
Aref.z = reference area = bL

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(iii). Wind in force in longitudinal direction.
For plated bridges

Fw = 0.125.ρ.v b2.C.A
For trussed bridges

Fw = 0.25.ρ.v b2.C.A

C = wind load factor = ce.cf.x.
ce(z) = qp(z) / qb
qb = ½.ρ.vb2
cf.x = friction coefficient = 1.3 unless otherwise
given.
Aref.x = reference area as per Table 8.1.
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(d). Wind in force on bridge piers.
Fw = cfr.qp(ze).Afr
where cfr = friction coefficient

qp = peak velocity pressure
Aref.x = area of external surface parallel to wind.
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4.3.2 Seismic Forces (Code of Practice for the Design and Construction of
Buildings and Other Structures in relation to Earthquakes)
(a). Introduction
Earthquake forces are essentially inertia forces due to the mass of the
structure and the acceleration of the ground. Hence seismic force,
F = CW
where C = seismic coefficient.
W = weight of the structure.
The seismic coefficient C considers several factors such as seismic

intensity, importance of the structure, ground conditions. The
country is divided into four seismic classifications. The seismic force
acts at the centre of mass of the structural element under
consideration in any horizontal direction. For individual bridge
fittings such as parapets, lighting poles, etc, the force may be
determined as
Fp = CpWp
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(b). Seismic map of Kenya

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(c). Recommended seismic coefficients, C, for structural elements

Bridge type Zone VI Zone VII Zone VIII - IX
Soft Hard Soft Hard Soft Hard
ground ground groun groun ground groun
d d d
Flexible 0.019 0.015 0.030 0.025 0.060 0.050
Rigid 0.015 0.012 0.024 0.020 0.048 0.040
(d). Recommended seismic coefficients, Cp, for bridge furniture.
Zone VI Zone VII Zone VIII - IX

0.25 0.50 1.00
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4.4 Thermal Loads.

Four types of thermal actions:
(a). Uniform temperature change in x, y, or x direction
causing linear expansion or contraction.
(b). Linear temperature variation about the z-z axis.
(c). Linear temperature variation about the y-y
axis.
(d). Non-linear temperature variation about any axis which
creates self equilibrated internal stresses and no net load
on the structural element.
The strains and therefore the stresses produced depend on the geometry and
the boundary conditions of the structural element. Stresses due to differences
in the thermal coefficients of composite materials used will also occur e.g.
internal stresses in steel rebars and surrounding concrete, or concrete/steel
composite bridges.
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4.5 Permanent Loads.

Consists of:
(a). the weight of structural elements, considered as permanent loads.
(b). the weight of non-structural elements and fittings, considered as

quasi-variable loads. Examples are road surfacing, guard rails,
parapets, fittings for stormwater drainage, lighting posts and
electrical fittings, signage, etc.
The forces derive from the densities of the materials as given in EN

1991.1.1.2002.
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5 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
5.1 Introduction
Prestressed concrete is a design approach which aims to limit tensile stresses in
concrete under normal working conditions, hence flexural cracking. A prestress is
applied to concrete which offsets tensile stresses from flexural loads.
The prestressing steel and concrete must be of high strength to allow a high initial
prestress since loss of prestress occurs due to relaxation of the steel and creep and
shrinkage of concrete. Nevertheless, prestressed concrete uses much less steel and
concrete than reinforced concrete, therefore cost reduction can be achieved.
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5.2 Design principles

Introduction
Design is based on the serviceability limit state but checks must be made for:
 Stresses at transfer of prestress.
 Deflection.
 Bending at ultimate limit state.
 Shear resistance at ultimate limit state.
Design for the serviceability limit state.
Permissible concrete stresses:
(1). Under the action of characteristic loads:
fc < 0.6fck
(2). Under the action of permanent and prestressing loads, and a specified
proportion of characteristic variable load:
fc < 0.45fck
Where fck = characteristic cylinder crushing strength of
concrete.
For design for no cracking, the tensile strengths and moduli of elasticity are take as
shown in the table:
Concrete class 20/25 25/30 30/37 35/45 40/50 45/55 50/60
fctm (N/mm2)2 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.1
Ectm (kN/mm ) 29 30.5 32 33.5 35 36 37
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If tensile stresses exceed those shown in the table, the section may have to be
designed as cracked section. Limited cracking is allowed depending on the exposure
class:
Class 1 - no flexural tensile stress.
Class 2 - flexural tensile stresses but no visible cracking.
Class 3 - flexural cracks < 0.1mm for severe exposure conditions or
0.2mm for all other exposure conditions.
At transfer:
f’t = P/A – P.e/zt + Mmin/zt > f’min = -1 N/mm2. (1)
f’b = P/A + P.e/zb - Mmin/zb < f’max = 0.5fck. (2)
where
zt = I/yb.
zb = I/yt.
p = prestress force.
A = cross-section area.
e = eccentricity of prestress.
Mmin = minimum bending moment.
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At service:
ft = KP/A – KP.e/zt + Mmax/zt < fmax (3)
fb = KP/A + KP.e/zb - Mmax/zb > fmin (4)
Where zt = I/yb.
zb = I/yt.
P = prestress force.
A = cross-section area.
e = eccentricity of prestress.
Mmin = minimum bending moment.
K = a factor for loss of
prestress,
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5.3 Application of prestress

