Solar cell

A solar cell or photovoltaic cell (PV cell) is an elect ronic device t hat convert s t he energy of
light direct ly int o elect ricit y by means of t he phot ovolt aic effect .[1] It is a form of phot oelect ric
cell, a device whose elect rical charact erist ics (such as current , volt age, or resist ance) vary when
it is exposed t o light . Individual solar cell devices are oft en t he elect rical building blocks of
phot ovolt aic modules, known colloquially as "solar panels". Almost all commercial PV cells
consist of cryst alline silicon, wit h a market share of 95%. Cadmium t elluride t hin-film solar cells
account for t he remainder.[2] The common single-junct ion silicon solar cell can produce a
maximum open-circuit volt age of approximat ely 0.5 t o 0.6 volt s.[3]

A conventional crystalline silicon solar

cell (as of 2005). Electrical contacts
made from busbars (the larger silver-
colored strips) and fingers (the
smaller ones) are printed on the
silicon wafer.

Symbol of a Photovoltaic
cell.

Phot ovolt aic cells may operat e under sunlight or art ificial light . In addit ion t o producing energy,
t hey can be used as a phot odet ect or (for example infrared det ect ors), det ect ing light or ot her
elect romagnet ic radiat ion near t he visible range, or measuring light int ensit y.

The operat ion of a PV cell requires t hree basic at t ribut es:

 The absorpt ion of light , generat ing excit ons (bound elect ron-hole pairs), unbound elect ron-hole
pairs (via excit ons), or plasmons.

The separat ion of charge carriers of opposit e t ypes.

The separat e ext ract ion of t hose carriers t o an ext ernal circuit .

In cont rast , a solar t hermal collect or supplies heat by absorbing sunlight , for t he purpose of
eit her direct heat ing or indirect elect rical power generat ion from heat . A "phot oelect rolyt ic cell"
(phot oelect rochemical cell), on t he ot her hand, refers eit her t o a t ype of phot ovolt aic cell (like
t hat developed by Edmond Becquerel and modern dye-sensit ized solar cells), or t o a device t hat
split s wat er direct ly int o hydrogen and oxygen using only solar illuminat ion.

Phot ovolt aic cells and solar collect ors are t he t wo means of producing solar power.

Applications

Assemblies of solar cells are used t o make solar modules t hat generat e elect rical power from
sunlight , as dist inguished from a "solar t hermal module" or "solar hot wat er panel". A solar array
generat es solar power using solar energy.

Vehicular applications

The Sunraycer vehicle developed by

GM (General Motors)

Applicat ion of solar cells as an alt ernat ive energy source for vehicular applicat ions is a growing
indust ry. Elect ric vehicles t hat operat e off of solar energy and/or sunlight are commonly referred
t o as solar cars. These vehicles use solar panels t o convert absorbed light int o elect rical energy
t hat is t hen st ored in bat t eries. There are mult iple input fact ors t hat affect t he out put power of
solar cells such as t emperat ure, mat erial propert ies, weat her condit ions, solar irradiance and
more.[4]

The first inst ance of phot ovolt aic cells wit hin vehicular applicat ions was around midway t hrough
t he second half of t he 1900's. In an effort t o increase publicit y and awareness in solar powered
t ransport at ion Hans Tholst rup decided t o set up t he first edit ion of t he World Solar Challenge in
1987. It was a 3000 km race across t he Aust ralian out back where compet it ors from indust ry
research groups and t op universit ies around t he globe were invit ed t o compet e. General Mot ors
ended up winning t he event by a significant margin wit h t heir Sunraycer vehicle t hat achieved
speeds of over 40 mph. Cont rary t o popular belief however solar powered cars are one of t he
oldest alt ernat ive energy vehicles.[5]

Current solar vehicles harness energy from t he Sun via Solar panels which are a collect ed group
of solar cells working in t andem t owards a common goal.[6] These solid-st at e devices use
quant um mechanical t ransit ions in order t o convert a given amount of solar power int o elect rical
power.[6] The elect ricit y produced as a result is t hen st ored in t he vehicle's bat t ery in order t o run
t he mot or of t he vehicle.[6] Bat t eries in solar-powered vehicles differ from t hose in st andard ICE
cars because t hey are fashioned in a way t o impart more power t owards t he elect rical
component s of t he vehicle for a longer durat ion.

Cells, modules, panels and systems

From a solar cell to a PV system. Diagram of the

possible components of a photovoltaic system

Mult iple solar cells in an int egrat ed group, all orient ed in one plane, const it ut e a solar
phot ovolt aic panel or module. Phot ovolt aic modules oft en have a sheet of glass on t he sun-
facing side, allowing light t o pass while prot ect ing t he semiconduct or wafers. Solar cells are
usually connect ed in series creat ing addit ive volt age. Connect ing cells in parallel yields a higher
current .

However, problems in paralleled cells such as shadow effect s can shut down t he weaker (less
illuminat ed) parallel st ring (a number of series connect ed cells) causing subst ant ial power loss
and possible damage because of t he reverse bias applied t o t he shadowed cells by t heir
illuminat ed part ners.
Alt hough modules can be int erconnect ed t o creat e an array wit h t he desired peak DC volt age and
loading current capacit y, which can be done wit h or wit hout using independent MPPTs (maximum
power point t rackers) or, specific t o each module, wit h or wit hout module level power elect ronic
(MLPE) unit s such as microinvert ers or DC-DC opt imizers. Shunt diodes can reduce shadowing
power loss in arrays wit h series/parallel connect ed cells.

