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MAJOR DISEASES PREVALENT IN MUSHROOM CULTIVATION

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 Vision 2047 : Sustainable Development Towards Atma Nirbhar Bharat
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Website: http://www.scienceandnature.org Editors
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ISBN: 978-81-966250-7-8 Dr. Mamta Singh Dr. Sanjay Kumar Rai
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. Pankaj Malkani Dr. Dhiru Kumar Tiwari
Dr. Manoj Kumar . Avanish Kumar Singh
. Bhushan Kumar Singh . Anshu Gangwar
 About the editors

Name Address
Chief Editors
Dr. Shishir Kumar Gangwar Senior Scientist and Head, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Madhopur, West
Champaran, Bihar
Dr. Sanjeev Verma Assistant Professor- IMS, University of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Rajendra Pratap Singh Senior Scientist and Head, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Narkatiaganj, West
Champaran, Bihar
Dr. Durga Prasad Associate Professor-Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Baytu,
Agriculture University, Rajasthan
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Jabalpur) Sagar, Madhya Pradesh
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Narkatiaganj, West Champaran, Bihar
Dr. Pankaj Malkani Subject Matter Specialist- Agricultural Engineering, Krishi Vigyan
Kendra, Narkatiaganj, West Champaran, Bihar
Dr. Manoj Kumar Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow,
Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Bhushan Kumar Singh Subject Matter Specialist- Vet. Sci./Animal Science, Krishi Vigyan
Kendra, Narkatiaganj, West Champaran, Bihar
Co-Editors
Dr. Sanjay Kumar Rai Senior Scientist and Head, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Sheohar, Bihar
Dr. Arvind Kumar Singh Senior Scientist and Head, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Piparakothi, East
Champaran, Bihar
Dr. Dhiru Kumar Tiwari Subject Matter Specialist- Horticulture, Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
Madhopur, West Champaran, Bihar
Mr. Avanish Kumar Singh Subject Matter Specialist- Agronomy, Mahayogi Gorakhnath Krishi
Vigyan Kendra, Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Anshu Gangwar Subject Matter Specialist- Agriculture Engineering, Krishi Vigyan
Kendra, Parsauni, East Champaran, Bihar
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 Chapter-28

MAJOR DISEASES PREVALENT IN MUSHROOM CULTIVATION

Durga Prasad1*, R. P. Singh2 and S. K. Gangwar3
1
Assoc Professor, College of Agriculture, Baytu-344034, Agriculture University, Jodhpur, Rajasthan
2
Senior Scientist and Head, KVK, West Champaran-II, Dr RPCAU, Pusa, Samatipur, Bihar
3
Senior Scientist and Head, KVK, West Champaran-I, Dr RPCAU, Pusa, Samatipur, Bihar
*
Corresponding author’s email: dp.coabaytu@gmail.com

Abstract
An excellent agro-based side business that gives people in rural areas 50 to 100% profit is mushroom
farming. It supplements major income. For young people without jobs and college graduates,
impoverished small-scale farmers, farmwomen, landless laborers, retired individuals, and even those
still in the workforce, mushroom farming offers an additional avenue for self-employment. Many
entrepreneurs are now pursuing this business on a commercial basis as it is growing into a significant
sector. The fact that mushrooms contain a vast array of nutraceutical components makes them popular
functional foods. Their low fat, low energy content, and high protein content are widely acknowledged
as their nutritional significance. These are high in vitamins like riboflavin, thiamine, ergosterol, niacin,
and ascorbic acid, and they are also high in minerals like iron and phosphorus. Many microbial attacks,
such as those caused by fungi (dry bubble or brown spot, wet bubble, cobweb, green mould, or
Trichoderma blotch), bacteria (bacterial blotch, bacterial yellowing, bacterial soft rot, stipe necrosis),
viruses, and nematodes, can often affect the intensive cultivations of edible mushrooms. As a result,
mushroom farms suffer significant losses all over the world. Regarding the indications and
manifestations, every disease of them exhibits unique kinds. A variety of management strategies,
including chemical and biological control combined with suitable cultural practices, can be used to
overcome these diseases. This book chapter provides a thorough description of several mushroom
diseases, along with information on symptoms, risk factors, and treatments that may be useful to
various users.
KEYWORDS: cobweb, dry bubble, green mildew, mushroom, stipe necrosis, wet bubble

