Pulse-width modulation

Pulse-width modulation (PWM), also known as pulse-duration modulation (PDM) or pulse-

length modulation (PLM),[1] is any met hod of represent ing a signal as a rect angular wave wit h a
varying dut y cycle (and for some met hods also a varying period).

An example of PWM in an idealized inductor driven by a ■

voltage source modulated as a series of pulses, resulting in
a ■ sine-like current in the inductor. The rectangular voltage
pulses nonetheless result in a more and more smooth
current waveform, as the switching frequency increases. The
current waveform is the integral of the voltage waveform.

PWM is useful for cont rolling t he average power or amplit ude delivered by an elect rical signal.
The average value of volt age (and current ) fed t o t he load is cont rolled by swit ching t he supply
bet ween 0 and 100% at a rat e fast er t han it t akes t he load t o change significant ly. The longer
t he swit ch is on, t he higher t he t ot al power supplied t o t he load. Along wit h maximum power point
t racking (MPPT), it is one of t he primary met hods of cont rolling t he out put of solar panels t o
t hat which can be ut ilized by a bat t ery.[2] PWM is part icularly suit ed for running inert ial loads such
as mot ors, which are not as easily affect ed by t his discret e swit ching. The goal of PWM is t o
cont rol a load; however, t he PWM swit ching frequency must be select ed carefully in order t o
smoot hly do so.

The PWM swit ching frequency can vary great ly depending on load and applicat ion. For example,
swit ching only has t o be done several t imes a minut e in an elect ric st ove; 100 or 120 Hz (double
of t he ut ilit y frequency) in a lamp dimmer; bet ween a few kilohert z (kHz) and t ens of kHz for a
mot or drive; and well int o t he t ens or hundreds of kHz in audio amplifiers and comput er power
supplies. Choosing a swit ching frequency t hat is t oo high for t he applicat ion may cause
premat ure failure of mechanical cont rol component s despit e get t ing smoot h cont rol of t he load.
Select ing a swit ching frequency t hat is t oo low for t he applicat ion causes oscillat ions in t he load.
The main advant age of PWM is t hat power loss in t he swit ching devices is very low. When a
swit ch is off t here is pract ically no current , and when it is on and power is being t ransferred t o
t he load, t here is almost no volt age drop across t he swit ch. Power loss, being t he product of
volt age and current , is t hus in bot h cases close t o zero. PWM also works well wit h digit al
cont rols, which, because of t heir on/off nat ure, can easily set t he needed dut y cycle. PWM has
also been used in cert ain communicat ion syst ems where it s dut y cycle has been used t o convey
informat ion over a communicat ions channel.

In elect ronics, many modern microcont rollers (MCUs) int egrat e PWM controllers exposed t o
ext ernal pins as peripheral devices under firmware cont rol. These are commonly used for direct
current (DC) mot or cont rol in robot ics, swit ched-mode power supply regulat ion, and ot her
applicat ions.

Duty cycle

The t erm duty cycle describes t he proport ion of 'on' t ime t o t he regular int erval or 'period' of t ime;
a low dut y cycle corresponds t o low power, because t he power is off for most of t he t ime. Dut y
cycle is expressed in percent , 100% being fully on. When a digit al signal is on half of t he t ime and
off t he ot her half of t he t ime, t he digit al signal has a dut y cycle of 50% and resembles a "square"
wave. When a digit al signal spends more t ime in t he on st at e t han t he off st at e, it has a dut y
cycle of >50%. When a digit al signal spends more t ime in t he off st at e t han t he on st at e, it has a
dut y cycle of <50%. Here is a pict orial t hat illust rat es t hese t hree scenarios:

History

The Corliss st eam engine was pat ent ed in 1849. It used pulse-widt h modulat ion t o cont rol t he
int ake valve of a st eam engine cylinder. A cent rifugal governor was used t o provide aut omat ic
feedback.

Some machines (such as a sewing machine mot or) require part ial or variable power. In t he past ,
cont rol (such as in a sewing machine's foot pedal) was implement ed by use of a rheost at
connect ed in series wit h t he mot or t o adjust t he amount of current flowing t hrough t he mot or. It
was an inefficient scheme, as t his also wast ed power as heat in t he resist or element of t he
rheost at , but t olerable because t he t ot al power was low. While t he rheost at was one of several
met hods of cont rolling power (see aut ot ransformers and Variac for more info), a low cost and
efficient power swit ching/adjust ment met hod was yet t o be found. This mechanism also needed
t o be able t o drive mot ors for fans, pumps and robot ic servos, and needed t o be compact
enough t o int erface wit h lamp dimmers. PWM emerged as a solut ion for t his complex problem.