Typical PV system prices in 2013 in selected countries (US$/W)

United United
Australia China France Germany Italy Japan
Kingdom States

Residential 1.8 1.5 4.1 2.4 2.8 4.2 2.8 4.9

Commercial 1.7 1.4 2.7 1.8 1.9 3.6 2.4 4.5

Utility-scale 2.0 1.4 2.2 1.4 1.5 2.9 1.9 3.3

Source: IEA – Technology Roadmap: S olar Photovoltaic Energy report , 2014 edition [7]: 15
Note: DOE – Photovoltaic S ystem Pricing Trends reports lower prices for the U.S.[8]

By 2020, t he Unit ed St at es cost per wat t for a ut ilit y scale syst em had declined t o $0.94.[9]

History

The phot ovolt aic effect was experiment ally demonst rat ed first by French physicist Edmond
Becquerel. In 1839, at age 19, he built t he world's first phot ovolt aic cell in his fat her's laborat ory.
Willoughby Smit h first described t he "Effect of Light on Selenium during t he passage of an
Elect ric Current " in a 20 February 1873 issue of Nat ure. In 1883 Charles Frit t s built t he first solid
st at e phot ovolt aic cell by coat ing t he semiconduct or selenium wit h a t hin layer of gold t o form
t he junct ions; t he device was only around 1% efficient .[10] Ot her milest ones include:

1888 – Russian physicist Aleksandr St olet ov built t he first cell based on t he out er
phot oelect ric effect discovered by Heinrich Hert z in 1887.[11]

1904 – Julius Elst er, t oget her wit h Hans Friedrich Geit el, devised t he first pract ical
phot oelect ric cell.[12]

1905 – Albert Einst ein proposed a new quant um t heory of light and explained t he
phot oelect ric effect in a landmark paper, for which he received t he Nobel Prize in Physics in
1921.[13]

1941 – Vadim Lashkaryov discovered p–n junct ions in Cu2O and Ag2S prot ocells.[14]

1946 – Russell Ohl pat ent ed t he modern junct ion semiconduct or solar cell,[15] while working on
t he series of advances t hat would lead t o t he t ransist or.

1948 - Introduction to the World of Semiconductors st at es Kurt Lehovec may have been t he
first t o explain t he phot o-volt aic effect in t he peer reviewed journal Physical Review.[16][17]
 1954 – The first pract ical phot ovolt aic cell was publicly demonst rat ed at Bell Laborat ories.[18]
The invent ors were Calvin Sout her Fuller, Daryl Chapin and Gerald Pearson.[19]

1958 – Solar cells gained prominence wit h t heir incorporat ion ont o t he Vanguard I sat ellit e.

Space applications

NASA used solar cells on its spacecraft from

the very beginning. For Example, Explorer 6,
launched in 1959, had four arrays that folded
out once in orbit. They provided power for
months in space.

Solar cells were first used in a prominent applicat ion when t hey were proposed and flown on t he
Vanguard sat ellit e in 1958, as an alt ernat ive power source t o t he primary bat t ery power source.
By adding cells t o t he out side of t he body, t he mission t ime could be ext ended wit h no major
changes t o t he spacecraft or it s power syst ems. In 1959 t he Unit ed St at es launched Explorer 6,
feat uring large wing-shaped solar arrays, which became a common feat ure in sat ellit es. These
arrays consist ed of 9600 Hoffman solar cells.

By t he 1960s, solar cells were (and st ill are) t he main power source for most Eart h orbit ing
sat ellit es and a number of probes int o t he solar syst em, since t hey offered t he best power-t o-
weight rat io. However, t his success was possible because in t he space applicat ion, power syst em
cost s could be high, because space users had few ot her power opt ions, and were willing t o pay
for t he best possible cells. The space power market drove t he development of higher
efficiencies in solar cells up unt il t he Nat ional Science Foundat ion "Research Applied t o Nat ional
Needs" program began t o push development of solar cells for t errest rial applicat ions.

In t he early 1990s t he t echnology used for space solar cells diverged from t he silicon
t echnology used for t errest rial panels, wit h t he spacecraft applicat ion shift ing t o gallium
arsenide-based III-V semiconduct or mat erials, which t hen evolved int o t he modern III-V
mult ijunct ion phot ovolt aic cell used on spacecraft .

In recent years, research has moved t owards designing and manufact uring light weight , flexible,
and highly efficient solar cells. Terrest rial solar cell t echnology generally uses phot ovolt aic cells
t hat are laminat ed wit h a layer of glass for st rengt h and prot ect ion. Space applicat ions for solar
cells require t hat t he cells and arrays are bot h highly efficient and ext remely light weight . Some
newer t echnology implement ed on sat ellit es are mult i-junct ion phot ovolt aic cells, which are
composed of different p–n junct ions wit h varying bandgaps in order t o ut ilize a wider spect rum
of t he sun's energy. Addit ionally, large sat ellit es require t he use of large solar arrays t o produce
elect ricit y. These solar arrays need t o be broken down t o fit in t he geomet ric const raint s of t he
launch vehicle t he sat ellit e t ravels on before being inject ed int o orbit . Hist orically, solar cells on
sat ellit es consist ed of several small t errest rial panels folded t oget her. These small panels would
be unfolded int o a large panel aft er t he sat ellit e is deployed in it s orbit . Newer sat ellit es aim t o
use flexible rollable solar arrays t hat are very light weight and can be packed int o a very small
volume. The smaller size and weight of t hese flexible arrays drast ically decreases t he overall
cost of launching a sat ellit e due t o t he direct relat ionship bet ween payload weight and launch
cost of a launch vehicle.[20]

