Reasons and Forms of Defects in

Chapter Three
Structures and Methods of Repair

Chapter 3
Reasons and Forms of Defects in Structures and Methods
of Repair
1-3 Introduction:
In recent years, the phenomenon of cracks in various types of structures has
increased, whether in residential buildings, hospitals, administrative buildings,
schools, factories, etc.
The types and forms of these structural defects have varied, ranging from simple
cracks in some structural elements to partial or complete collapse of the
structure. The causes of these defects can generally be attributed to the builders,
the users, or unforeseen disasters.
Structural cracking or collapse is a global phenomenon with causes that vary
from one country to another due to differences in weather conditions, types of
materials, and the degree of acceptance and rejection of construction materials.
Continuous development of design and execution practice codes and standard
specifications for acceptance and rejection of construction materials is underway
to overcome the phenomenon of structural cracking and to achieve strong, safe,
and durable structures that withstand the test of time.

This section reviews common forms of defects in structures in

general, the main reasons behind these defects, and how to avoid
them.
2-3 Forms of Defects in Structures:
Defects in structures may occur at the level of the entire structure as a
unit or in specific structural elements. These defects may affect the
efficiency of use or pose a threat to safety, potentially leading to
collapse.

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3-2-1 Defects in structures occur at the level of the entire structure

as a unit
These defects are divided into two main types:

A- Defects related to the structure as a whole, such as:

- Significant vertical settlement
- Severe tilting
- Twisting
- Cracking
- Uncomfortable vibrations
- Insufficient insulation (moisture, heat, sound)

B- Defects related to the safety of the structure, such as:

- Lack of balance
- Total collapse
- Partial collapse

3-2-2 Defects in Structural Elements:

These defects can be summarized as follows:
- Excessive deflection in bending elements
- Excessive buckling in compression elements
- Staining and polishing
- Corrosion, especially in stairs
- Rusting of reinforcement steel
- Cracking

- Concrete falling

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- Water permeability, whether from roofs or bathrooms and toilets

3-3 Causes of Defects in Structures

Studies and research have confirmed the existence of many reasons that may
lead to defects in structures. From previous research, discussions, conferences,
and consultancy reports, the causes of defects can be attributed to the following
seven reasons:

A- Builders:
- Soil failure
- Design and protection deficiencies
- Material deficiencies
- Execution deficiencies

B- Users:
- Maintenance deficiencies
- Unstudied modifications and changes

C- Unexpected Disasters:
- Earthquakes
- Fires
- Floods
- Explosions
Defects in structures may be due to one or more of the above reasons combined.
Understanding these reasons in detail is crucial for avoiding them in new
buildings or when assessing existing ones.

1-3-3 Soil Deficiencies

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It is a painful reality that many buildings, both in the capital and other
governorates, have shown defects because no soil investigation was conducted
before construction. Thus, foundation designs were based on assumptions that
proved to be generally incorrect, leading to significant settlement in buildings,
uneven settlement, tilting, twisting, and associated cracking in the walls and
structural elements, ultimately leading to partial or complete collapse over time.
Soil deficiencies can be attributed to the following:
1. Lack of geological information about the area and its proximity to earthquake
zones, weak and variable soil properties, and behaviour linked to moisture
content such as expansive or collapsible soil.
2. Soil collapse under foundations due to loading stresses exceeding soil bearing
capacity.
3. Significant relative settlement under different parts of the building.
4. Fluctuation of groundwater levels below foundations, causing soil loosening
and unanticipated settlement.
5. High salt and chemical content in the soil without adequate protection for the
foundations.
6. Use of unsuitable materials and improper compaction methods in soil
replacement.
7. Groundwater dewatering without considering soil loosening.
8. Adjacent excavation work without proper shoring to prevent soil loosening
under the existing structure.
9. Large vibrations from heavy vehicle movement, pile driving, or machinery
without adequate precautions to prevent the transfer of these vibrations from the
soil to the structure, affecting its safety.

The most common types of problematic soils and their potential issues are
summarized.

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About them and how to identify them in Table (3 – 1)
Table (3-1) Soil conditions that are likely to cause problems with
foundations
Identify
- Appears in the borings.
The existence of backfill can be
found from the records of the earth.
It may become necessary to do
experiments natural and special
chemical.
- The number of beats in a standard
penetration experiment is less than
ten but beware of the wrong
classification of the results of this
experiment. It may be necessary to
do a static cone experiment.
Measure sensitivity in the field or in
the laboratory
High plasticity modulus due to the
concentration of mineral substances
in clay
Usually a material with poor
adhesion, open composition and
little specific weight.
Chapter Three
Possible problems Soil type
Usually heterogeneous and its date is
unknown, it lands under load and
groundwater movement, it may not be Backfill
inert, and gases may be generated
from it.
Compressible
It lands under the influence of
Bulk sand
vibrations and may have a fluid state
in special circumstances
Ease of reconfiguration during
execution such as: when hammering
piles or equipment movement Sensitive mud
It can have an acute lack of pressure
resistance.
It softens when exposed to water
currents, or cycles of wetness and
Clay overflow
drought that is, the soil will move with
the seasons of the year.
Lack of resistance when water seeps
into it or is flooded, water currents The collapsed
cause corrosion and movement of soil
molecules.
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Allows internal water pressure to Clay

Continuous sampling is necessary,
and the use of piezocone may be
required.
Detailed knowledge of geological
history for the area and accurately problems in determining the depth of
determine the soil sector from
enough probes
transfer through large cracks, causing containing
rapid compression of the mud layers sandy and
in contact with the cracks loamy dividers
The rock line is not accurately
defined and zigzag resulting into
Residual layer
piles, it is possible that they contain
gaps in the ground, especially in
calcareous rocks.

Areas of "local domes" in the Entering the water may lead to the
world - sufficient knowledge of the removal of salts, causing collapsed Soluble soil
geology of the region. subsidence

(3.3.2) Deficiencies in Design and Protection

Modern design and implementation codes stipulated the inevitability of
taking into account the conditions surrounding the building as well as the nature
of its use and the extent to which it is exposed from the harsh climate or
chemicals loaded with the atmosphere or contact with its elements into account
within the protection work of the buildings, and therefore the codes have set
restrictions on the limits of acceptance and rejection of the materials used, as
well as safety coefficients, the quality of cement, the thickness of the cover,
external paints and others according to the conditions to which the building will
be exposed.
New codes have emerged that include modern theories in design and are
linked in their application to materials with distinct qualities and serious control
and quality.
However, there may be deficiencies in the design due to many
factors, including:
1. Errors in the selection of structural system and basic assumptions.
2. Errors in calculating loads
3. Not taking the surrounding conditions into account when designing.
4. High stresses relative to the resistance of the materials used
5. E concentration of stresses when transported from the other sector.
6. Problems with supports and constraint movement of elements

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7. Deficiencies in structural details, which may not appear in a clear style on

the paintings, which leads to confusion, including:
❖ Distribution of armaments.
❖ The shape of the skewers and their dimensions.
❖ Armament of the staff.
❖ The ends of the skewers and their extension from the other element.
Identification of movement links and landing links.
❖ Failure to accurately determine the specifications of the materials used.
❖ Contradiction of mixing ratios of concrete with the specifications required
in the fresh and hardened state.
❖ Arrange the casting and reinforcement of the elements during
implementation if necessary.
The most important reasons behind the appearance of defects in facilities
resulting from deficiencies in design, protection, details, areas of errors and how
to identify them have been summarized in Table (3-2).