The Philips, N. V. company designed an opt ical scanning syst em (published (ht t ps://www.pearl-hifi.
com/06_ Lit _ Archive/02_ PEARL_ Arch/Vol_ 16/Sec_ 53/Philips_ Tech_ Review/PTechReview-08-
1946-097.pdf) in 1946) for variable area film soundt rack which produced t he PWM. It was
int ended for reducing noise when playing back a film soundt rack. The proposed syst em had a
t hreshold bet ween "whit e" and "black" part s of soundt rack.[3]

One early applicat ion of PWM was in t he Sinclair X10, a 10 W audio amplifier available in kit form in
t he 1960s. At around t he same t ime PWM st art ed t o be used in AC mot or cont rol.[4]

Of not e, for about a cent ury, some variable-speed elect ric mot ors have had decent efficiency,
but t hey were somewhat more complex t han const ant -speed mot ors, and somet imes required
bulky ext ernal elect rical apparat us, such as a bank of variable power resist ors or rot at ing
convert ers such as t he Ward Leonard drive.

Principle

Periodic pulse wave

Fig. 1: a periodic pulse wave, showing , and

constant duty cycle D.

If we consider a periodic pulse wave wit h period , low value , a high value and a
const ant dut y cycle D (Figure 1), t he average value of t he waveform is given by:

As is a pulse wave, it s value is for and for . The

above expression t hen becomes:
This lat t er expression can be fairly simplified in many cases where as .
From t his, t he average value of t he signal ( ) is direct ly dependent on t he dut y cycle D.

However, by varying (i.e. modulat ing) t he dut y cycle (and possibly also t he period), t he following
more advanced pulse-widt h modulat ed waves allow variat ion of t he average value of t he
waveform.

Intersective method PWM

The int ersect ive met hod is a simple way t o generat e a PWM out put signal (magent a in above
figure) wit h fixed period and varying dut y cycle is by using a comparat or t o swit ch t he PWM
out put st at e when t he input waveform (red) int ersect s wit h a sawt oot h or a t riangle waveform
(blue).

Depending on t he t ype of sawt oot h or t riangle waveform (green in below figure), int ersect ive
PWM signals (blue in t he below figure) can be aligned in t hree manners:
 Leading edge modulat ion (t op plot ) uses a reverse sawt oot h wave t o generat e t he PWM. The
PWM's leading edge is held at t he leading edge of t he window and t he t railing edge is
modulat ed.

Trailing edge modulat ion (middle plot ) uses a normal sawt oot h wave t o generat e t he PWM.
The PWM's t railing edge is fixed and t he leading edge is modulat ed.

Cent ered pulses (bot t om) uses a t riangle waveform t o generat e t he PWM. The pulse cent er is
fixed in t he cent er of t he t ime window and bot h edges of t he pulse are moved t o compress or
expand t he widt h.

Time propor tioning

Many digit al circuit s can generat e PWM signals (e.g., many microcont rollers have PWM out put s).
They normally use a count er t hat increment s periodically (it is connect ed direct ly or indirect ly t o
t he clock of t he circuit ) and is reset at t he end of every period of t he PWM. When t he count er
value is more t han t he reference value, t he PWM out put changes st at e from high t o low (or low
t o high).[5] This t echnique is referred t o as time propor tioning, part icularly as time-
propor tioning control[6] – which proportion of a fixed cycle t ime is spent in t he high st at e.

The increment ed and periodically reset count er is t he discret e version of t he int ersect ing
met hod's sawt oot h. The analog comparat or of t he int ersect ing met hod becomes a simple
int eger comparison bet ween t he current count er value and t he digit al (possibly digit ized)
reference value. The dut y cycle can only be varied in discret e st eps, as a funct ion of t he count er
resolut ion. However, a high-resolut ion count er can provide quit e sat isfact ory performance.