In 2020, t he US Naval Research Laborat ory conduct ed it s first t est of solar power generat ion in a
sat ellit e, t he Phot ovolt aic Radio-frequency Ant enna Module (PRAM) experiment aboard t he
Boeing X-37.[21][22]

Improved manufacturing methods

Improvement s were gradual over t he 1960s. This was also t he reason t hat cost s remained high,
because space users were willing t o pay for t he best possible cells, leaving no reason t o invest in
lower-cost , less-efficient solut ions. The price was det ermined largely by t he semiconduct or
indust ry; t heir move t o int egrat ed circuit s in t he 1960s led t o t he availabilit y of larger boules at
lower relat ive prices. As t heir price fell, t he price of t he result ing cells did as well. These effect s
lowered 1971 cell cost s t o some $100 per wat t .[23]

In lat e 1969 Elliot Berman joined Exxon's t ask force which was looking for project s 30 years in t he
fut ure and in April 1973 he founded Solar Power Corporat ion (SPC), a wholly owned subsidiary of
Exxon at t hat t ime.[24][25][26] The group had concluded t hat elect rical power would be much more
expensive by 2000, and felt t hat t his increase in price would make alt ernat ive energy sources
more at t ract ive. He conduct ed a market st udy and concluded t hat a price per wat t of about
$20/wat t would creat e significant demand.[24] The t eam eliminat ed t he st eps of polishing t he
wafers and coat ing t hem wit h an ant i-reflect ive layer, relying on t he rough-sawn wafer surface.
The t eam also replaced t he expensive mat erials and hand wiring used in space applicat ions wit h a
print ed circuit board on t he back, acrylic plast ic on t he front , and silicone glue bet ween t he t wo,
"pot t ing" t he cells.[27] Solar cells could be made using cast -off mat erial from t he elect ronics
market . By 1973 t hey announced a product , and SPC convinced Tideland Signal t o use it s panels
t o power navigat ional buoys, init ially for t he U.S. Coast Guard.[25]
Research and industrial production

Research int o solar power for t errest rial applicat ions became prominent wit h t he U.S. Nat ional
Science Foundat ion's Advanced Solar Energy Research and Development Division wit hin t he
"Research Applied t o Nat ional Needs" program, which ran from 1969 t o 1977,[28] and funded
research on developing solar power for ground elect rical power syst ems. A 1973 conference, t he
"Cherry Hill Conference", set fort h t he t echnology goals required t o achieve t his goal and out lined
an ambit ious project for achieving t hem, kicking off an applied research program t hat would be
ongoing for several decades.[29] The program was event ually t aken over by t he Energy Research
and Development Administ rat ion (ERDA),[30] which was lat er merged int o t he U.S. Depart ment of
Energy.

Following t he 1973 oil crisis, oil companies used t heir higher profit s t o st art (or buy) solar firms,
and were for decades t he largest producers. Exxon, ARCO, Shell, Amoco (lat er purchased by BP)
and Mobil all had major solar divisions during t he 1970s and 1980s. Technology companies also
part icipat ed, including General Elect ric, Mot orola, IBM, Tyco and RCA.[31]

Declining costs and exponential growth

Price per watt history for conventional (c-Si)

solar cells since 1977

Swanson's law–stating that solar module

prices have dropped about 20% for each
doubling of installed capacity—defines the
"learning rate" of solar photovoltaics.[32]
 Growth of photovoltaics – Worldwide total
installed PV capacity

Energy volume of silicon solar cells and oil

harnessed by human beings per dollar;
Carbon intensity of some key electricity
generation technologies.[33]

Adjust ing for inflat ion, it cost $96 per wat t for a solar module in t he mid-1970s. Process
improvement s and a very large boost in product ion have brought t hat figure down more t han 99%,
t o 30¢ per wat t in 2018 [34] and as low as 20¢ per wat t in 2020. [35] Swanson's law is an
observat ion similar t o Moore's Law t hat st at es t hat solar cell prices fall 20% for every doubling
of indust ry capacit y. It was feat ured in an art icle in t he Brit ish weekly newspaper The Economist
in lat e 2012.[36] Balance of syst em cost s were t hen higher t han t hose of t he panels. Large
commercial arrays could be built , as of 2018, at below $1.00 a wat t , fully commissioned.[9]

As t he semiconduct or indust ry moved t o ever-larger boules, older equipment became

inexpensive. Cell sizes grew as equipment became available on t he surplus market ; ARCO Solar's
original panels used cells 2 t o 4 inches (50 t o 100 mm) in diamet er. Panels in t he 1990s and early
2000s generally used 125 mm wafers; since 2008, almost all new panels use 156 mm cells. The
widespread int roduct ion of flat screen t elevisions in t he lat e 1990s and early 2000s led t o t he
wide availabilit y of large, high-qualit y glass sheet s t o cover t he panels.
During t he 1990s, polysilicon ("poly") cells became increasingly popular. These cells offer less
efficiency t han t heir monosilicon ("mono") count erpart s, but t hey are grown in large vat s t hat
reduce cost . By t he mid-2000s, poly was dominant in t he low-cost panel market , but more
recent ly t he mono ret urned t o widespread use.