Table (3-2) Design deficiencies, details and errors that occur from
them
Identify Errors that can occur Domain Status

-Review the Structural analysis errors not writing calculations

Design deficiencies
arithmetic note sectors
-Review the
paintings with the
note
Review upload Not taking all loading cases into Loads
statuses account (wind - earthquakes - repeated
loads)
Review boundary Not taking all surrounding Ambient conditions
cases circumstances into account

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Review panel notes Errors in estimating the resistance of Assumptions

materials and organs to various stresses
Struts details Failure to take the effect of movement struts
due to friction at moving stilts
Link board review Lack of sufficient connections Expansion/contraction

Detail panel Failure to determine the appropriate Concrete cover

Deficiencies in
concrete cover for the conditions for
which the structure is reviewed
Panels & Beams Not specifying the appropriate Cohesion lengths
cohesion lengths for the skewers,
especially at the end of the beams.

Do the connections Failure to locate casting and Links

allow movement expansion joints or defects in their
details
Columns, beams Accumulation of iron causing nesting Sectors
and walls sectors or the use of large diameters with
small diameters
Specification Insufficient specifications or non- specifications
Review applicability to the normal state

(3.3.3) Material deficiencies

There is no doubt that the use of certain materials has a destructive effect and
represents one of the main reasons behind the appearance of defects in origin. The
degree of acceptance and rejection of materials is due to the extent to which their
properties conform to the limits stipulated in the standard specifications. The
Egyptian standards issued by the General Organization for Standardization of the
Ministry of Industry and for building materials are the main reference for
accepting and rejecting these materials, and these specifications include in general
how to take the test sample and its quantity representing the quantity supplied or

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subject to inspection, as well as standard tests and how to conduct them and the
limits of acceptance and rejection and tolerances allowed.
In the absence of Egyptian specifications for a specific building material, an
agreement is made between the parties through contracting with reference to
specific international specifications that suit the conditions of origin to resort to
when judging the validity of these materials.
It is worth mentioning that testing the materials used in construction before use
on a correct laboratory basis and the periodicity of proper inspection do not
receive sufficient care in most implementation sites, which has the greatest impact
behind the phenomenon of defects and collapses in facilities and significantly
reduced the life of use.
The use of cement that does not conform to specifications in terms of softness,
initial and final doubt time, resistance, chemical composition limits and other
provisions of the specifications will have a devastating impact on the resistance
and durability of the origin, and the use of aggregates containing clay or organic
materials or salts or be of a larger legal size is not suitable or gradation is not a
ladder or any impurities or foreign materials will also have a destructive effect on
the origin, mixing water, treatment and reinforcing steel, and additives. And the
rest of the materials are like bricks Construction, whiteness materials, paints,
insulation materials, drainage pipes, water, tools, tiles Carpentry, glass, metal, etc.
must conform to the standard specifications to ensure resistance and durability
Field and laboratory tests on concrete mixtures, whether in the fresh or hardened
state, represent absolute importance and must be performed accurately to control
the quality of the structural elements, which represent the basic structure of
buildings, and the inaccuracy of any part of its parts may lead to serious defects
that begin with cracks and may end with the complete collapse of the building
(3.3.4) Construction deficiencies.
A set of Egyptian codes for construction and building work were issued, and the
word code is a core Arabic word meaning "law" and codes of practice include the
foundations of design and implementation conditions that govern the construction
process, which if followed, the product would be a balanced, strong and solid
origin. And always begins codes of practice by emphasizing that the materials
used are usable by meeting the requirements of standard specifications and for
reinforced concrete installations, which represent the vast majority of facilities in

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the current era, poor implementation is intended for non-compliance with the
provisions of the code, starting from storage of materials separate from each other
and protected in a good manner from the surrounding conditions, as well as the
correct calibration of materials, proper mixing and transportation without
separation or bleeding, proper blood and treatment towards the surface and the
necessary restorations after unwinding the wrenches and limits Disparities in each
of these items.
Also, the deficiency in the implementation may occur as a result of defects in
chopping and wrenches in terms of balance, strength, dimensions and the extent
of their provisions to prevent the leakage of cement paste from them.
And increasing the water of the concrete mixture, which is followed by the
majority for ease of operation or for not adding additions and thus material saving
leads to the weakness of the concrete and increase its porosity and the occurrence
of water from its elements and the subsequent rust of the reinforcing steel.
There are errors in the implementation that the code stipulates to avoid, such as
not using different types of cement or steel with the same structural element,
which will result in differences in the strains generated because of stresses and
defects occur in those elements.
Non-compliance with what was stated in the panels, whether in terms of suitable
for foundation, quality of foundations and reinforcement in terms of types,
diameters, distribution, formation, lengths, appropriate extension and good
fixation of skewers, whether longitudinal, sweeping or cans, leads to the
appearance of defects in the facilities.
Not using mechanical vibrators or using them incorrectly affects the strength and
durability of concrete over time.
There are limits to allowing steel rebar before using it in reinforced concrete and
you must not exceed it, otherwise cohesion with concrete will be affected and thus
will affect the resistance of structural elements, and increasing rust from the limit
allowed in the code without getting rid of the resulting rust in the proper manner
leads to an increase in the rate of rust speed in reinforced concrete elements, which
increases with increasing the proportions of salts in the concrete mixture, the
nature of the element, the thickness of the concrete cover and the surrounding
conditions.

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The Egyptian code stipulates the need to conduct periodic inspection of materials
from their basic sources, as well as when supplying and setting periodic limits for
inspection and the necessary tests must be adhered to to obtain strong and solid
facilities.
(3.3.5) Maintenance deficiencies
There is no doubt that the maintenance of existing facilities does not take
importance and due diligence, whether at the level of the private, public or
government sectors, and the absence of maintenance has had an effective and
destructive impact, which is one of the most important reasons behind the
appearance of defects early in the facilities, which affects their appearance and
safety and reduce the life of their use.
Generally, maintenance can be broadly divided into preventive maintenance and
regular maintenance.
What is meant by preventive maintenance is to adhere to all the specifications of
testing construction materials and codes in terms of the need to study the soil,
choose the type of appropriate foundations, special treatment of the soil if needed,
and follow the principles of design, sound implementation conditions and quality
control work to ensure the safety, strength and durability of the facility.
As for periodic maintenance, it is divided into three levels, the first of which is
simple maintenance through daily inspection and repair of minor damages, which
needs a general technician trained in various works of plumbing, carpentry,
succession ... The second level of maintenance is urgent maintenance, which is
usually carried out by the contractor of the annual works for works that need a
dedicated budget, expertise and trained labor. The third level is the main
maintenance and usually takes place every specific period of time and includes
restoration, renovation, structural reinforcements and others and is usually done
after referring to an integrated advisory report and is usually offered to companies
and contractors specialized with experience and previous work in these areas.
Maintenance work generally includes existing buildings, surrounding yards and
fences, considering sanitary works, water network, insulation works, carpentry,
whiteness, paints, electricity and gas, and extends to structural elements and
buildings.
(3.3.6) Unconsidered Explanations and Amendments

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It is unfortunate that most government buildings, even those built less than ten
years ago, are very difficult to have any engineering data about them, whether
from soil studies if they were originally conducted, structural panels or others.
The work of elevations and modifications requires carrying out the work of probes
and soil study and the work of architectural and structural lifting of the building
and report its condition and defects in it and the condition of its concrete in terms
of resistance and salt content and the state of steel reinforcement and structural
review of reality and in the absence of these studies and research and the work of
detection and tests, the elevations and modifications are an adventure and
gambling is not guaranteed results and may lead to serious defects in origin or
collapse.
In this regard, it must be emphasized that all the above should be carried out before
declaring the explanations, through official and scientific bodies in the first place,
or refer to specialized consulting offices with a good reputation, and that these
works are carried out by contractors with a previous honorable work and under
close engineering supervision. Unconsidered modifications and change of use
without ensuring the tolerance of the soil and origin and its resistance to new use
and under the new operating conditions destructively affect the safety of the
facility and reduce its non-use, and a full review must be carried out before
allowing it.
(7.3.3) Unexpected disasters
It is customary for unexpected disasters to be summarized in earthquakes,
hurricanes, volcanoes, floods, fires and explosions, and if the disaster is repeated,
it falls within the item of expected events and must be considered in the various
stages of construction
If we take earthquakes as an example, their occurrence is predictable - and the
areas most likely to occur and their potential intensity have been identified - and
therefore it has been included in the codes of Egyptian practice since 1989 How
to design
Take seismic loads into account. After the October earthquake in 1992, it is
necessary to work on two axes, one is to put the probability of earthquakes in the
design of new facilities and the other axis is to study the means of protecting
existing facilities from an upcoming earthquake.