Spectrum

The result ing spect ra (of t he t hree alignment s) are similar. Each cont ains a dc component , a base
sideband cont aining t he modulat ing signal, and phase modulat ed carriers at each harmonic of t he
frequency of t he pulse. The amplit udes of t he harmonic groups are rest rict ed by a
envelope (sinc funct ion) and ext end t o infinit y. The infinit e bandwidt h is caused by t he nonlinear
operat ion of t he pulse-widt h modulat or. In consequence, a digit al PWM suffers from aliasing
dist ort ion t hat significant ly reduce it s applicabilit y for modern communicat ion syst ems. By
limit ing t he bandwidt h of t he PWM kernel, aliasing effect s can be avoided.[7]

On t he cont rary, delt a modulat ion and delt a-sigma modulat ion are random processes t hat
produces a cont inuous spect rum wit hout dist inct harmonics. While int ersect ive PWM uses a fixed
period but a varying dut y cycle, t he period of delt a and delt a-sigma modulat ed PWMs varies in
addit ion t o t heir dut y cycle.

Delta modulation

Delt a modulat ion produces a PWM signal (magent a in above figure) which changes st at e
whenever it s int egral (blue) hit s t he limit s (green) surrounding t he input (red).
Asynchronous delta-sigma PWM

Asynchronous (i.e. unclocked) delt a-sigma modulat ion produces a PWM out put (blue in bot t om
plot ) which is subt ract ed from t he input signal (green in t op plot ) t o form an error signal (blue in
t op plot ). This error is int egrat ed (magent a in middle plot ). When t he int egral of t he error exceeds
t he limit s (t he upper and lower grey lines in middle plot ), t he PWM out put changes st at e. By
int egrat ing t he difference of t he error wit h t he input signal, delt a-sigma modulat ion shapes noise
of t he result ing spect rum t o be more in higher frequencies above t he input signal's band.

Space vector modulation

Space vect or modulat ion is a PWM cont rol algorit hm for mult i-phase AC generat ion, in which t he
reference signal is sampled regularly; aft er each sample, non-zero act ive swit ching vect ors
adjacent t o t he reference vect or and one or more of t he zero swit ching vect ors are select ed for
t he appropriat e fract ion of t he sampling period in order t o synt hesize t he reference signal as t he
average of t he used vect ors.

Direct torque control (DTC)

Direct t orque cont rol is a met hod used t o cont rol AC mot ors. It is closely relat ed wit h t he delt a
modulat ion (see above). Mot or t orque and magnet ic flux are est imat ed and t hese are cont rolled
t o st ay wit hin t heir hyst eresis bands by t urning on a new combinat ion of t he device's
semiconduct or swit ches each t ime eit her signal t ries t o deviat e out of it s band.
PWM sampling theorem

The process of PWM conversion is non-linear and it is generally supposed t hat low pass filt er
signal recovery is imperfect for PWM. The PWM sampling t heorem[8] shows t hat PWM
conversion can be perfect :

Any bandlimited baseband signal whose amplitude is within ±0.637 can

be represented by a PWM waveform of unit amplitude (±1). The
number of pulses in the waveform is equal to the number of Nyquist
samples and the peak constraint is independent of whether the
waveform is two-level or three-level.

For comparison, t he Nyquist –Shannon sampling t heorem can be summarized as:

If you have a signal that is bandlimited to a bandwidth of f0 then you

can collect all the information there is in that signal by sampling it at
discrete times, as long as your sample rate is greater than 2f0.[9]

Applications

Servos

PWM is used t o cont rol servomechanisms; see servo cont rol.

Telecommunications

In t elecommunicat ions, PWM is a form of signal modulat ion where t he widt hs of t he pulses
correspond t o specific dat a values encoded at one end and decoded at t he ot her.

Pulses of various lengt hs (t he informat ion it self) will be sent at regular int ervals (t he carrier
frequency of t he modulat ion).

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Clock | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
__| |____| |____| |____| |____| |____| |____| |____| |____
 _ __ ____ ____ _
PWM signal | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | |
_________| |____| |___| |________| |_| |___________

Data 0 1 2 4 0 4 1 0

The inclusion of a clock signal is not necessary, as t he leading edge of t he dat a signal can be
used as t he clock if a small offset is added t o each dat a value in order t o avoid a dat a value wit h
a zero lengt h pulse.