Manufact urers of wafer-based cells responded t o high silicon prices in 2004–2008 wit h rapid
reduct ions in silicon consumpt ion. In 2008, according t o Jef Poort mans, direct or of IMEC's
organic and solar depart ment , current cells use 8–9 grams (0.28–0.32 oz) of silicon per wat t of
power generat ion, wit h wafer t hicknesses in t he neighborhood of 200 microns. Cryst alline silicon
panels dominat e worldwide market s and are most ly manufact ured in China and Taiwan. By lat e
2011, a drop in European demand dropped prices for cryst alline solar modules t o about $1.09[37]
per wat t down sharply from 2010. Prices cont inued t o fall in 2012, reaching $0.62/wat t by
4Q2012.[38]

Solar PV is growing fast est in Asia, wit h China and Japan current ly account ing for half of
worldwide deployment .[39] Global inst alled PV capacit y reached at least 301 gigawat t s in 2016,
and grew t o supply 1.3% of global power by 2016.[40]

It was ant icipat ed t hat elect ricit y from PV will be compet it ive wit h wholesale elect ricit y cost s
all across Europe and t he energy payback t ime of cryst alline silicon modules can be reduced t o
below 0.5 years by 2020.[41]

Falling cost s are considered one of t he biggest fact ors in t he rapid growt h of renewable energy,
wit h t he cost of solar phot ovolt aic elect ricit y falling by ~85% bet ween 2010 (when solar and
wind made up 1.7% of global elect ricit y generat ion) and 2021 (where t hey made up 8.7%).[42] In
2019 solar cells account ed for ~3 % of t he world's elect ricit y generat ion.[43]

Subsidies and grid parity

Solar-specific feed-in t ariffs vary by count ry and wit hin count ries. Such t ariffs encourage t he
development of solar power project s. Widespread grid parit y, t he point at which phot ovolt aic
elect ricit y is equal t o or cheaper t han grid power wit hout subsidies, likely requires advances on all
t hree front s. Proponent s of solar hope t o achieve grid parit y first in areas wit h abundant sun and
high elect ricit y cost s such as in California and Japan.[44] In 2007 BP claimed grid parit y for Hawaii
and ot her islands t hat ot herwise use diesel fuel t o produce elect ricit y. George W. Bush set 2015
as t he dat e for grid parit y in t he US.[45][46] The Phot ovolt aic Associat ion report ed in 2012 t hat
Aust ralia had reached grid parit y (ignoring feed in t ariffs).[47]

The price of solar panels fell st eadily for 40 years, int errupt ed in 2004 when high subsidies in
Germany drast ically increased demand t here and great ly increased t he price of purified silicon
(which is used in comput er chips as well as solar panels). The recession of 2008 and t he onset of
Chinese manufact uring caused prices t o resume t heir decline. In t he four years aft er January
2008 prices for solar modules in Germany dropped from €3 t o €1 per peak wat t . During t hat same
t ime product ion capacit y surged wit h an annual growt h of more t han 50%. China increased market
share from 8% in 2008 t o over 55% in t he last quart er of 2010.[48] In December 2012 t he price of
Chinese solar panels had dropped t o $0.60/Wp (cryst alline modules).[49] (The abbreviat ion Wp
st ands for wat t peak capacit y, or t he maximum capacit y under opt imal condit ions.[50])

As of t he end of 2016, it was report ed t hat spot prices for assembled solar panels (not cells)
had fallen t o a record-low of US$0.36/Wp. The second largest supplier, Canadian Solar Inc., had
report ed cost s of US$0.37/Wp in t he t hird quart er of 2016, having dropped $0.02 from t he
previous quart er, and hence was probably st ill at least breaking even. Many producers expect ed
cost s would drop t o t he vicinit y of $0.30 by t he end of 2017.[51] It was also report ed t hat new
solar inst allat ions were cheaper t han coal-based t hermal power plant s in some regions of t he
world, and t his was expect ed t o be t he case in most of t he world wit hin a decade.[52]

Theory

Schematic of charge collection by

solar cells. Light transmits through
transparent conducting electrode
creating electron hole pairs, which are
collected by both the electrodes.[53]

Working mechanism of a solar cell

A solar cell is made of semiconduct ing mat erials, such as silicon, t hat have been fabricat ed int o a
p–n junct ion. Such junct ions are made by doping one side of t he device p-t ype and t he ot her n-
t ype, for example in t he case of silicon by int roducing small concent rat ions of boron or
phosphorus respect ively.
In operat ion, phot ons in sunlight hit t he solar cell and are absorbed by t he semiconduct or. When
t he phot ons are absorbed, elect rons are excit ed from t he valence band t o t he conduct ion band
(or from occupied t o unoccupied molecular orbit als in t he case of an organic solar cell), producing
elect ron-hole pairs. If t he elect ron-hole pairs are creat ed near t he junct ion bet ween p-t ype and
n-t ype mat erials t he local elect ric field sweeps t hem apart t o opposit e elect rodes, producing an
excess of elect rons on one side and an excess of holes on t he ot her. When t he solar cell is
unconnect ed (or t he ext ernal elect rical load is very high) t he elect rons and holes will ult imat ely
rest ore equilibrium by diffusing back across t he junct ion against t he field and recombine wit h
each ot her giving off heat , but if t he load is small enough t hen it is easier for equilibrium t o be
rest ored by t he excess elect rons going around t he ext ernal circuit , doing useful work along t he
way.