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Fires may be expected in some facilities that contain flammable materials such as
some factories, hotels, cinemas and theaters, and a fire protection code is currently
being prepared to include the recommendation of certain materials for
construction, protection, architectural design of the facility, alarms, firefighting,
etc.
Due to the geography of the region, there are no volcanic areas, and the local area
is not exposed to any hurricanes, and as for floods, they are often expected to
occur and work is being done to confront them with irrigation facilities such as
bridges, bridges and others. Explosions are also limited as a result of the improper
use of gas pipes, for example, although they are taken into account within fire
precautions.
(3.4) Conclusion:
There is no doubt that the quality control work, which is called preventive
maintenance, represents the cornerstone in the production of strong and durable
facilities, and attention and commitment to the terms of standard specifications in
the selection of materials and codes of practice in design and implementation will
have the greatest impact in this field, and periodic maintenance after the
completion of the facility is an integral and essential part to maintain facilities and
prolong their life.
Through a comprehensive and elaborate vision of the causes and forms of defects
in the facilities and with full knowledge of them, in addition to knowledge of non-
destructive tests and how to conduct them on the facilities and how to prepare
technical reports, it is possible to start forming cadres capable of participating in
the evaluation of existing facilities in preparation for the development of
maintenance programs for them.

(3.5) Repair and protection materials

(3.5.1) Introduction
This section includes the definition of the materials that make up polymer systems
armed with fibers of resins and fibers and has been clarified the nature and uses
of starters, filling putty, saturated products, adhesives, protective coatings and
types of fibers commonly used.

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This section also shows the systems of polymers reinforced with fibers applied
externally in their various types and their properties, whether in the form of tissues
or plates.
In addition, the basis for shipping, storage and packaging of fibre-reinforced
polymer base materials has been determined through examination, evaluation and
acceptance.
❖ Constituent materials for fiber-reinforced polymer systems
Includes materials that make up fiber-reinforced polymer systems used in repair
work
And reinforcement of concrete elements on resins (polymers, including buddies,
putty, saturators and adhesives, as well as fibers of various kinds.
▪ Resins (polymers)
They are substances with a high molecular weight of hundreds of thousands of
repeating units called monomers.
Resins are polymers in a viscosity state that approximates glues (Gum - hike) and
polymers can be based on carbon and hydrogen atoms called organic polymers or
be based on atoms such as silicon (Si), phosphorus (P) or sulfur (S) are called
inorganic polymers.
It is worth noting that the word polymer is a general word that determines the
allocation here is the modulus of elasticity.
Polymers are called elastomers if the modulus of elasticity (E) is less than 100
N/cm2.
 They are called fibers if the modulus of elasticity is greater than 3500
N/cm2
 It is called plastics if the modulus of elasticity is located between these two
values, meaning that (E) is greater from 100 N/cm2 and less than 3500
N/cm2.
Polymers can generally be divided into two main parts according to their behavior
under the influence of heat.
1) The type softens by heating and freezes with refrigeration and can be
reconstituted several times by alternating heating. The types of this

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section vary because of their self-installation or because of the

addition of some specific materials to them.
2) A type that softens by heating but solidifies permanently by cooling.
This section is characterized by its electrical properties
Good polymers that do not relent heat after hardening and reinforced with great
resistance to tension, pressure, impact, creep, heat, water and chemicals, examples
of this type are:
Polyester reinforced with glass fibers, reinforced epoxy, carbon fiber, glass
fibers or aramid fibers.
3) Sometimes added to polymers fillers (Fillers), which are solid
materials of small sizes such as fine sand, cement, calcium carbonate,
mica, silica, asbestos and others, which are added for the purpose of
reducing the price of the resulting material and in order to increase
its resistance, especially if it will be used for construction purposes.
It may also add plasticizers, which are materials that help ease their formation or
additives that modify their properties such as properties of flexibility, hardness,
moisture resistance, resistance to fungi, improving electrical properties or fire
resistance, and metal oxides may be used to give certain colors to the resulting
plastic.

 Requirements for the use of resins

Resins used in repair and reinforcement work with reinforced polymers are
required
With fiber to achieve the following:
• High degree of adhesion with concrete surfaces.
• High adhesion with fiber-reinforced polymer systems
• Resistance to surrounding environmental influences such as moisture, salts,
high temperature and chemicals to which concrete elements may be
exposed.
• Suitable viscosity
• Fillability
• Proper uptime before hardening

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• Good adhesion to reinforcing fibers.

The role of the polymer adhesive surroundings is limited to the transfer of stresses
between the reinforcing fibers and the surrounding structure and in protecting the
fibers from environmental or mechanical damage, and this is like the role of
concrete in reinforced concrete
Intershear stress is considered as an influencing factor in the design of structures
exposed to bending loads, usually shear is the important factor in torsional loads.
The properties of the polymer adhesive medium affect the environmental linear
shear stress as well as the surface shear stress of the compound. The resin
adhesive medium provides lateral strengthening if the fibers are subjected to
compressive loads.
The mechanical properties of the compound depend heavily on the ambient
atmosphere temperature as well as on the load rate in the glass transition
temperature range (Tg), the polymeric material turns from a normally hard and
brittle hard material to a coarse soft material, and the tensile coefficient of the
polymeric adhesive surroundings decreases by five times its value.
 Some types of resins
A - Polyester Resins:
Unsaturated polyester is a polymeric resin commonly used to produce parts of
structural compounds. These resins are in the form of low-viscosity liquids during
the operating period and until they are processed, while partially manufactured
materials containing fibers can be used under certain conditions of temperature
and pressure. There are many commercial types of polymer resins .
B - Epoxy Resins:
Epoxy resins are available as materials with different viscosity and are mixed with
several hardeners or processing elements.
The nature of epoxy allows it to be traded as partially processed or in an advanced
processing state and is generally known as (Prepreg) If it contains fibers, the
product can be poured into a mold or rolled in the form of a tape at room
temperature. Epoxy resins are more expensive than their commercial polyester
counterparts. Because many first-generation concrete reinforcing compounds rely
on epoxy resins, these resins are treated during this chapter in a little more detail.