The second most profitable microbial technology, after yeast, is mushroom farming. Grown with little
capital and fast return on investment, it is regarded as one of the most important agricultural ventures.
The most environmentally beneficial way to create profit out of trash is through mushroom gardening,
which also promotes diversification and helps address issues with employment, health, and
environmental sustainability. Along with being a good source of iron, potassium, salt, dietary fibre,
high-quality amino acids, and vitamin B complexes, mushrooms are also thought to be the main natural
source of provitamins, or ergosterol. Presently, it is extensively cultivated and has significant
nutritional and therapeutic worth (Jr, 2005). Mushrooms are grown on an increasing number of
commercial farms; farmers have encountered significant difficulties as a result of different biotic and
abiotic stressors (Ro et al., 2007). Diseases are one of the main causes of biotic stress in the mushroom

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industry, since a large portion of the crop is lost as a result of decreased production, deteriorated
quality, and limited shelf life. The biotic agents—fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, etc.—directly or
indirectly cause significant losses to mushrooms. Since many bacteria can contaminate mushrooms
from substrate preparation to fruiting, incurring substantial losses, growing disease-free mushrooms is
a difficult task. Each year, diseases brought on by various pathogens, including nematodes, bacteria,
viruses, and fungi, cause enormous losses for the mushroom business (Fletcher and Gaze, 2008). While
severe cleanliness and attentive farm management can help avoid serious infections, some diseases are
extremely difficult to treat. Moreover, diseases that are asymptomatic at harvest time have a significant
impact on shelf-life quality. Below is a thorough explanation of the main diseases that are common in
mushroom farming, which may be useful to many users.
1. Fungal diseases
Although numerous fungal infections damage mushrooms, only a small number of them are presently
a problem for commercial mushroom farms. While some of them can harm the mushroom mycelium,
others can only affect how the mycelium grows. Fungal diseases can lower production, alter product
quality, or do both. However, they all, frequently considerably, lower the crop's overall return. By
employing various preventative and therapeutic strategies, they might be reduced or controlled.
1.1. Dry bubble or brown spot
The most prevalent and dangerous fungus that affects mushroom farms is called dry bubble. A crop
can be destroyed by the disease in two to three weeks if it is not controlled. If the infection occurs
early, the mushrooms develop typical onion-shaped caps that stay small, with muddied brown,
frequently sunken areas and greyish, white mouldy growth on the crown. The mushroom dries up in a
later stage. One of the main pathogens causing significant productivity losses in cultivated mushrooms
is Verticillium fungicola (Gela, 1993). A crop can be destroyed by the disease in two to three weeks if
it is not controlled (Fletcher et al., 1986). On the adult sporophores, a large number of localized, light
brown depression patches emerge. Following coalition, these patches develop into asymmetric brown
blotches that seem unclean due to the white fungal spore mass or grey mould fuzz covering the surface.
When the infection progressed, the surface of the sporophores was often covered in a grey weave of
conidia and mycelium (Marlowe and Romaine, 1982). Infected caps get smaller in blotched areas,
become dry, leathery, and exhibit fissures. According to Sharma (1994), infected fruit bodies have an
uneven, inflated mass of dry, leathery tissue and an onion-shaped deformity. Entomogenous and
fungicolous species are found in the widely dispersed fungal genus Lecanicillium, which is a member
of the Ascomycota division (Berendsen et al., 2010). Dry bubble disease, one of the most destructive
diseases to mushroom crops, is caused by Lecanicillium fungicola, formerly known as Verticillium
fungicola (Berendsen et al., 2010). Two kinds of Lecanicillium fungicola, vars. fungicola and
aleophilum, have been linked to and found to be in charge of the worldwide development of dry bubble
disease in mushrooms, according to Zare and Gams (2008). Pleurotus ostreatus (Marlowe, 1982),
Agaricus bitorquis (Gea et al., 2003), and Agaricus bisporus (Berendsen et al., 2010) are just a few of
the mushroom hosts that L. fungicola is known to parasitize. According to Zare and Gams (2008), L.
fungicola is more frequently seen infecting decaying mushrooms rather than having a broad host range
and being present in wild mushrooms. According to Grogan et al. (2009), crop losses from the dry
bubble disease can range from 1 to 5%, but when the disease gets out of control, it can cause losses of