Pre-tensioning
Prestressing steel is stretched between two rigid abutments and concrete is cast
around it. The prestressing strands are released from the anchorages after a suitable
curing period and load is transferred to the concrete by bond between the strand and
the surrounding concrete.
Advantages
 Quick turnover of prestressed units as several can be produced using one prestressing bed.
 Specialized curing techniques can be used to enhance the rate of strength gain.
 Cost saving on anchorage blocks.
Disadvantages
 Immediate loss of prestress due to
elastic shortening of the member.
 Tendon profiles are limited.
 Transportation costs from casting
yard to the construction site.
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Post-tensioning
The concrete is cast with a duct placed to a desired profile. After curing of concrete to
the desired age, prestressing steel is run through the duct, anchored at one and
tensioned from the other end then also anchored. The steel ducts may subsequently
be grouted but are sometimes left un.grouted. Suitable for in-situ prestressed concrete
work.
Advantages
 Flexible tendon profile, therefore greater efficiency in design.
 Several precast units can be assembled and stressed to form a larger element.
Disadvantages
 Additional cost from anchorages.
 Lost time from in-situ curing.
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Continuous beams
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5.3 Analysis of Concrete section under Working

Loads
• The objective of prestressing is to maintain favourable stress
conditions in a concrete member under load, the working
load, which must be considered in terms of both maximum
and minimum values.
• Thus at any section, the stresses produced by the prestress
force must be considered in conjunction with the stresses
caused by maximum and minimum values of applied
moment.
• Unlike the reinforced concrete, the primary analysis of
prestressed concrete is based on service conditions, and on
the assumption that the stresses in the concrete are limited
to values which correspond to the elastic behavior.
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Loads – Cont’d
• The following assumptions are made in the
analysis of the section:
• Plane sections remain plane
• Stress-strain relationships are linear
• Bending occurs about a principal axis
• The prestressing force is the value remaining after
all losses have occurred.
• Changes in tendon stress due to applied loads on
the member have negligible effect on the behavior
of the member.
• Section properties are generally based on the gross
concrete cross-section.
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5.3 Analysis of Concrete section under Working Loads –

Cont’d
• The sign conventions and notations used for analysis are as
shown. For direct and bending stresses, compression is taken
as positive and positive moment is defined as one which
causes a numerically greater stress to occur in fibre 2 than in
fibre 1.
• That is f2 greater than f1 corresponds to a positive moment,
hence sagging is positive. To fit this convention, the
eccentricity of the prestress force from the centroidal axis
must be taken as having a negative value if below the axis
and positive if above.
Loads – Cont’d

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5.3 Analysis of Concrete section under Working Loads – Cont’d



EXERCISES
NOMINAL LOADS DUE TO HA AND HB LOADING
BS 5400 Part 2 clause 5.8.2.1 gives specifications for nominal

loads as follows:
In the absence of more exact calculations the nominal load due
to live load surcharge for suitable material properly
consolidated may be assumed to be:
a) for HA loading: 10 kN/m2;
b) for HB loading:
45 units: 20 kN/m2 (intermediate values
by interpolation)
25 units: 10 kN/m2 “
c) for RU loading: 50 kN/m2 on areas occupied by tracks
d) for RL loading: 30 kN/m2 on areas occupied by tracks
NOTIONAL LANES
The number of notional lanes in the figure above (see
HB load arrangement) is given by:
Width of carriageway
3.0
For example, if the carriageway width is 6.0m, the
number of notional lanes is:
6.0 lanes.
3.0 = 2
For design purposes, only one vehicle can transverse