An array of solar cells convert s solar energy int o a usable amount of direct current (DC)
elect ricit y. An invert er can convert t he power t o alt ernat ing current (AC).

The most commonly known solar cell is configured as a large-area p–n junct ion made from silicon.
Ot her possible solar cell t ypes are organic solar cells, dye sensit ized solar cells, perovskit e solar
cells, quant um dot solar cells et c. The illuminat ed side of a solar cell generally has a t ransparent
conduct ing film for allowing light t o ent er int o t he act ive mat erial and t o collect t he generat ed
charge carriers. Typically, films wit h high t ransmit t ance and high elect rical conduct ance such as
indium t in oxide, conduct ing polymers or conduct ing nanowire net works are used for t he
purpose.[53]

Efficiency

The Shockley-Queisser limit for the

theoretical maximum efficiency of a
solar cell. Semiconductors with band
gap between 1 and 1.5eV (827 nm to
1240 nm; near-infrared) have the
greatest potential to form an efficient
single-junction cell. (The efficiency
"limit" shown here can be exceeded
by multijunction solar cells.)

Solar cell efficiency may be broken down int o reflect ance efficiency, t hermodynamic efficiency,
charge carrier separat ion efficiency and conduct ive efficiency. The overall efficiency is t he
product of t hese individual met rics.

The power conversion efficiency of a solar cell is a paramet er which is defined by t he fract ion of
incident power convert ed int o elect ricit y.[54]

A solar cell has a volt age dependent efficiency curve, t emperat ure coefficient s, and allowable
shadow angles.

Due t o t he difficult y in measuring t hese paramet ers direct ly, ot her paramet ers are subst it ut ed:
t hermodynamic efficiency, quant um efficiency, int egrat ed quant um efficiency, VOC rat io, and fill
fact or. Reflect ance losses are a port ion of quant um efficiency under "ext ernal quant um
efficiency". Recombinat ion losses make up anot her port ion of quant um efficiency, VOC rat io, and
fill fact or. Resist ive losses are predominant ly cat egorized under fill fact or, but also make up minor
port ions of quant um efficiency, VOC rat io.

The fill factor is t he rat io of t he act ual maximum obt ainable power t o t he product of t he open-
circuit volt age and short -circuit current . This is a key paramet er in evaluat ing performance. In
2009, t ypical commercial solar cells had a fill fact or > 0.70. Grade B cells were usually bet ween
0.4 and 0.7.[55] Cells wit h a high fill fact or have a low equivalent series resist ance and a high
equivalent shunt resist ance, so less of t he current produced by t he cell is dissipat ed in int ernal
losses.

Single p–n junct ion cryst alline silicon devices are now approaching t he t heoret ical limit ing power
efficiency of 33.16%,[56] not ed as t he Shockley–Queisser limit in 1961. In t he ext reme, wit h an
infinit e number of layers, t he corresponding limit is 86% using concent rat ed sunlight .[57]

Reported timeline of research solar cell energy

conversion efficiencies (National Renewable Energy
Laboratory)

In 2014, t hree companies broke t he record of 25.6% for a silicon solar cell. Panasonic's was t he
most efficient . The company moved t he front cont act s t o t he rear of t he panel, eliminat ing
shaded areas. In addit ion t hey applied t hin silicon films t o t he (high qualit y silicon) wafer's front
and back t o eliminat e defect s at or near t he wafer surface.[58]

In 2015, a 4-junct ion GaInP/GaAs//GaInAsP/GaInAs solar cell achieved a new laborat ory record
efficiency of 46.1% (concent rat ion rat io of sunlight = 312) in a French-German collaborat ion
bet ween t he Fraunhofer Inst it ut e for Solar Energy Syst ems (Fraunhofer ISE), CEA-LETI and
SOITEC.[59]

In Sept ember 2015, Fraunhofer ISE announced t he achievement of an efficiency above 20% for
epit axial wafer cells. The work on opt imizing t he at mospheric-pressure chemical vapor deposit ion
(APCVD) in-line product ion chain was done in collaborat ion wit h NexWafe GmbH, a company spun
off from Fraunhofer ISE t o commercialize product ion.[60][61]

For t riple-junct ion t hin-film solar cells, t he world record is 13.6%, set in June 2015.[62]

In 2016, researchers at Fraunhofer ISE announced a GaInP/GaAs/Si t riple-junct ion solar cell wit h
t wo t erminals reaching 30.2% efficiency wit hout concent rat ion.[63]

In 2017, a t eam of researchers at Nat ional Renewable Energy Laborat ory (NREL), EPFL and CSEM
(Swit zerland) report ed record one-sun efficiencies of 32.8% for dual-junct ion GaInP/GaAs solar
cell devices. In addit ion, t he dual-junct ion device was mechanically st acked wit h a Si solar cell, t o
achieve a record one-sun efficiency of 35.9% for t riple-junct ion solar cells.[64]

Materials

Global photovoltaics market share by

technology 1980-2021.[65]: 24, 25

Solar cells are t ypically named aft er t he semiconduct ing mat erial t hey are made of. These
mat erials must have cert ain charact erist ics in order t o absorb sunlight . Some cells are designed
t o handle sunlight t hat reaches t he Eart h's surface, while ot hers are opt imized for use in space.
Solar cells can be made of a single layer of light -absorbing mat erial (single-junct ion) or use
mult iple physical configurat ions (mult i-junct ions) t o t ake advant age of various absorpt ion and
charge separat ion mechanisms.