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up to 20% or more. Piasecka et al. (2021) discovered that the principal source of L. fungicola infection
in mushrooms was casing material, particularly peat. In addition to peat and casing material,
contaminated equipment and phorid insects might act as the main source of infection (Kumar et al.,
2014). Under laboratory conditions, Kumar and Sharma (1998) discovered that, respectively, phorid
and sciarid flies transmitted 84–100% and 76–100% of V. fungicola (syn. L. fungicola). According to
Sohi (1988), the ideal temperature for disease development is 20°C. It takes at least 10 days for the
distortion symptoms to manifest and 3–4 days for cap spotting to occur following the pathogen
infection. The study also found that temperatures above 16°C, inadequate air circulation, high
humidity, late harvesting, and pathogen growth were all favourable to the development of pathogens,
with 24°C showing the greatest growth. The occurrence of dry bubbles has been reported by Thapa
and Jandaik (1984–1985) to range from 25–50% in Solan and Kasauli and up to 15% at Shimla and
Chail (Sharma and Vijay, 1993). According to Fletcher et al. (1986), the optimal temperature for
pathogen growth is 27°C. Temperatures over 16 °C, inadequate air circulation, high humidity, and
delayed picking all contribute to its growth and dissemination (Sohi, 1988). According to Sharma
(1994), all commercial strains are sensitive. To prevent primary infection, it is crucial to use sterilized
casing soil, dispose of spent compost properly, and practice good hygiene and sanitation (Sharma,
1994). Aerated steam treatment for thirty minutes at 60°C and 82°C inhibited the germination of spores
and the colonization of soil by V. malthousei more than a comparable treatment at 98°C. According to
Sharma et al. (2007), heat treatment of the contaminated casing layer at 63°C for one hour stopped
spore germination. V. fungicola was successfully inhibited by five bacterial strains, according to Bhat
and Singh (2000). Since the host is also susceptible to fungicides, only a limited number of compounds
are effective in controlling dry bubbles. Notably, it has been observed that V. fungicola is becoming
resistant to the fungicides used to manage dry bubble disease (Berendsen et al., 2013). Spraying
Prochloraz manganese at 60g/100m2 within 7 days of casing and then every 2 weeks after that allowed
for good control of V. fungicola (Fletcher and Hims, 1981).
1.2. Wet Bubble
The disease was initially discovered in Jammu and Kashmir, India, in 1978. (Kaul et al., 1978).
According to reports, Mycogone perniciosa-induced wet mushroom bubbles can reach dangerous
dimensions in other major mushroom-growing nations (Forer et al., 1974). Wet bubble disease,
which affects the commercial cultivation of various mushrooms (A. bisporus, Pleurotus ostreatus,
P. citrinopileatus, Volvariella volvacea, etc.) in most of the major mushroom-growing countries
worldwide, is caused by the ascomycotan mycoparasitic fungus Mycogone perniciosa (Carrasco et
al., 2019; Li et al., 2021). After a few days, the cauliflower-like white mycelium mat that the fungus
covered the mushroom with becomes creamy brown. Under extremely humid conditions, a small
amber (yellowish brown) to dark brown liquid drop forms on the surface of the undifferentiated
tissue. At this point, the contaminated mattresses emit an awful stench. Short, curly, pure white fluffy
mould growth of the pathogen on deformed mushrooms is one of the signs that Sharma and Kumar
(2000) identified as plainly visible to the unaided eye. Within the malformed sporophores lacking
cottony development, a black circular region was visible immediately beneath the top layer in the
cross-section. Umar et al. (2000) reported that when young (up to 6mm) pin heads were infected, the
infection caused severe cytological alterations. Nodular, tumorous, large, highly irregular fungal