the bridge at a time.
ANALYSIS OF LOADINGS FOR BRIDGE DESIGN
1. For HA and HB loadings, make use of influence

lines to determine the critical arrangements for
continuous spans and arches.
2. For purposes of analysis, assume that for each
notional lane, only one vehicle can traverse
the bridge at a time.
3. Determine the critical design loads based on
various load combinations.
4. Draw the free body diagram for the critical
design loads.
5. Design member sizes and connections.
EXERCISE
1. Describe HA and HB loadings.
2. Differentiate between carriageway

and notional lane.
3. How are the number of notional lanes

determined in the design of a bridge
deck?
EXERCISE.......
4. A two span bridge ABC has a total width of 10m,
and end up-stand beams 200mm wide and 200mm
high. The deck is PC of thickness 200mm. The deck is
supported monolithically by beams 250mm wide by
400 mm deep, and these beams are at 5550mm
centres.
The span AB is 20m and BC is also 20m. Span AB has a

hinge at the middle.
The bridge is subjected to 30 units of HB loading.

EXERCISE.......
(i) Draw the cross section and longitudinal section of
the bridge described above.
(ii) Determine the number of notional lanes on the bridge.
(iii) How many vehicles of HB loading can traverse the bridge
at a time?
(iv) What is the average dead load from the deck on each of
the supporting beams?
(v) Determine the dead load of each of the beams.
EXERCISE.......
5. Draw the influence lines for the following
load effects:
(i) Bending moment at support B (middle)
(ii) Bending moment at midspan of BC
(iii) Reaction at support B
(iv) Shear at right of support B
(v) Shear at midspan of span BC
6. Using these influence lines, determine the
maximum value of each of the above effects on one
of the supporting beams.

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The Technical University of Kenya

School of Civil & Resource Engineering

COURSE EECI 4165 BRIDGE ENGINEERING

(ii). Final examination - 70%.

(iii). Important Notes:

2. HISTORY OF BRIDGE BUILDING

Later planks with a simple

3.2 Types of bridges by use.

3.3 Types of bridges by construction material.

3.4 Types of bridges by crossing.

Railway crossing Highway crossing

3.5 Types of bridges by ability of superstructure to

Drawbridge Swing bridge

3.6 Anatomy of a bridge.

SECTION THROUGH THE SUPERSTRUCTURE

Precast concrete T-beams and cast in-situ slab

4. LOADS ON BRIDGES (EN 1991-2)

Proposed Kampala-Jinja Expressway

4.1.2 Load Model 1

4.1.3 Load Model 1 – Tandem System

4.1.4 Load Model 2

4.1.5 Load Model 3

4.1.6 Load Spread For All Wheel Loads

4.1.7 Load Model 4

4.1.8 Footway, Cycle Tracks, & Footbridges

4.1.9 Horizontal Force Due to Braking and Acceleration

4.1.10 Centrifugal Force

r = horizontal radius of the carriageway centerline.

4.1.11 Horizontal force due to skidding

A force Qtrk = 0.25 x braking or acceleration force, acting in any

4.2 Impact Loads.

4.2.2 Collision forces on bridge deck.

4.2.3 Impact from river and canal traffic.

4.2.4 Collision forces on kerbs.

4.2.5 Collision forces on vehicle barriers.

The supporting structure should be designed to

4.2.6 Collision forces on structural members.

4.3 Wind and Seismic Loads.

(b). Basic wind pressures

(i). Basic velocity pressure,

(ii). Peak velocity pressure at any height ,z,

qp(z) = [1 + 7.Iv(z)]. ½ ρ v m2(z).

where ρ = air density at the height considered.

Values of z0 and zmin are given in Table 4.1.

c0(z) = 1.0 unless stated otherwise.

(ii). Wind pressure on enclosed

(c). Wind force on bridge deck,

(i). Wind force across the bridge deck,

where ρ = density of air.

vb = basic wind speed.

C = wind load factor = ce.cf.x.

Aref.x = reference area as per Table 8.1.

(ii). Wind in vertical direction.

where ρ = density of air.

vb = basic wind speed.

C = wind load factor = ce.cf.z.

Aref.z = reference area = bL

(iii). Wind in force in longitudinal direction.

For plated bridges

For trussed bridges

where ρ = density of air.

(d). Wind in force on bridge piers.

where cfr = friction coefficient

The seismic coefficient C considers several factors such as seismic