_ __ ___ _____ _ _____ __

_
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| |
PWM signal | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| |
__| |____| |___| |__| |_| |____| |_|
|___| |_____

Data 0 1 2 4 0 4 1
0

Power delivery

PWM can be used t o cont rol t he amount of power delivered t o a load wit hout incurring t he
losses t hat would result from linear power delivery by resist ive means. Drawbacks t o t his
t echnique are t hat t he power drawn by t he load is not const ant but rat her discont inuous (see
Buck convert er), and energy delivered t o t he load is not cont inuous eit her. However, t he load may
be induct ive, and wit h a sufficient ly high frequency and when necessary using addit ional passive
elect ronic filt ers, t he pulse t rain can be smoot hed and average analog waveform recovered.
Power flow int o t he load can be cont inuous. Power flow from t he supply is not const ant and will
require energy st orage on t he supply side in most cases. (In t he case of an elect rical circuit , a
capacit or t o absorb energy st ored in (oft en parasit ic) supply side induct ance.)

High frequency PWM power cont rol syst ems are easily realisable wit h semiconduct or swit ches.
As explained above, almost no power is dissipat ed by t he swit ch in eit her on or off st at e.
However, during t he t ransit ions bet ween on and off st at es, bot h volt age and current are nonzero
and t hus power is dissipat ed in t he swit ches. By quickly changing t he st at e bet ween fully on and
fully off (t ypically less t han 100 nanoseconds), t he power dissipat ion in t he swit ches can be
quit e low compared t o t he power being delivered t o t he load.

Modern semiconduct or swit ches such as MOSFETs or insulat ed-gat e bipolar t ransist ors (IGBTs)
are well suit ed component s for high-efficiency cont rollers. Frequency convert ers used t o cont rol
AC mot ors may have efficiencies exceeding 98%. Swit ching power supplies have lower efficiency
due t o low out put volt age levels (oft en even less t han 2 V for microprocessors are needed) but
st ill more t han 70–80% efficiency can be achieved.

Variable-speed comput er fan cont rollers usually use PWM, as it is far more efficient when
compared t o a pot ent iomet er or rheost at . (Neit her of t he lat t er is pract ical t o operat e
elect ronically; t hey would require a small drive mot or.)

Light dimmers for home use employ a specific t ype of PWM cont rol. Home-use light dimmers
t ypically include elect ronic circuit ry which suppresses current flow during defined port ions of
each cycle of t he AC line volt age. Adjust ing t he bright ness of light emit t ed by a light source is
t hen merely a mat t er of set t ing at what volt age (or phase) in t he AC half-cycle t he dimmer
begins t o provide elect ric current t o t he light source (e.g. by using an elect ronic swit ch such as a
t riac). In t his case t he PWM dut y cycle is t he rat io of t he conduct ion t ime t o t he durat ion of t he
half AC cycle defined by t he frequency of t he AC line volt age (50 Hz or 60 Hz depending on t he
count ry).

These rat her simple t ypes of dimmers can be effect ively used wit h inert (or relat ively slow
react ing) light sources such as incandescent lamps, for example, for which t he addit ional
modulat ion in supplied elect rical energy which is caused by t he dimmer causes only negligible
addit ional fluct uat ions in t he emit t ed light . Some ot her t ypes of light sources such as light -
emit t ing diodes (LEDs), however, t urn on and off ext remely rapidly and would perceivably flicker if
supplied wit h low frequency drive volt ages. Perceivable flicker effect s from such rapid response
light sources can be reduced by increasing t he PWM frequency. If t he light fluct uat ions are
sufficient ly rapid (fast er t han t he flicker fusion t hreshold), t he human visual syst em can no longer
resolve t hem and t he eye perceives t he t ime average int ensit y wit hout flicker.

In elect ric cookers, cont inuously variable power is applied t o t he heat ing element s such as t he
hob or t he grill using a device known as a simmerst at . This consist s of a t hermal oscillat or running
at approximat ely t wo cycles per minut e and t he mechanism varies t he dut y cycle according t o
t he knob set t ing. The t hermal t ime const ant of t he heat ing element s is several minut es, so t hat
t he t emperat ure fluct uat ions are t oo small t o mat t er in pract ice.
Voltage regulation

PWM is also used in efficient volt age regulat ors. By swit ching volt age t o t he load wit h t he
appropriat e dut y cycle, t he out put will approximat e a volt age at t he desired level. The swit ching
noise is usually filt ered wit h an induct or and a capacit or.