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masses form; neither organogenesis nor differentiation of the cell mass occurs. According to Garcha
(1978), the infection can spread by air, water, or mechanical means through the use of flies and mites.
Wet bubble disease is characterized by the formation of white mycelial growth on button mushroom
masses' fruiting bodies and the presence of deformed tissue known as a sclerodamoid mass, which is
the consequence of an early infection at the pinhead stage (Umar et al., 2000). According to reports,
the bubbles are spongy, white, and fleecy at first, but they eventually become brown and disintegrate
(Fletcher and Gaze, 2008). According to Munshi et al. (2010), there were droplets of amber liquid
that included germs and spores that, as they rotted, generated an awful stench. In northern India,
Sharma and Kumar (2000) showed that the loss in A. bisporus yield varied from 15.72% to 80.13%
under intentionally infected settings and up to 100% in naturally occurring cases of the illness. In
addition, Zhou et al. (2015) noted the destructive character of A. bisporus wet bubble disease,
observing yield losses of 15–30% in good settings and even complete crop loss in the worstsituations.
According to Chulan et al. (2017), who investigated the extent of M. perniciosa damage, the
vegetative mycelium was unaffected and only the morphogenesis of A. bisporus fruiting bodies was
impacted. Fletcher and Gaze (2008) claim that the primary way that Mycogone perniciosa infects
farmed mushrooms is through casing material. Furthermore, it was discovered that the virus was
disseminated by water splashing, conidia transferred by air, and agents such as contaminated tools,
clothing, etc. Siwulski et al. (2011) found that M. perniciosa grew most quickly at 25°C during
incubation and that growth suppression was most pronounced at 15°C. The optimal pH of the agar
medium was found to be 5.5, after which pH 8.4 hindered growth. Zaayen and Rutigens (1981)
reported that M. perniciosa had a thermal death point of 48°C. There have been numerous attempts
to control the disease using different strategies as the pathogen causes significant harm to the crop.
Zhang (1990) proposed three preventive measures for wet bubble disease: fumigation with
formaldehyde, fungicidal treatment, and steam sterilization of mushroom beds. It is also important
to utilize additional techniques, such as strain selection and screening for disease resistance. Geijn
(1977) proposed that the crop be sprayed with carbendazim, benomyl, or thiophanate methyl at 100–
150 litres of water right after casing to control wet bubble disease. According to Kim et al. (1978),
applying 100 ppm of Vapam (Metham sodium) and Basamid (Dazomet) to the casing has also been
reported to be highly successful. Several workers have found that the application of carbendazim,
benomyl, chlorothalonil, TBZ, and prochloraz manganese complex (Sportak 50 WP) into the casing
mixture is highly successful in managing wet bubbles (Sharma and Kumar, 2000).
1.3. Cobweb
One of the most dangerous illnesses affecting white button mushrooms is called cobweb, which
is brought on by Cladobotryum mycophilum (Chakwiya et al., 2015; Zuo et al., 2016).
According to reports, the incidence of cobweb disease in commercial mushroom crops varies
from 6.8 to 28% in Indian A. bisporus (Bhatt & Singh, 2002). From the first to the third flush,
cobweb incidence and severity progressively rise (Carrasco et al., 2016a). Small white spots
called cobwebs emerge on the casing soil and are subsequently carried to the closest mushroom
by a thin, spider-web-like mycelium that is grey-white. The fall and winter cycles are when
cobwebs are most common (Carrasco et al., 2016a). The pathogen is a fungus that lives in soil
and is typically spread to crops by farm workers, spores, and mycelium on crop debris.
According to Sharma (1994), spores are easily dispersed by water splashing, worker hands,