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From the former polyester, especially rust resistant resins. However, it is believed
that the second generation of concrete reinforcing compound products will be
based on a special new type of polyester with tensile retention properties and
improved alkali resistance.
Although some epoxes harden at as low as 80°F (30°C), all epoxys need a few
degrees before processing to achieve acceptable performance at high
temperatures. Many suppliers currently offer special epoxy deduced which, when
heated, have a viscosity low enough to be sufficiently compatible with the
operating parameters of the new generation of resin casting methods. Large parts
manufactured with epoxy acids have shown easy compatibility with the shape of
the casting mold and with the dimensions of the molded part. Epoxy resins can be
developed to achieve very high mechanical properties. No Monomer/Styrene
Another can be launched during the casting process. However, specific hardeners,
especially amines, and epoxy resins themselves can cause skin allergies, so
appropriate personal protection methods should always be followed.
The intentional bonding of the epoxes is initiated using hardeners
or there are many processing elements used and available in the market.
One of these commercially prevalent elements is DETA. The hydrogen
atoms in the amine group in the DETA molecule interact with the epoxy
groups in the DGEBA molecules. They are interconnected
perpendicularly to each other and then a three-dimensional mesh is
formed and results in the adhesive environment treated with the rigid
epoxy resin.
The processing time and the temperature increase required to
complete orthogonal bonding (polymerization) depend on the type and
quantity of hardener used. Some of these traps work at room
temperature. However, most hardeners need to raise temperatures.
Sometimes some additives called processor speeds are added to liquid
epoxy resin to speed up the reaction and reduce processing time.
Epoxy resins can be processed at temperatures ranging from room
temperature to high temperature of 347 F (175) °C. The final treatment
would then have been completed.
Compared to polyester resins, epoxy resins provide the following
general performance characteristics:

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A wide range of mechanical and natural properties can be obtained due

to the variety of internal materials.
• No volatile substances are emitted during the processing and
operation process
• The shrinkage rate decreases during processing
• Excellent resistance to chemicals and solvents.
• Good adhesion to the fillings, fibers and underneath surfaces to
which they are applied.
The cost of adhesive ambient medium is generally higher than ISO
polyester or vinyl ester resins
• Epoxes must be operated carefully in order to maintain moisture
resistance.
• Processing time can be long.
Some hardeners need special precautions in their intake, in addition to
the fact that resins as well as some hardeners can cause skin sensitivity.
 Operating considerations related to polymer adhesive
ambient resins
The workability as well as the final quality of the composite material
system depend to a large extent on the properties of the polymer
adhesive environment such as viscosity, melting point, and required
processing conditions. The natural properties of the resinous adhesive
environment must also be taken into account when choosing a
manufacturing method that is used to join the fibers and the compound
together to produce a three-dimensional final element.
 Mechanical properties of resin (polymer)
* The basic function of the polymer in the case of arming it with
fibers is to stabilize the fibers together in the specified position and
direction and cause cohesion between them, and distribute the load on
the fibers, as well as protect the fibers from corrosion, friction and

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impact and from the negative impact of the liquid of external factors on
them.
* Classification of polymers into two main types, thermoplast and
thermomost, which is the type
Used for fiber reinforcement, the most common of which are epoxy,
polyester and vinylester.
* The properties of physical and mechanical polymers vary
according to their chemical composition and manufacturing methods,
which affects the properties of the final product, so you must refer to
the supplier or manufacturer of the system to obtain the properties of
the product.
* The physical and mechanical properties of polymers are also
affected by external factors such as heat and humidity, which
consequently affect the properties of the final product. Therefore, the
appropriate polymer must be carefully selected for the proposed
application.
* The physical and mechanical properties of the polymer are
specified by performing the standard tests detailed in the annex to the
tests code. Also, in some applications it may be necessary to perform
durability tests (withstand external factors over time mentioned in the
section on durability of this code.
Table (3-1-1) and (3-1-2) shows the mechanical properties of some
polymers used to reinforce fibers, the most important of which are the
maximum tensile stress, the modulus of elasticity and strain upon
collapse, as well as Table (3-1-1) shows the mechanical properties of
epoxy polymer with concrete and reinforcing steel.

Table (3-1-1) Mechanical Properties of Thermoset Polymer (2.1)

GPa tensile Tensile strength Specific Polymer

Contraction
elastic meter MPa Weight type

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1.0 – 5.0 4.1-27.75 55-130 1.2-1.3 Epoxy

5.0 – 12.0 2.1-3.45 34.5-103.5 1.1-1.4 Polyester
5.4 – 10.3 3-3.35 73-81 1.12-1.32 Vinylster

Table (3-1-2) Mechanical Properties of Thermost Polymer (2.1)

GPa tensile elastic

Maximum Maximum tensile Resin type
meter
elongation strength MPa (polymer)
Less than 20 4.83 – 6.211 103-172 Epoxy resin
1.7 – 3.2 2.76-5.52 48-73 Polyamide
Resins
1.4 – 4.0 2.76-4.21 21-83 Polyester resin
5.0 – 10.0 2.21-4.83 76-103 Thromoplasts

Table (3-1-3) Mechanical Properties of Epoxy Polymer with Concrete

and Rebar Steel

Steel
Concrete Epoxy Special at 20°C
reinforcement
7800 2350 1100-1700 Density (kg/m3)
205 20-50 .5-20 Flexibility Meter GPa
cutting flexibility GPa
80 8-21 .2-8
calibration
0.3 .2 .3-.4 Poisson ratio
200 – 600 1-4 9-30 Mpa Tensile Strength

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Pressure resistance
200 – 600 25-150 55-110
Mpa
200 - 600 2-5 10-30 Mpa Shear resistance
Maximum elongation at
25 0.015 .5-5
% break
Medium impact energy
10 – 10 6 100 200-1000
(J/m)
Coefficient of thermal
10 – 15 11-13 25-100
expansion (10-6)/°C
Glass transition
------ ------ 45-80
temperature(°C)
Water absorption
5 .1-3 % coefficient – 7 days
by volume
 Reinforcing fibers for construction vehicles
The base fibers used commercially in engineering applications, including
reinforced concrete composite, are as follows: glass, carbon and aramide. The
most common forms of fiber-reinforced composites are called. Common and used
in structural applications or laminate. The slats are manufactured by assembling
several layers of fiber and adhesive surroundings and then integrating them with
each other until the desired thickness is reached. The configuration and processing
of fibers in each layer as well as the sequence of assembly of many layers can be
controlled to obtain properties Reasonably mechanical and natural.
The performance of the compound depends on the materials of which this
compound is made, and on the arrangement of the reinforcing fibers potential for
basic loads as well as the interactions between these materials and each other are
the main factors that affect the performance of the compound with the adhesive
ambient medium and fiber guidance fibers, the length of the fiber, its shape, the
formation of these fibers, the mechanical properties of the resin adhesive
surroundings, the strength of adhesion or bonding between the fibers and the resin
adhesive surroundings.