One met hod measures t he out put volt age. When it is lower t han t he desired volt age, it t urns on
t he swit ch. When t he out put volt age is above t he desired volt age, it t urns off t he swit ch.

Audio effects and amplification

Varying t he dut y cycle of a pulse waveform in a synt hesis inst rument creat es useful t imbral
variat ions. Some synt hesizers have a dut y-cycle t rimmer for t heir square-wave out put s, and t hat
t rimmer can be set by ear; t he 50% point (t rue square wave) was dist inct ive, because even-
numbered harmonics essent ially disappear at 50%. Pulse waves, usually 50%, 25%, and 12.5%,
make up t he soundt racks of classic video games. The t erm PWM as used in sound (music)
synt hesis refers t o t he rat io bet ween t he high and low level being secondarily modulat ed wit h a
low frequency oscillat or. This gives a sound effect similar t o chorus or slight ly det uned
oscillat ors played t oget her. (In fact , PWM is equivalent t o t he sum of t wo sawt oot h waves wit h
one of t hem invert ed.)[10]

Class-D amplifiers produce a PWM equivalent of a lower frequency input signal t hat can be sent
t o a loudspeaker via a suit able filt er net work t o block t he carrier and recover t he original lower
frequency signal. Since t hey swit ch power direct ly from t he high supply rail and low supply rail,
t hese amplifiers have efficiency above 90% and can be relat ively compact and light , even for
large power out put s. For a few decades, indust rial and milit ary PWM amplifiers have been in
common use, oft en for driving servo mot ors. Field-gradient coils in MRI machines are driven by
relat ively high-power PWM amplifiers.

Hist orically, a crude form of PWM has been used t o play back PCM digit al sound on t he PC
speaker, which is driven by only t wo volt age levels, t ypically 0 V and 5 V. By carefully t iming t he
durat ion of t he pulses, and by relying on t he speaker's physical filt ering propert ies (limit ed
frequency response, self-induct ance, et c.) it was possible t o obt ain an approximat e playback of
mono PCM samples, alt hough at a very low qualit y, and wit h great ly varying result s bet ween
implement at ions. The Sega 32x uses PWM t o play sample-based sound in it s games.

In more recent t imes, t he Direct St ream Digit al sound encoding met hod was int roduced, which
uses a generalized form of pulse-widt h modulat ion called pulse-densit y modulat ion, at a high
enough sampling rat e (t ypically in t he order of MHz) t o cover t he whole acoust ic frequencies
range wit h sufficient fidelit y. This met hod is used in t he SACD format , and reproduct ion of t he
encoded audio signal is essent ially similar t o t he met hod used in class-D amplifiers.

Electrical

SPWM (sine–t riangle pulse-widt h modulat ion) signals are used in micro-invert er design (used in
solar and wind power applicat ions). These swit ching signals are fed t o t he FETs t hat are used in
t he device. The device's efficiency depends on t he harmonic cont ent of t he PWM signal. There is
much research on eliminat ing unwant ed harmonics and improving t he fundament al st rengt h, some
of which involves using a modified carrier signal inst ead of a classic sawt oot h signal[11][12][13] in
order t o decrease power losses and improve efficiency. Anot her common applicat ion is in
robot ics where PWM signals are used t o cont rol t he speed of t he robot by cont rolling t he
mot ors.

Soft-blinking LED indicator

PWM t echniques would t ypically be used t o make some indicat or (like a LED) "soft blink". The
light will slowly go from dark t o full int ensit y, and slowly dimmed t o dark again. Then it repeat s.
The period would be several soft -blinks per second up t o several seconds for one blink. An
indicat or of t his t ype would not dist urb as much as a "hard-blinking" on/off indicat or. The indicat or
lamp on t he Apple iBook G4, PowerBook 6,7 (2005) was of t his t ype. This kind of indicat or is also
called "pulsing glow", as opposed t o calling it "flashing".