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tools, and clothing. RH 90% and a temperature of 25–30°C were favourable for the disease that
C. verticillatum induced on A. bitorquis (Sharma et al., 1992). To prevent the release of conidia
and the spread of the disease, a primary cobweb outbreak over the casing or carpophores needs
to be treated before sporulation (Pyck & Grogan, 2015). The affected region needs to be
covered with thick, damp paper. The pathogen is efficiently eliminated by sterilizing the casing
mixture at 50 °C for 4 hours or by disinfecting the casing soil with live steam. The disease can
be controlled by routine cleaning, removing young, half-dead mushrooms and chopped
mushroom stems after each break, and regulating humidity and temperature (Sharma, 1994).
Controlling this disease can be accomplished by yearly disinfection of homes and surrounding
areas with a 2% Bordeaux mixture, a 5% formalin solution, or an instant spray with benomyl
@ 0.1% casing (Sharma et al., 2007). France has just approved the use of metrafenone
(benzophenone) to treat cobweb disease (FRAC, 2016). Metrafenone was also recently granted
temporary approval in Spain to be used on mushroom crops (Carrasco et al., 2016b, 2017).
1.4. Green Mould or Trichoderma blotch
One of the most prevalent and harmful diseases in mushroom farming, green mould causes large
losses in terms of both quantity and quality. On the outside of the casing or in compost, pure white
mycelium growth that resembles mushroom mycelium is seen. Later on, as a typical sign of the
disease, the mycelial mat takes on a green hue due to the extensive sporulation of the causative agent.
One of the most prevalent and harmful diseases in mushroom farming, it is mostly brought on by
various Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Trichoderma species. Among these moulds, the yield of
Agaricus bisporus, Pleurotus spp., Auricularia, Calocybe indica, and Lentinula edodes is
significantly reduced both quantitatively and qualitatively by Trichoderma harzianum (Seaby,1996).
When T. viride and T. harzianum were artificially inoculated, Jandaik and Guleria (1999) showed
yield reductions of 5.46.87% and 6.25–50.0%, respectively. Trichoderma species such as T.
citrinoviride, T. harzianum, T. aggressivum, T. pleuroti, T. viride, T. polysporum, T.
longibrachiatum, T. koningii, and T. pleuroticola have been proven to cause devastating effects of
green mould disease in mushroom production by numerous researchers from all over the world
(Kumar et al., 2017; Hatvani et al., 2017; Innocenti et al., 2018). According to Singh et al. (2006),
T. harzianum is the most significant species of Trichoderma that can frequently cause green mould
disease and perhaps reduce yields. Trichoderma species have a great potential for outbreaks and are
highly dominant over all other fungi (Bhandari et al., 2021). Jandaik and Guleria (1999) state that
early stages of Trichoderma are frequently observed, particularly during the spawn run phase.
According to Nagy et al. (2012), during the second flush of oyster mushroom cultivation,
Trichoderma caused a 20–30% yield reduction. Large-scale outbreaks of green mould in Hungary in
2015 caused a 100% crop loss in button mushrooms due to T. aggressivum f. aggressivum infection
(Hatvani et al., 2017). Two isolates of Trichoderma aggressivum f. aggressivum (Th4 and Th1) were
reported to limit the mycelial growth of A. bisporus by 71.99% and 58.71%, respectively, in in vitro
investigations conducted in Turkey (Aydoğdu et al., 2020). According to Mwangi et al. (2017),
factors that promote the growth of moulds, such as high relative humidity, warm temperatures, and
sources of carbon and nitrogen, become ideal for their growth after a little fluctuation, such as the
lack of light during the spawn run, which eventually causes contamination. Trichoderma spp. have

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variable ideal temperatures, ranging from 20°C to 28°C (Choi et al., 2003) and not growing at 15°C
(Yu, 2002). According to Woo et al. (2004), Trichoderma species may thrive well in pH ranges of
5-7, which is acidic-neutral, as long as no nitrogen is added. Moreover, when the infection was first
caused by a high compost temperature (28°C) and a C/N ratio of about 22–23, it was discovered that
the mycelial proliferation of Trichoderma exceeded that of mushrooms by a factor of ten (Gea et al.,
2017). Green patches show up on the surface of the mushroom, the spawn, the compost, and even
the casing in Trichoderma blotch. Brown, potentially cracked and distorted mushrooms with peeling
stipes are growing in or close to this mycelium. In congenial conditions, certain species can cause
brownish lesions or patches on caps that can completely cover the surface (Park et al., 2005). Green
mould growth is a sign of low-quality compost, unclean cropping practices, and low compost pH.
Green mould typically grows in compost that is low in nitrogen and high in carbohydrates. Green
mould growth is also frequently encouraged by the frequent use of formalin (Sharma et al., 1999).
Trichoderma spp. growth is also encouraged by low pH and high relative humidity in the surrounding
soil (Sharma et al., 2007). According to Woo et al. (2004), Trichoderma species are present during
the first stages of substrate preparation but go away when the substrate is pasteurized. Pasteurization
at 60 0C for 10 h totally inhibits the mycelial growth of Trichoderma species. According to Bellettini
and Fiorda (2016), the mycelial development of green mould reached its peak under 80% relative
humidity conditions. The application of calcium hydroxide to the afflicted area was recommended
by Komon et al. (2007). In order to reduce the growth of green mould, it is common practice to
alkalize the substrate by adding lime and raising the pH to 7.5. It was also said that the fungicides
Prochloraz, Thiabendazole, and Benomyl worked well (Gea et al., 2005). It has been demonstrated
that prochloraz is the most successful fungicide for preventing green mould from growing mycelia.
Spore germination was reported to be inhibited by prochloraz, benomyl, chlorothalonil, and propineb
(Bellettini et al., 2018). According to Sharma and Vijay (1996), treatments with zineb dust or calcium
hypochlorite, as well as weekly sprays of Mancozeb (0.2%) or Bavistin (0.1%), have provided
successful disease management.
2. Bacterial Diseases
Numerous symptoms, including blotch, mummy, pit, drippy gill, soft rot, yellowing, and premature
browning, were caused by the bacterial pathogens; however, in India, reports of bacterial diseases
were limited to fruit bodies of A. bisporus and species of Pleurotus and Auricularia. The detailed
account of bacterial diseases (Table 1) that have been reported from India are given as under.