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The arrangement of the fibers by unifying their direction or making them one-
dimensional results in them becoming anisotropic. The orientation of the fibers
results in the maximum strength and maximum coefficient in the direction of the
axis of the fibers is the surface arrangement of the fibers is two-dimensional and
has different forces at both angles of the fibers. The three-dimensional
arrangement system is isotropic but becomes significantly less powerful than the
one-dimensional arrangement. The mechanical properties in any one direction are
proportional to the amount and size of these fibers in that direction.
The properties of a fibre-reinforced compound strongly depend on the
direction of measurement and its relationship to the direction of the fibers.
The tensile strength and the uniform direction coefficient of the slats is maximum
when these properties are measured in the longitudinal direction of the fibers, but
at different angles the properties decrease. The same angle dependence has been
observed for other mechanical and physical properties and most fiber reinforcing
compounds have elasticity in the properties shown by the stress-strain relationship
of tension.
Many fiber reinforcing compounds exhibit high internal damping
properties, which leads to better absorption energy for vibrations and flies through
the material and reduces the likelihood of their transmission to neighboring
structures. This destination of vehicle behavior can be appropriate in civil
engineering facilities (bridges, highways, etc.) exposed to temporary loads in a
shorter period than those displaying continuous high loads
 Functional relationship between polymeric adhesive
surroundings and reinforcing fibers
The adhesive surroundings provide protection and shape for the fibers.
Chemical, thermal and electrical performance can be affected by the choice of
resin adhesive surroundings, but the role of this resin adhesive ambient medium
is much higher than that, as it maintains the position of the fibers in the form of
the resin adhesive surroundings when exposed to loads and distributes stresses to
the fiber component with a high coefficient. The adhesive surroundings must have
a higher elongation at break than that of the fibers and should not shrink severely
during the treatment process to avoid the presence of internal stresses on the
reinforcing fibers.
If the designer wants to obtain materials with different properties, he must use the
appropriate fibers and choose to place the unidirectional fibers. Variations from
this practice can be required to conform to changing sections and can only be done

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within narrow limits without resorting to the use of fibers with shorter axes or by
readjusting the straightness of the fibers. Both designs significantly reduce the
load-bearing capacity of the corrected part and are also likely to negatively affect
Cost-effectiveness. On the other hand, if the part is complex, it is necessary to
resort to shorter fibers to arm the mold efficiently and effectively in three
dimensions. In this way the properties Quasi = isotropic can be retained in the
compound. Fiber configuration affects hesotropic behavior.
Effect of fiber length on chip properties
Placing the fibers in the appropriate place for them can be affected by the
length or shortness of the fibers. In addition to the structural concepts and
reservations mentioned earlier in this section, there can be practical obstacles that
place restrictions on the designer's choices. The different alternatives in this
choice may require variable sections in the shape of this part of the compound.
Changes in the manufacture of connected fibers as well as part manufacturing
considerations make it impossible to obtain fibers with equal stresses on Orbit
their length without resorting to unconventional methods .

 Interdependence of mutual facets

Fiber compounds can withstand higher stresses than fiberless polymeric
bonding material because both the adhesive environment and the fibers react and
redistribute stresses caused by external loads. The efficiency and quality of the
distribution of these stresses within the structure of the compound depends on the
nature and efficiency of the binding material. Then think of both mechanical and
chemical methods to be applicable in any construction situation. Binders are used
to improve the chemical bonding between the reinforcement and the adhesive
surroundings if the mutual medium between the fibers and the adhesive
surroundings is sometimes in a shear state when the compound is under load.

 Design considerations
Except for high-cost carbon fiber, the coefficient of fiber reinforcing compounds
is significantly lower than conventional materials. For this reason, the new design
in terms of shape, fiber selection, fiber placement or combination with other fibers
must be considered by designers.
The following considerations are considered when choosing commonly used
compounds:

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• Compounds are differentiated and can be directed in the direction of the

required loads.
• There is a high degree of freedom in design. Which can be exceeded in the
thickness and shape of the part to be designed
• Compared to traditional vehicle designs, the strength of the fibers is highly
tensile. But it is less harsh unless carbon fiber is present. In the case of using
carbon fibers, designers must take care of impact and breakage.
There are also other considerations to consider when designing:
• Providing maximum rigor with the use of the least services.
• Take advantage of the contrast of material properties and directed fibers in
ensuring that manufacturing methods
• Proportional to the choices.
• Obtaining optimal values for the emotions of the slides. The elongation of
the resins is an important factor when choosing the resin adhesive
surroundings for structural parts. However, the effect of fault stress and
potential corrosion stress in chemicals or in stressful environmental
conditions can reduce long-term performance, in which case care is
required in designs. This will allow us to consider the effects of creep,
cracking, aging, solubility solutions, etc.
• Understand and understand the creep and fatigue properties of the slices
when exposed to constant or intermittent loads. Recognize that for
properties to be improved to be acceptable, the adhesive surroundings must
be able to accept higher emotions than the reinforcing material.
• Ensure that the energy stored at the time of collapse represented by the
space up to the direction of (stress - strain) is as great as possible if it
indicates the durability of the compound.
The following figure shows the stress-strain relationship of the loaded fibers.
Each of these fibers suitable for use in engineering constructions has a certain
lengthening and specific stress-strain properties.
❖ Fiberglass.
Fiberglass has been prevalent in many civilian applications due to the balance
between cost and specific strength properties. Fiberglass is commercially
available in the composition of E-glass electrolytic classification), the most
commonly used as a multi-purpose form in reinforced concrete composite, high

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strength 2-S ECR glass (E-glass developed to introduce a special improvement on

acid resistance).
Other fiberglass configurations contain Te, R, and AR, although their price is
much higher than glass, other fibers containing carbon or aramid are used because
of their strength, modulus or properties in certain conditions, such as in the case
of hybridization with glass.
A- Forms of Glass Fiber Reinforcements
Components that are armed with fiberglass contain fibers of lengths much
greater than the dimensions of their section by a ratio greater than (10:1) The
largest diameter of the glass fiber that was commercially produced was the fiber
filament, which had a nominal diameter of 22.86 - 24.12 microns. Quite a few
forms of fiber are available on the market.
A-1 Twists Roving
This is the basic form of connected commercial fibers (rovings’) are
assemblies of a number of strands ropes or in the case of what is called direct
pulling (Direct Pull) all of them are fully formed at once, resulting in a more
homogeneous product which reduces the bending in the Roving groups of threads
exposed to uneven tensile loads.

A-2 Woven Ravings

The same winding product mentioned above is used as an input for
reinforcing woven rolls. The product is defined as the woven type which can be
95.5, at zero degrees + 45 degrees, - 45 degrees and several other forms depending
on the manufacturing method. These items are sold by weight per square yard of
common weights of 640.3 g/m or 24 square ounces
A-3 Mats.
are large numbers of randomly arranged threads in a two-dimensional
plane. The fiber filaments are deposited on a continuous conveyor and pass
through an area where heat-hardened resins are scattered over them this
thermoplastic hardens and connects the mat to each other. The resin (as a binder)
dissolves in the polyester or vinyl ester fabric and thus allows the mat to be shaped
by the shape of the mold.
A.4 Combined Product

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It is possible to combine textile rolls with a mat with chopped threads.

There are many techniques to achieve this. One of these techniques connects the
two reinforcements together with a resin like that used in the chopped yarn
method. Another technique starts with woven rolls but chopped yarn fibers are
placed on the surface of the woven rolls while this is immediately followed by a
stitch process to secure the crushed fiber. There are several differences in this
position.
B. Other Glass Fiber Considerations
Fiberglass (Hydrophilic) is very active surfaces, which can be easily damaged
when handled. They are subjected to a protective first coating as a first step once
the fiber classification process is completed. Recurrence solutions containing
protective paint also contain adhesion aid. Adhesion aids are usually organically
functional Silanes as binding cofactors.
The protective coating provides workability as well as moisture protection.
Adhesion aids improve the bond between the fibers and the polymeric resin
adhesive surroundings. Fiber suppliers choose their adhesion assistants as well as
their protective coating depending on the manufacturing and operation of the resin
adhesive surroundings of the desired product.
C - Behavior of fiberglass when subjected to loads
The fiberglass is flexible until collapse occurs and imperceptible creep appears
under controlled dry conditions. In general, it is agreed that the modulus of
elasticity of E-glass monofilament is approximately (73Gp). The emotion of the
final collapse is in the range of 2.5 to 3.5 percent. Then examine the relationship
between stress and emotion of the strands. The collapse in the actual strands is
caused by a cumulative process, as the weak fiber fails or not, so the load moves
to the rest of the strong fibers, which fail respectively. Fiberglass is much stronger
when compared to other forms of glass such as window glass or bottle glass. The
strength of the fiberglass can be retained if the fibers are protected from moisture
as well as pollution.