See also

Analog signal t o discret e t ime int erval convert er

Class-D amplifier

Comput er fan cont rol

Cont inuously variable slope delt a modulat ion

Delt a-sigma modulat ion

H-bridge

Pulse-amplit ude modulat ion

Pulse-code modulat ion

Pulse-densit y modulat ion

Pulse-frequency modulat ion

 Pulse-posit ion modulat ion

Radio cont rol

Random pulse-widt h modulat ion

RC servo

Sliding mode cont rol - produces smoot h behavior by way of discont inuous swit ching in syst ems

Space vect or modulat ion

Sound chip

References

1. Butterfield, Andrew J.; Szymanski, John, eds. (2018). "A Dictionary of Electronics and Electrical
Engineering" (https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acref/9780198725725.001.0001) . Oxford Reference.
doi:10.1093/acref/9780198725725.001.0001 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198725725.0
01.0001) . ISBN 978-0-19-872572-5.

2. "Sizing a Grid-Tied PV System ...with Battery Backup" (https://www.homepower.com/articles/solar-

electricity/design-installation/sizing-grid-tied-pv-system-battery-backup) . Home Power Magazine.

3. Westmijze, W. K. (1946). "A New Method of Counteracting Noise in Sound Film Reproduction" (http
s://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7252228/authors#authors) . Journal of the Society of Motion
Picture Engineers . 47 (5): 426–440. doi:10.5594/J12769 (https://doi.org/10.5594%2FJ12769) .
ISSN 0097-5834 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0097-5834) – via IEEE.

4. Schönung, A.; Stemmler, H. (August 1964). "Geregelter Drehstrom-Umkehrantrieb mit gesteuertem

Umrichter nach dem Unterschwingungsverfahren". BBC Mitteilungen. 51 (8/9): 555–577.

5. Barr, Michael (1 September 2001). "Introduction to Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)" (https://barrgro
up.com/Embedded-Systems/How-To/PWM-Pulse-Width-Modulation) . Barr Group.

6. Fundamentals of HVAC Control Systems, by Robert McDowall, p. 21 (https://books.google.com/boo

ks?id=UMk1EUp-W-UC&pg=PA21&dq=%22time+proportioning%22)

7. Hausmair, Katharina; Shuli Chi; Peter Singerl; Christian Vogel (February 2013). "Aliasing-Free Digital
Pulse-Width Modulation for Burst-Mode RF Transmitters". IEEE Transactions on Circuits and
Systems I: Regular Papers . 60 (2): 415–427. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.454.9157 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/
viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.454.9157) . doi:10.1109/TCSI.2012.2215776 (https://doi.org/10.110
9%2FTCSI.2012.2215776) . S2CID 21795841 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2179584
1) .

8. J. Huang, K. Padmanabhan, and O. M. Collins, “The sampling theorem with constant amplitude
variable width pulses”, IEEE transactions on Circuits and Systems, vol. 58, pp. 1178 - 1190, June
2011.
 9. Wescott, Tim (August 14, 2018). "Sampling: What Nyquist Didn't Say, and What to Do About It" (htt
p://www.wescottdesign.com/articles/Sampling/sampling.pdf) (PDF). Wescott Design Services.
"The Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem is useful, but often misused when engineers establish
sampling rates or design anti-aliasing filters."

10. "Synthesizing Strings: PWM & String Sounds" (https://www.soundonsound.com/techniques/synthe

sizing-strings-pwm-string-sounds) . www.soundonsound.com.

11. Hirak Patangia, Sri Nikhil Gupta Gourisetti, "A Harmonically Superior Modulator with Wide Baseband
and Real-Time Tunability", IEEE International Symposium on Electronic Design (ISED), India, Dec.11.

12. Hirak Patangia, Sri Nikhil Gupta Gourisetti, “Real Time Harmonic Elimination Using a Modified
Carrier”, CONIELECOMP, Mexico, Feb 2012.

13. Hirak Patangia, Sri Nikhil Gupta Gourisetti, “A Novel Strategy for Selective Harmonic Elimination
Based on a Sine-Sine PWM Model”, MWSCAS, U.S.A, Aug 2012.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pulse-width modulation.

An Int roduct ion t o Delt a Sigma Convert ers (ht t p://www.beis.de/Elekt ronik/Delt aSigma/Delt aSi
gma.ht ml)

Pulse Widt h Modulat ion in PID cont rol loop - free simulat or (ht t p://www.pidlab.com/en/pwm-d
emo)

Pulse Widt h Modulat ion in Deskt op monit ors - monit or flicker (ht t p://www.t ft cent ral.co.uk/art i
cles/pulse_ widt h_ modulat ion.ht m)