2.1. Bacterial blotch

In brown spots or blotches on the cap, irregular or circular yellowish spots appear on or near the cap
and stipe's margins. In good conditions, these spots enlarge quickly and combine to form rich,
chocolate-brown blotches. It was initially reported in India in 1976 (Guleria, 1976). Mushroom caps
can get bacterial blotch lesions on their surface, rendering the mushrooms unfit for sale. Nearly every
nation in the globe that grows mushrooms has reported having the disease. Five to ten percent of
yield is lost due to the disease (Fermor, 1986; Vantomme et al., 1989). Bacterial blotch is second
only to the virus disease complex in terms of economic significance and significant losses in
Australia (Nair, 1969). The appearance of dark brown blotches on the cap's surface is the most
distinctive sign of bacterial blotch. When splotch signs appear, severely damaged mushrooms may

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become deformed and their caps may crack. The environmental factors that promote the enlargement
of the spots on the cap surface include temperatures of at least 20 0C and the presence of a water
film. The blotch pathogen is mostly introduced into a mushroom house via casing and airborne dust.
When it comes to treating the disease, adjusting relative humidity, temperature, air velocity, and air
movements is crucial. Avoid temperatures exceeding 20°C and relative humidity levels higher than
85%. Mushrooms can dry quickly if they receive additional ventilation and air circulation after
watering. It has been discovered that using 9 mg of Terramycin per square foot, 200 ppm of
Streptomycin, 300 ppm of Oxytetracycline, Kasugamycin, and Kanamycin will effectively manage
the disease.
Table 1: Bacterial diseases of edible cultivated mushrooms
Mushroom Disease Causal organism Distribution Reference
Oyster mushroom Brown blotch Pseudomonas tolaasii Japan, Fermor (1986)
(Pleurotus spp.) Australia & Ferri (1985)
Netherlands
Yellow blotch P. agarici India, USA Jandiak et al., (1993)
Agaricus bisporus Bacterial blotch P. tolaasii & P. Worldwide Fletcher et al. (1986)
fluorescens
Mummy P. aeruginosa UK Wuest and Zarkower (1991)
A. bitorquis Bacterial blotch P. tolaasii Worldwide Fletcher et al. (1986)
Soft rot Bukholdria gladioli Worldwide Guleria et al. (1987)
pv. agaricicola
Other mushrooms
Lentinus edodes Browning P. fluorescens Japan Komatsu and Goto (1974)
Flammulina Brown soft rot Erwinia sp. Japan Phawicit (1985)
velutipes
Volvariella spp. Bacterial rot Pseudomonas sp. India & Indonesia Fermor (1986)

2.2. Bacterial yellowing

The most serious damage to mushrooms can be caused by bacterial yellowing disease (Ferri et al.,
2007). According to Bruno et al. (2013), the disease is characterized by hydropic, frequently
elongated, and consolidating patches on the entire stem as well as a yellow discoloration of the
pileus. According to reports, Pseudomonas agarici and P. reactans are more likely to be the cause
of yellowing in P. ostreatus and P. eryngii (Iacobellis et al., 1990). P. reactans are classified as
saprophytic bacteria that live in the mushroom hyphosphere. They are members of the V group of
fluorescent Pseudomonas (Munsch et al., 2002). Other bacterial species have been recovered from
symptomatic basidiomata, according to Bruno et al. (2013). According to Bessette et al. (1985), the
yellow blotch in P. ostreatus brought on by P. agarici initially appeared as a clear yellow fluid on
the cluster's surface before becoming more severe. The sporocarp was erect, and the stipes tended
to recur around the base. A lot of studies have been conducted to determine the best way to control
or prevent this illness. Currently, the most often used chemicals for blotch disease control include
irrigation with a low concentration of chlorine solution and decreasing relative air humidity.
Chlorine, however, has minimal effect