❖ Carbon fiber
There are three sources of carbon fiber commercially: Bitumen, a by-product
produced when distillation
Petroleum, PAN (Polyacrylonitrile), Rayon

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There are two types of carbon fibers: type I (1) and type II (II) High strength
Differences in properties between type I and II are due to differences in the
microstructure of fibers. It is not easy for carbon fibers to be saturated by resins,
especially with high coefficient carbon fibers. Surface treatment processes have
been developed that increase the number of active chemical groups and sometimes
lead to roughing of fiber surfaces for some resin adhesive surroundings
Carbon fibers are sometimes shipped with sized epoxy to prevent fiber wear and
improve handling and thus provide the surrounding environment with epoxy resin
adhesive compatible environmental surface. The bonding strength between the
fiber surfaces and the adhesive surroundings compars the strength of the low
coefficient carbon fiber.
Carbon fibers are available as diodes or bundles of parallel fibers. The field of
individual filaments or hairs in a duo is usually 1000 - 2000 fibers. Carbon
fibers are also available as prepreg as well as as two unidirectional plates.
▪ Aramid Fibers
There are many organic fibers available that can be used in structural
applications yet the cost and sometimes operating temperature or durability
factors limit these uses and limit them only to certain applications.
The fibers can be structured with anisotropic properties and are given
higher strength and greater modulus in the longitudinal direction than in the
transverse direction. Fibrillar fibers are also thought to begin at the ends of
Fibrillar and then reproduce, multiply and increase through breakdown due to
shear between fibrils and each other).
:fibers are as follows Aramid The representative properties of
Kevlar 49 and tawran 1055 are the major forms used today.
This is due to its high rate. The materials mentioned above are used in applications
that require hardness Aramid fibers that are available in the form of ravings, tows
yarns and many woven fabric products and these can therefore be operated to
intermediate stages such as prepregs
• The tensile modulus is a function of the orientation of the molecules.
• Tensile strength: Aramid fibers are 50% higher than E-glass. High-rate P-
aramid yarn shows a linear decrease in both tensile strength and modulus
when tested with temperature rise and increase More than 80% of the
strength is retained by the heat conditioning process.

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• At room temperature, the effect of humidity on properties is less than 5%.

• Creep and fatigue: The para-aramid is resistant to fatigue and creep rupture
• The creep rate is low and like the creep rate in fiberglass. be less
Sensitive and less susceptible to creep rupture.
Properties of pressure: Para-aramida shows elongated behavior other than the
pressure linear. At a stress pressure of 0.3-0.5%, yield can be observed. This
corresponds and is consistent with the formation of structural defects which
Kind bands are known as having to do with the pressure curvature of paramid
molecules. This compression behavior limits the use of paramid fibers in
applications exposed to high pressure stress or flexural loads.

• Durability: The durability of para-armide fibers has a direct relationship

with the durability of traditional tensile or the space under the voltage-stress
curve. The paramide structure and compressive behavior contribute to less
sensitive compounds.
• Thermal properties: The structure of para-armide produces a high degree of
thermal stability The fibers are dissolved in the air at a temperature of 800
F (25 °C) and can be used in a thermal range between 2000 and 2000 but
cannot be used for long at temperatures above 300 F (150) due to oxidation.
The coefficient of thermal longitudinal expansion (slightly negative) of the
fiber is estimated at – 2×106/k.
• Electrical properties: Para armide is an electrical dielectric. Its electrical
constant is 4 measured at 1.6 Hz.
• Environmental behavior: Paramed fibers can be reduced by strong acids.
These fibers are resistant to all other civilities and chemicals. UV
degradation can als occur. In polymeric compounds, the loss in instrength
is not observable. One precaution regarding compressive behavior
observed above that results in local crumpling as well as fibrillation of
individual fibers leads to lower strength under compression and flexural
conditions and for this reason aramid is not suitable unless enriched and
hybridized with glass or carbon fiber for use in fiber-reinforced polymer
constructions that must withstand high compressive and flexural loads.
Such a structure of hybrid fibers leads to a high vibration suppression
coefficient, and this in itself constitutes an advantage in dynamically loaded
structures.

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❖ Mechanical properties of fibers

• The fibers are characterized by resistance and flexibility standards much
higher than those that distinguish the same material in its normal state, so
that the greater the ratio of length to the diameter of the fibers, the greater
the efficiency of the load transfer between the fibers and the resinous filler,
which achieves the highest exploitation of fiber properties and makes the
fiber a suitable material for reinforcing polymers.
• The fibers used to reinforce polymers must have resistance and high
flexibility standards in addition to stability, chemical and other properties.
Commonly used fibers are glass, carbon and aramid.
• Fibers are made with diameters ranging from 2005 micrometers in the
form of long filaments placed parallel in one direction or in two
intersecting directions, as well as can be cut into small pieces and placed
with the polymer during mixing and processing and this is outside the
scope of this study with code).
• The properties of the fibers used to reinforce polymers vary according to
the type of fiber, source and manufacturing methods, so you must refer to
the supplier or manufacturer of the system to obtain the properties of the
product.
• Classification of fibers used in the applications of reinforcing installations
into three main types: glass, carbon armide. Each of them has several types
that vary in their natural and mechanical properties.
• Glass fibers: characterized by their cheap price compared to other types of
fibers, but the disadvantage is that they have a higher density than fibers,
although it is nevertheless less than the density of iron and concrete, and is
characterized by its resistance to corrosion and corrosion, and is not
conductive to electricity, but it is affected by alkaline solutions so it must
be protected using appropriate resins or by surface layers and protective
paints. There are several types, the most important of which are:
- E glass: It has a high content of aluminate and boric acid, which weakens
its strong resistance.
- S glass: It has higher tensile resistance and tensile standards than glass - but
does not have alkali resistance.
- Glass - AR: It is characterized by its resistance to being affected by alkaline
solutions because it contains a percentage of the element Zircon. It has
resistance and tensile flexibility standards close to its value for E-glass

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• Carbon fiber: The raw material used in its manufacture is either RAN (8.5
μm) or pitch bitumen (coal or distilled petroleum measuring 9-18 μm). It
has the highest tensile resistance and elasticity standards compared to other
fiber types as well as lower in density. It is flawed by bombing behavior
where the collapse occurs at a relatively low elongation, although it occurs
at maximum stress much higher in value than other fibers and is
characterized by its resistance to land and corrosion and has a negative
value coefficient thermal expansion. It is also characterized by good access
to electricity, which makes it unsuitable for use in some facilities or
elements exposed to an electric field. And the high elongation ratio until
the fracture. Carbon fiber resists corrosion, although some other metals may
cause contact with it, such as iron, aluminum ... There are several types, the
most important of which are:
1. Carbon fiber normal use General Purpose.
2. High Strength Carbon Fiber
3. Ultra -High Strength Carbon Fiber
4. High carbon fiber high elasticity calibration – Modulus
5. Ultra Flexible Carbon Fiber - Modulus
Aramid fibers: produced with diameters of about 12 micrometers and have a
flexible linear behavior in tensile and are characterized by high tensile strength
and high elongation ratio to breakage as well as their ability to absorb energy. and
fatigue resistance, which makes it suitable for use in elements of installations
exposed to impact forces. It is also bombarded with flexible and non-linear
behavior in pressure, as well as weakens its resistance to pressure and the value
of negative coefficient of thermal expansion, and it is available from the type of
normal use and another type of high properties low modulus, high modulus
- Behavior of fibers under the influence of tensile forces. It was necessary to
perform a tensile test on the fibers after lightly immersing them in resin and
curing them, according to the standard test detailed in the Code Tests
Annex. Values for stresses and elasticity standards are calculated based on
the pure section area of the fibers without taking the resin into account.
- When the fibers are subjected to tensile loads, the relationship between the
load and elongation is a linear relationship visible until the collapse and
does not appear to have a yield stage like the case of iron.
- Table 3-1-4 shows the mechanical properties of some fibers common in
tensile: maximum tensile stress, elastic modulus and strain at breakdown

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- The fibers are not exposed to withstand the forces of compression or shear
on their own due to their weakness in resisting these loads, but the fibers
are exposed with the polymer and there are no resistance values of the fibers
to pressure or shear.