Solar cells can be classified int o first , second and t hird generat ion cells. The first generat ion cells
—also called convent ional, t radit ional or wafer-based cells—are made of cryst alline silicon, t he
commercially predominant PV t echnology, t hat includes mat erials such as polysilicon and
monocryst alline silicon. Second generat ion cells are t hin film solar cells, t hat include amorphous
silicon, CdTe and CIGS cells and are commercially significant in ut ilit y-scale phot ovolt aic power
st at ions, building int egrat ed phot ovolt aics or in small st and-alone power syst em. The t hird
generat ion of solar cells includes a number of t hin-film t echnologies oft en described as emerging
phot ovolt aics—most of t hem have not yet been commercially applied and are st ill in t he research
or development phase. Many use organic mat erials, oft en organomet allic compounds as well as
inorganic subst ances. Despit e t he fact t hat t heir efficiencies had been low and t he st abilit y of
t he absorber mat erial was oft en t oo short for commercial applicat ions, t here is research int o
t hese t echnologies as t hey promise t o achieve t he goal of producing low-cost , high-efficiency
solar cells.[66] As of 2016, t he most popular and efficient solar cells were t hose made from t hin
wafers of silicon which are also t he oldest solar cell t echnology.[67]

Crystalline silicon

By far, t he most prevalent bulk mat erial for solar cells is cryst alline silicon (c-Si), also known as
"solar grade silicon".[68] Bulk silicon is separat ed int o mult iple cat egories according t o cryst allinit y
and cryst al size in t he result ing ingot , ribbon or wafer. These cells are ent irely based around t he
concept of a p–n junct ion. Solar cells made of c-Si are made from wafers bet ween 160 and
240 micromet ers t hick.

Monocrystalline silicon

The roof, bonnet and large parts of

the outer shell of the Sion are
equipped with highly efficient
monocrystalline silicon cells

Monocryst alline silicon (mono-Si) solar cells feat ure a single-cryst al composit ion t hat enables
elect rons t o move more freely t han in a mult i-cryst al configurat ion. Consequent ly,
monocryst alline solar panels deliver a higher efficiency t han t heir mult icryst alline count erpart s.[69]
The corners of t he cells look clipped, like an oct agon, because t he wafer mat erial is cut from
cylindrical ingot s, t hat are t ypically grown by t he Czochralski process. Solar panels using mono-Si
cells display a dist inct ive pat t ern of small whit e diamonds.
Epitaxial silicon development

Epit axial wafers of cryst alline silicon can be grown on a monocryst alline silicon "seed" wafer by
chemical vapor deposit ion (CVD), and t hen det ached as self-support ing wafers of some st andard
t hickness (e.g., 250 μm) t hat can be manipulat ed by hand, and direct ly subst it ut ed for wafer cells
cut from monocryst alline silicon ingot s. Solar cells made wit h t his "kerfless" t echnique can have
efficiencies approaching t hose of wafer-cut cells, but at appreciably lower cost if t he CVD can
be done at at mospheric pressure in a high-t hroughput inline process.[60][61] The surface of
epit axial wafers may be t ext ured t o enhance light absorpt ion.[70][71]

In June 2015, it was report ed t hat het erojunct ion solar cells grown epit axially on n-t ype
monocryst alline silicon wafers had reached an efficiency of 22.5% over a t ot al cell area of
243.4 cm .[72]

Polycrystalline silicon

Polycryst alline silicon, or mult icryst alline silicon (mult i-Si) cells are made from cast square ingot s
—large blocks of molt en silicon carefully cooled and solidified. They consist of small cryst als
giving t he mat erial it s t ypical met al flake effect . Polysilicon cells are t he most common t ype
used in phot ovolt aics and are less expensive, but also less efficient , t han t hose made from
monocryst alline silicon.

Ribbon silicon

Ribbon silicon is a t ype of polycryst alline silicon—it is formed by drawing flat t hin films from
molt en silicon and result s in a polycryst alline st ruct ure. These cells are cheaper t o make t han
mult i-Si, due t o a great reduct ion in silicon wast e, as t his approach does not require sawing from
ingot s.[73] However, t hey are also less efficient .

Mono-like-multi silicon (MLM)

This form was developed in t he 2000s and int roduced commercially around 2009. Also called
cast -mono, t his design uses polycryst alline cast ing chambers wit h small "seeds" of mono
mat erial. The result is a bulk mono-like mat erial t hat is polycryst alline around t he out sides. When
sliced for processing, t he inner sect ions are high-efficiency mono-like cells (but square inst ead of
"clipped"), while t he out er edges are sold as convent ional poly. This product ion met hod result s in
mono-like cells at poly-like prices.[74]

Thin film

Thin-film t echnologies reduce t he amount of act ive mat erial in a cell. Most designs sandwich
act ive mat erial bet ween t wo panes of glass. Since silicon solar panels only use one pane of glass,
t hin film panels are approximat ely t wice as heavy as cryst alline silicon panels, alt hough t hey have
a smaller ecological impact (det ermined from life cycle analysis).[75] [76]