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on mushrooms that are still moist because the bacterial population multiplies quickly enough to
offset the oxidizing agent's effect (Geels et al., 1988). To manage bacterial blotch disease, many
additional disinfectants and antibiotics have also been tested, including essential oils, Kasugamycin,
chloramine T and bronopol (Geels, 1995; Yang et al. 2011). Acetic acid at 87.4 and 69.9 mM may
be utilized as an antibacterial agent (Bruno et al., 2013).
2.3. Bacterial Soft rot
According to reports, the gram-negative bacterium Pantoea spp. is the cause of soft rot disease, which
manifests as water-soaked lesions on the stipes and pileus of Pleurotus eryngii (Kim et al., 2007).
When the mushrooms are first transported to the growing room, they usually exhibit a dark brown
water drop as one of the disease's early signs. Eight days later, water-soaked lesions appear on the
stipe and cap of the mushrooms. The lesions eventually become mushy soft rot with an unpleasant
stench throughout growth as they gradually enlarge and form a viscous, mucus-like fluid (Rodriguez
et al., 2007). The fruiting body of P. eryngii exhibits lesions that are drenched in water and have soft
rot in the stipes and pilei. Liu et al. (2013) identified strains of Pantoea beijingensis from these
lesions, which develop at 10-37 ◦ C. The most often used chemicals for the prevention of bacterial
diseases nowadays are those that include active chlorine. The soft rot disease of P. eryngii was
effectively reduced by watering at concentrations of 175 ppm active chlorine, without affecting the
yield of mushrooms (Liu et al. (2013).
2.4. Stipe necrosis

Internal stipe necrosis was found to be caused by Ewingella americana in symptomatic

samples taken from mushroom farms. The predominant role of E. americana in the biota of retail
fresh Pleurotus ostreatus was shown by Reyes et al. (2004). According to Inglis et al. (1996), the
core of the mushroom stipe exhibits a varied browning reaction as an indication of internal stipe
necrosis. When examining the longitudinal section, it is rare for the brown tissue to pierce the cap
tissue, extending from the base of the stalk to the cap. At harvest, affected mushrooms often have a
damp appearance, but the brown tissue has entirely collapsed, leaving a hollow center. In every
instance, symptoms are only apparent during harvest. It is crucial to always maintain adequate
evaporation from the bed surface since the appearance of internal stipe necrosis disease has been
sporadically linked to water-logging of the mushroom stalks at an early development stage (Fletcher
and Gaze, 2008). P. ostreatus caused soft rot and minor tissue browning as symptoms. E. americana
is pathogenic in P. eryngii, according to González et al. (2012), although it was isolated in just 10%
of the samples examined and its presence was not predominant. Reyes et al. (2004), however, found
that this bacterium was highly prevalent in commercial items. These findings suggest that the
pathogen is present in crops and multiplies when they are stored.
3. Viral diseases

It is also known by the names X-disease, La France illness, brown disease, and watery stipe. Tewari
and Singh (1985) reported the virus disease that affects mushrooms in India, and further reports have
come from other nations as well. During the spawn run stage, the viral infections cannot be identified.
This disease causes a delay in the first flush's emergence, a significant