Table (3-1-4) Mechanical properties of fibers in tensile

Maximum Flexibility Maximum Fiber Type
tensile Standards tensile
% elongation GPA stress mpa
3-4.5 69-72 1900-3000 Glass - E
4.5-5.5 85-90 3500-4800 Glass - S
1.2-1.4 215-240 2050-3800 Normal Use
Carbon
1.4-2.0 215-240 3800-4800 High Carbon
Strength

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1.5-2.3 215-240 4800-6000 Ultra-resistant

carbon
0.5-0.9 350-500 2000-3100 High carbon
elasticity
calibration
0.2-0.4 500-700 1400-2400 Ultra-flexible
carbon
4.3-5.0 70-80 3450-4100 High elasticity
standards
aramid
2.5-3.5 110-130 3450-4100 Ultra-flexible
aramid
❖ Temporary Protection
Exposure of fiber-reinforced polymer systems to high temperature, direct
rain, dust or intense sunlight during installation may lead to inappropriate damage
or hardening of the resins. Temporary protection by plastic tents and curtains may
be required during installation and until the resins are completely processed and
hardened. If reinforcements are required, the fibre-reinforced polymer system
must be treated and hardened permanently before Remove these supports and
allow the structural elements to carry the design. If damage to fiber-reinforced
polymer systems is expected during installation, the engineer must be informed
and the system manufacturers consulted to give advice.
▪ Putty
The putty is used to fill small voids in the concrete surface as well as to provide
it with a smooth surface and to prevent the formation of bubbles when saturated
resin is applied so that fiber-reinforced polymer systems can be applied.
▪ Adhesives
Adhesives are used in the cohesion of pre-treated fiber polymer systems with the
concrete surface or in the adhesion of the multiple layers of these systems
together.
▪ Protective coatings

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Coatings are used to protect the end surface of fiber-reinforced polymer systems
from the harmful influence of the surrounding environment
❖ Fiber Reinforced Polymer Systems
▪ Introduction
This section of the section is concerned with giving a general picture of the
systems of fiber-reinforced polymers used as main reinforcement or as
means of structural support. The objective of this country is limited to
describing applications suitable for each type and the characteristics of the
different commercially available species.
▪ Externally applied fibre-reinforced polymer systems
Polymer systems can be used to strengthen and strengthen degraded
structural elements and can be used to strengthen structural elements to
increase their ability to withstand loads due to change of use of origin or to
correct errors resulting from design or implementation .
• The designer engineer must assess the suitability of the proposed
system of fiber-reinforced polymers for the specified application and
this is done by conducting a general assessment of the state of origin
that includes determining the current capacity of the structure to
resist loads, identifying existing defects and their causes, and
determining the condition of the basic concrete to which the
reinforcement will be applied. The overall assessment of the
structure is carried out by reviewing the basic structural design and
what has actually been implemented A) - built) As well as conducting
a complete structural analysis in accordance with the requirements
of the Egyptian code Reinforced concrete works as well as reviewing
the project documents during implementation, including design
panels, project specifications, tests carried out during
implementation, documents for previous support work and
documents for maintenance work.
The designer engineer must also carry out a thorough examination of the
state of origin on the ground that includes the following items:
Current dimensions of structural elements.
▪ Location, size and cause of annotations and desquamation (Spalls)
▪ Positions and degree of rust of rebar.

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▪ Number, diameters and locations of reinforcing bars.

▪ Compression resistance of concrete on site.
▪ The validity of the presence of concrete, especially concrete cover, in the
places where fiber-reinforced polymers will be used.
A test should be carried out to determine the tensile strength of concrete on
surfaces that the designer engineer decides to use in the reinforcement process
with fiber-reinforced polymers. The tensile strength of concrete is assessed.
Using the "Pull - off adhesion test" according to the test procedure guidelines
(AXI R503), the resistance of the structural elements must be determined based
on the information collected on the condition of the structural elements on the
ground, in addition to reviewing the engineering accounts, panels and structural
analysis results, and loading tests for the origin in nature can be used if
appropriate.
The designer must review the available information and consult the product
to ensure that the system chosen for the reinforcement and the layers used for
protective coatings are suitable for the specified conditions of use.

▪ Reinforcement limits
There are recommendations from many designers and producers of fibre-
reinforced polymers to put a maximum limit on the increase resulting from
reinforcement and the ability of the structural element to resist loads in order to
avoid the collapse of the structural element in the event of loss of resistance
resulting from the reinforcement system .

▪ Fire precautions
Structures reinforced with fiber-reinforced polymers must comply with all
the requirements for fire resistance in the Building and Fire Code. The expected
temperatures for the spread of smoke and flame must be determined in accordance
with the relevant standard (ASTME48). Protection layers can be used to reduce
the spread of smoke and flame.
Fiber-reinforced polymer systems are characterized by their low ability to
resist high temperatures, so it is assumed that fiber-reinforced polymers installed

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from the outside lose their resistance completely in the event of a fire, and for this
reason, the resistance of the structural element without reinforcement with fiber-
reinforced polymers must be sufficient to resist the loads on the structural element
during the fire.
The bearing capacity of fire-prone fibre-reinforced polymer structural
elements can be improved by using certain types of resins, coatings or other means
of fire protection, but there is no conclusive evidence of the efficacy of these
procedures to isolate fiber-reinforced polymer systems from the impact of high
temperatures during a fire.

▪ Maximum operating temperature

The physical and mechanical properties of resinous materials included in fiber-
reinforced polymer systems are affected by high temperatures and these properties
deteriorate if the temperature exceeds the glass transition temperature (TB) and
the transition temperature (Tg) can be defined as the average point in the
temperature range after which the resin begins to shift from a solid state and
bombard (Brittle).) to a plastic and soft case. This expression in the case of resin
leads to the deterioration of the properties of hardened polymer systems. There is
a special transition temperature (Tg) for each fiber-reinforced polymer system
ranging from 60 to 82 °C for commercially available species at present and the
producer is responsible for identifying. This value. The operating temperature of
fiber-reinforced polymer systems should not exceed the glass transition
temperature (Tg) of this system.