Cadmium telluride

Cadmium t elluride is t he only t hin film mat erial so far t o rival cryst alline silicon in cost /wat t .
However cadmium is highly t oxic and t ellurium (anion: "t elluride") supplies are limit ed. The
cadmium present in t he cells would be t oxic if released. However, release is impossible during
normal operat ion of t he cells and is unlikely during fires in resident ial roofs.[77] A square met er of
CdTe cont ains approximat ely t he same amount of Cd as a single C cell nickel-cadmium bat t ery, in
a more st able and less soluble form.[77]

Copper indium gallium selenide

Copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) is a direct band gap mat erial. It has t he highest efficiency
(~20%) among all commercially significant t hin film mat erials (see CIGS solar cell). Tradit ional
met hods of fabricat ion involve vacuum processes including co-evaporat ion and sput t ering.
Recent development s at IBM and Nanosolar at t empt t o lower t he cost by using non-vacuum
solut ion processes.[78]

Silicon thin film

Silicon t hin-film cells are mainly deposit ed by chemical vapor deposit ion (t ypically plasma-
enhanced, PE-CVD) from silane gas and hydrogen gas. Depending on t he deposit ion paramet ers,
t his can yield amorphous silicon (a-Si or a-Si:H), prot ocryst alline silicon or nanocryst alline silicon
(nc-Si or nc-Si:H), also called microcryst alline silicon.[79]

Amorphous silicon is t he most well-developed t hin film t echnology t o-dat e. An amorphous silicon
(a-Si) solar cell is made of non-cryst alline or microcryst alline silicon. Amorphous silicon has a
higher bandgap (1.7 eV) t han cryst alline silicon (c-Si) (1.1 eV), which means it absorbs t he visible
part of t he solar spect rum more st rongly t han t he higher power densit y infrared port ion of t he
spect rum. The product ion of a-Si t hin film solar cells uses glass as a subst rat e and deposit s a
very t hin layer of silicon by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposit ion (PECVD).

Prot ocryst alline silicon wit h a low volume fract ion of nanocryst alline silicon is opt imal for high
open-circuit volt age.[80] Nc-Si has about t he same bandgap as c-Si and nc-Si and a-Si can
advant ageously be combined in t hin layers, creat ing a layered cell called a t andem cell. The t op
cell in a-Si absorbs t he visible light and leaves t he infrared part of t he spect rum for t he bot t om
cell in nc-Si.

Gallium arsenide thin film

The semiconduct or mat erial gallium arsenide (GaAs) is also used for single-cryst alline t hin film
solar cells. Alt hough GaAs cells are very expensive, t hey hold t he world's record in efficiency for a
single-junct ion solar cell at 28.8%.[81] Typically fabricat ed on cryst alline silicon wafer[82] wit h a
41% fill fact or, by moving t o porous silicon fill fact or can be increased t o 56% wit h pot ent ially
reduced cost . Using less act ive GaAs mat erial by fabricat ing nanowires is anot her pot ent ial
pat hway t o cost reduct ion.[83] GaAs is more commonly used in mult ijunct ion phot ovolt aic cells for
concent rat ed phot ovolt aics (CPV, HCPV) and for solar panels on spacecraft , as t he indust ry
favours efficiency over cost for space-based solar power. Based on t he previous lit erat ure and
some t heoret ical analysis, t here are several reasons why GaAs has such high power conversion
efficiency. First , GaAs bandgap is 1.43ev which is almost ideal for solar cells. Second, because
Gallium is a by-product of t he smelt ing of ot her met als, GaAs cells are relat ively insensit ive t o
heat and it can keep high efficiency when t emperat ure is quit e high. Third, GaAs has t he wide
range of design opt ions. Using GaAs as act ive layer in solar cell, engineers can have mult iple
choices of ot her layers which can bet t er generat e elect rons and holes in GaAs.

Multijunction cells

Dawn's 10 kW triple-junction gallium

arsenide solar array at full extension

Mult i-junct ion cells consist of mult iple t hin films, each essent ially a solar cell grown on t op of
anot her, t ypically using met alorganic vapour phase epit axy. Each layer has a different band gap
energy t o allow it t o absorb elect romagnet ic radiat ion over a different port ion of t he spect rum.
Mult i-junct ion cells were originally developed for special applicat ions such as sat ellit es and
space explorat ion, but are now used increasingly in t errest rial concent rat or phot ovolt aics (CPV),
an emerging t echnology t hat uses lenses and curved mirrors t o concent rat e sunlight ont o small,
highly efficient mult i-junct ion solar cells. By concent rat ing sunlight up t o a t housand t imes, High
concentration photovoltaics (HCPV) has t he pot ent ial t o out compet e convent ional solar PV in
t he fut ure.[84]: 21, 26

Tandem solar cells based on monolit hic, series connect ed, gallium indium phosphide (GaInP),
gallium arsenide (GaAs), and germanium (Ge) p–n junct ions, are increasing sales, despit e cost
pressures.[85] Bet ween December 2006 and December 2007, t he cost of 4N gallium met al rose
from about $350 per kg t o $680 per kg. Addit ionally, germanium met al prices have risen
subst ant ially t o $1000–1200 per kg t his year. Those mat erials include gallium (4N, 6N and 7N Ga),
arsenic (4N, 6N and 7N) and germanium, pyrolit ic boron nit ride (pBN) crucibles for growing
cryst als, and boron oxide, t hese product s are crit ical t o t he ent ire subst rat e manufact uring
indust ry.