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reduction in mycelium vigor and yield, inhibition of pinhead initiation, and distorted-shaped
mushroom growth. The diseased mushrooms showed signs of elongation, tilting to one side,
premature veil opening, wet stipe, and streaking in the stipe. They also had small caps and elongated
stems that resembled drumsticks. Virion diseases of button mushrooms have been associated with
virions with a diameter of 29 and 35 nm in India. Immunosorbent electron microscopy has also
confirmed the presence of virus-like particles, measuring 29 nm in diameter, in button mushrooms
(Goltapeh and Kapoor, 1990). The most compelling evidence for the viral etiology of La France
illness is the finding of distinct ds RNA molecules in affected tissues. Mycoviruses often have double-
stranded RNA (ds RNA) genomes (Wach et al., 1987). Additionally, it was stated that a viral complex
including an unrelated ds RNA virus (es) and a ss RNA virus (Sonnenberg and Griensven, 1991;
Romaine and Schlagnhaufer, 1991) contributes to the etiology of La France disease. Mycelium is the
medium via which mushroom viruses spread. According to multiple workers, this is the most typical
mechanism of transmission (Dielman-van Zaayen, 1986). By using heat therapy, the number of
mushroom viruses can be decreased. Due to their ability to anastomose with both white and off-white
strains, hybrid strains may make strain change less effective as a strategy of viral control (Fletcher et
al., 1989). Due to the species' lack of effective resistance, hygienic measures aimed at removing
contaminated mycelium and basidiospores from production are primarily responsible for disease control
(Van Zaayen, 1976). To stop the spread of illnesses caused by mushroom viruses, Dieleman/van Zaayen
(1986) proposed some preventative and therapeutic measures.
4. Nematodes
One of the deadliest pests of mushrooms are nematodes, which once they get into the beds cannot be
removed unless the crop beds are demolished and disposed of. It has been revealed that a global
average of twenty-one nematode species are detrimentally implicated in the cultivation of fungus.
There have been reports of Aphelenchoides composticola and Ditylenchus myceliophagus species
occurring in Indian mushroom beds. These nematodes can live in anabiosis for up to two years if the
compost is dried gradually; if the compost is dried too rapidly, they will perish. The most harmful
pest to mushrooms is nematodes, which can cause entire crop failures or extremely low yields.
According to Singh and Sharma (2016), oyster mushrooms are comparatively resistant to nematode
infection, however, button mushrooms are typically very susceptible. a condition that results in knots
on the P. ostreatus oyster mushroom's gills. Inside the gill knots, nematodes live and deposit a large
number of eggs. According to Tsuda et al. (1996), mushrooms are impacted by three nematode
species: Ditylenchus myceliophagus, Aphelenchus avenae, and Aphelenchoides composticola. The
parasitic nematodes puncture the mycelial cells with their stylet to release their digestive juices.
Nematode-infested compost has a distinct look that is moist, acrid, and sad. Nowadays, mushroom
farming is more frequently linked to saprophytic nematodes—also known as "free-living"
nematodes—than to parasitic ones. They are indicative of badly prepared compost and/or casing and
seriously degrade mycelium on their own. With so many restrictions on the use of chemicals for
nematode management, using biological methods remains the only viable option. A. composticola is
well combated by the fungus A. irregularis. Dried leaves of Azadirachta indica, Cannabis sativa,
Eucalyptus tereticornis, and Ricinus communis were added to dry wheat straw at a rate of 3 kg/100

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kg. This increased the population of thermophilic and mesophilic fungi that produce antibiotics while
simultaneously bringing the population of A. composticola below the point of economic injury. It
has been shown that adding neem cake to compost at a weight-per-weight rate (5% w/w) during
spawning inhibits the growth of A. compostiocola. The best way to keep nematodes at bay when
growing mushrooms is to apply heat. To eliminate nematodes from compost, it is advised that the air
and bed temperatures in the pasteurization chamber be kept at 600°C for a minimum of two hours.
Additionally, cooking the compost outside of the mushroom house at 700°C for five to six hours or
800°C for thirty to sixty minutes is required. Kaneko (1983) proposed that an insect larger than 1
mm must be involved in the disease's transmission because he was able to prevent the condition by
covering the logs used to produce mushrooms with a screen net with a mesh size of 1 mm. The only
nematicide that is advised for controlling mycophagous nematodes without causing residual toxicity
is thionazin at a concentration of 80 parts per million (Singh and Sharma, 2016). However, some of
the chemicals that can be applied during the composting process itself work well to control the
development of nematodes, particularly when composting is done slowly. The most efficient method
for controlling A. composticola and Rhabditis sp. was determined to be dichlorvos (0.04%) under
polythene cover for three to four days. All soils should be sterilized using formaldehyde-40 @ 5%
solution or the stem (70–75 ºC for 6 hours) to control nematodes.
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