▪ Minimum resistance of the main concrete element

Reinforcement systems of fiber-reinforced polymers perform their function
when applied to concrete in good condition and should not be used in applications
on structural elements containing reinforcing skewers in a rusted state or on
degraded concrete unless the basic condition of concrete has been repaired. The
condition of deteriorating concrete or the presence of rebar rust must be assessed,
and these problems addressed before fibre-reinforced polymer reinforcement
systems are implemented. Symptoms of concrete degradation include the
presence of an alkaline reaction of aggregates, the occurrence of ringit or crypt,

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the presence of longitudinal cracks along rusted skewers or stratigraphic cracks

around rebar sites.
The condition and capacity of the basic concrete and its strengthenability
must be evaluated using fiber-reinforced polymer reinforcement systems applied
from the outside.
The strength of the basic concrete to which the reinforcement work is
applied is an important element for applications that rely on cohesion before
increasing the resistance of the structural element to bending moments and shear
forces. The resistance must be sufficient to withstand design loads of cohesion
with reinforcement systems using fiber-reinforced polymers.
The minimum tensile strength in the concrete including the cohesion
surfaces between the base concrete and the repaired concrete must be met after
equal to 1.4 MPa and this resistance is determined using the "Remove Selection".
Fiber-reinforced polymer reinforcement systems should not be used if the
compressive strength of the base concrete is less than 17 MPa (Fe˂ 17 Mpa). As
for applications
Which depends mainly on the existence of cohesion between the structural
element and the reinforcement layer, such as the case of sheathing the surrounding
columns, the minimum mentioned resistance pressure is not released.
It should be noted that the use of fiber-reinforced polymer systems will not
stop the rusting process of rebar and it is not recommended to use reinforcement
by fiber-reinforced polymers before eliminating the iron rusting process and
repairing any deterioration in the base concrete.

❖ Use of commercially available systems of fiber-reinforced

polymers
Any fibre-reinforced polymer system offered for use must undergo
extensive testing until sufficient results are obtained to judge the expected
behavior of the system under the proposed operating conditions, including the
installation methods used. As for the systems that have not been tested, their
behavior and properties may be unpredictable and a conflict may occur between
the properties of the materials involved in their composition, and therefore it is

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recommended to use fiber-reinforced polymer systems that have been produced

after verifying the properties of the materials involved in them and conducting
structural tests for them, including systems that have been registered. The Annex
to the tests attached to this code includes several standard tests for fiber-reinforced
polymer systems.
Commercially Available Types of Externally Applied Fibre Reinforced
Polymer Systems Fibre reinforced polymer systems are available in various
forms, including site-saturated and pre-harvested systems. The different types of
fiber-reinforced polymer systems are classified according to the image they bring
to the site and the method of installation and include the following systems:

A. Wet Lay Up Systems

Site saturated systems consist of one-way or multi-directional dry fiber strips and
are saturated with site resin. Impregnated resin as well as the appropriate starter
and filler are used to glue and fix fiber-reinforced polymer slats on the concrete
surface. The saturated systems on the site are processed and hardened on site and
therefore are like the concrete that is poured on the site. There are three common
types of site-saturated systems:
1. Dry strips of unidirectional fibers where most of the fibers are in one
direction of the plane.
2. Dry strips of multi-directional fibers where the fibers are placed in more
than one direction in the same plane
3. Stranded dry slices that are woven together or mechanically applied to the
concrete surface. These dry strands are performed with resin material on
site during the winding process.
B- Prepreg systems
These systems consist of unidirectional or omnidirectional fiber strips that
have been synthesized with resins in the factory. These systems are installed
on the concrete surface using additional quantities or not using any additional
quantities of resins depending on the application requirements. These systems
are also similar to saturated systems and the common types of these systems
are divided into: On-site completion of the on-site hunt, and these systems

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usually require additional heating to complete the hardening process. The

product should be consulted on storage conditions and shelf life.
1. Chip systems of pre-hardened saturated fibers made up of unidirectional
fibers where the fibers are in one direction in the plane.
2. Pre-hardened saturated fiber or textile foil systems made up of
multidirectional fibers where the fibers are placed in at least two directions
at the same level
3. Systems of strands of saturated fibers before hardening and stranded or
mechanically combined for application to the concrete surface.
C - Precured Systems
These systems consist of many composite shapes that are manufactured off-
site. Adhesives are usually used with starter and putty to install these systems
on the concrete surface and must refer to the product to find out the installation
steps, and these systems can be likened to prefabricated concrete. The three
common types of these systems are:
1. Pre-hardened systems consisting of unidirectional slats are supplied
to the site as a bundle of flat slats or as a thin strip of slats wrapped
on a roller.
2. Pre-collision systems consisting of multi-directional fiber networks.
They are usually supplied to the site in the form of rollers.
3. Pre-rigid structures are usually supplied to the site in the form of
open structural sectors in the longitudinal direction so that they can
be opened and fixed around columns or other structural elements and
many of them are installed and installed with each other and with the
concrete element to give resistance to earthquake loads.
❖ Fiber reinforced polymer prefabricated sections
▪ Prefabricated sections are made of fiber-reinforced polymer by various
manufacturing methods (such as pultrusion, filament winding, casting in
molds, etc.) and supplied in appropriate lengths to assemble and install on
the surface required by gluing, and these sections can also be used alone as
well as can be used as reinforcement for concrete sections.
▪ These sections are available in different geometric shapes such as panels,
grids, pipes, angles, shells and others of different dimensions and

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thicknesses. Flat or curved sections can also be produced in any other

shapes and dimensions specified by the designer.
▪ The physical and mechanical properties of these sectors vary depending on
the materials composed of fibers and resins, their proportions and the
directions of the fibers in each layer as well as the dimensions of the sector
and the arrangement and sequence of layers. Which constitutes a great
advantage for these sectors, as the designer finds a wide scope to choose
the dimensions of the sector as well as its materials and detailed
components to fully achieve the required design requirements.
▪ The characteristics of ready-made segments depend on the manufacturing
method and the level of quality control followed during manufacturing.
This may require confirmatory tests to accept the materials in order to
ensure the mechanical properties of these sectors.
▪ The final behavior of the structures supported by these materials depends
on the characteristics of the sector as above, as well as on the composite
performance of the sector with the concrete sector of the reinforced
structural element. To achieve this, it is necessary to ensure the efficiency
of adhesion and complete coherence and interdependence between them, as
well as a design that considers the common behavior of the composite
sector.
❖ Hybrid Systems
▪ Composite systems mean the use of polymer reinforced with different
types of fibers together in the same layer (chip) or in successive layers
(strips), or the use of different products of fiber-reinforced polymer such as
slats, plates, skewers, prefabricated sectors together or other materials, to
form in the end with the element to be strengthened one element that
behaves in a uniform structural behavior under the influence of loads with
each of its components bearing its own stresses.
▪ The designer resorts to the use of these systems to achieve the maximum
possible benefit from the distinct physical and mechanical properties of
each material of these systems and converge defects and negative properties
▪ Some have these materials. This is with the aim of achieving design
requirements in addition to achieving design economics.
▪ These systems require great knowledge from the designer of the physical
and mechanical properties of the various engineering materials in addition

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to their composition and chemical properties to ensure that no reaction

occurs due to their contact that harms the origin in the long run.
▪ The design of these systems also requires expertise from the designer to
choose the appropriate components and the appropriate system that, after
applying it to the origin, achieves the assumed and required structural
behavior.
▪ These composite systems of materials developed in the field of facilities
are relatively recent. Therefore, it is preferable to make models of these
systems and models of some elements applied to these systems at an
appropriate scale, and to conduct laboratory tests to study the structural
behavior of these elements and ensure that it is achieved for the supposed
design, before proceeding with the implementation of this system.

❖ Fiber mixing equation

Ef =Efib+ E m V m
Ff= V fip F fip+ Vm Fm
Where
E f: Young's modulus of FRP in fiber direction
E fib: Young's modulus of fibre
Em: Young's modulus of matrix
V fib: Volume fraction of fibre
V m: Volume fraction of matrix
F f: Tensile strength of FRP
F fib: Tensile strength of fibre
F m: Tensile strength of matrix
Vfib+Vm1

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