A t riple-junct ion cell, for example, may consist of t he semiconduct ors: GaAs, Ge, and GaInP 2.[86]
Triple-junct ion GaAs solar cells were used as t he power source of t he Dut ch four-t ime World
Solar Challenge winners Nuna in 2003, 2005 and 2007 and by t he Dut ch solar cars Solut ra (2005),
Twent e One (2007) and 21Revolut ion (2009). GaAs based mult i-junct ion devices are t he most
efficient solar cells t o dat e. On 15 Oct ober 2012, t riple junct ion met amorphic cells reached a
record high of 44%.[87]

GaInP/Si dual-junction solar cells

In 2016, a new approach was described for producing hybrid phot ovolt aic wafers combining t he
high efficiency of III-V mult i-junct ion solar cells wit h t he economies and wealt h of experience
associat ed wit h silicon. The t echnical complicat ions involved in growing t he III-V mat erial on
silicon at t he required high t emperat ures, a subject of st udy for some 30 years, are avoided by
epit axial growt h of silicon on GaAs at low t emperat ure by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor
deposit ion (PECVD).[88]

Si single-junct ion solar cells have been widely st udied for decades and are reaching t heir pract ical
efficiency of ~26% under 1-sun condit ions.[89] Increasing t his efficiency may require adding more
cells wit h bandgap energy larger t han 1.1 eV t o t he Si cell, allowing t o convert short -wavelengt h
phot ons for generat ion of addit ional volt age. A dual-junct ion solar cell wit h a band gap of 1.6–1.8
eV as a t op cell can reduce t hermalizat ion loss, produce a high ext ernal radiat ive efficiency and
achieve t heoret ical efficiencies over 45%.[90] A t andem cell can be fabricat ed by growing t he
GaInP and Si cells. Growing t hem separat ely can overcome t he 4% lat t ice const ant mismat ch
bet ween Si and t he most common III–V layers t hat prevent direct int egrat ion int o one cell. The
t wo cells t herefore are separat ed by a t ransparent glass slide so t he lat t ice mismat ch does not
cause st rain t o t he syst em. This creat es a cell wit h four elect rical cont act s and t wo junct ions
t hat demonst rat ed an efficiency of 18.1%. Wit h a fill fact or (FF) of 76.2%, t he Si bot t om cell
reaches an efficiency of 11.7% (± 0.4) in t he t andem device, result ing in a cumulat ive t andem cell
efficiency of 29.8%.[91] This efficiency exceeds t he t heoret ical limit of 29.4%[92] and t he record
experiment al efficiency value of a Si 1-sun solar cell, and is also higher t han t he record-efficiency
1-sun GaAs device. However, using a GaAs subst rat e is expensive and not pract ical. Hence
researchers t ry t o make a cell wit h t wo elect rical cont act point s and one junct ion, which does
not need a GaAs subst rat e. This means t here will be direct int egrat ion of GaInP and Si.
Research in solar cells

Perovskite solar cells

Perovskit e solar cells are solar cells t hat include a perovskit e-st ruct ured mat erial as t he act ive
layer. Most commonly, t his is a solut ion-processed hybrid organic-inorganic t in or lead halide
based mat erial. Efficiencies have increased from below 5% at t heir first usage in 2009 t o 25.5% in
2020, making t hem a very rapidly advancing t echnology and a hot t opic in t he solar cell field.[93]
Researchers at Universit y of Rochest er report ed in 2023 t hat significant furt her improvement s in
cell efficiency can be achieved by ut ilizing Purcell effect .[94]

Perovskit e solar cells are also forecast t o be ext remely cheap t o scale up, making t hem a very
at t ract ive opt ion for commercialisat ion. So far most t ypes of perovskit e solar cells have not
reached sufficient operat ional st abilit y t o be commercialised, alt hough many research groups are
invest igat ing ways t o solve t his.[95] Energy and environment al sust ainabilit y of perovskit e solar
cells and t andem perovskit e are shown t o be dependent on t he st ruct ures.[96][97][98] Phot onic
front cont act s for light management can improve t he perovskit e cells' performance, via
enhanced broadband absorpt ion, while allowing bet t er operat ional st abilit y due t o prot ect ion
against t he harmful high-energy (above Visible) radiat ion.[99] The inclusion of t he t oxic element
lead in t he most efficient perovskit e solar cells is a pot ent ial problem for commercialisat ion.[100]

Bifacial solar cells

Bifacial solar cell plant in Noto

(Senegal), 1988 - Floor painted in
white to enhance albedo.

Wit h a t ransparent rear side, bifacial solar cells can absorb light from bot h t he front and rear
sides. Hence, t hey can produce more elect ricit y t han convent ional monofacial solar cells. The
first pat ent of bifacial solar cells was filed by Japanese researcher Hiroshi Mori, in 1966.[101]
Lat er, it is said t hat Russia was t he first t o deploy bifacial solar cells in t heir space program in t he
1970s. In 1976, t he Inst it ut e for Solar Energy (ht t p://www.ies.upm.es/) of t he Technical
Universit y of Madrid, began a research program for t he development of bifacial solar cells led by
Prof. Ant onio Luque. Based on 1977 US and Spanish pat ent s by Luque, a pract ical bifacial cell
was proposed wit h a front face as anode and a rear face as cat hode; in previously report ed
proposals and at t empt s bot h faces were anodic and int erconnect ion bet ween cells was
complicat ed and expensive.[102][103][104] In 1980, Andrés Cuevas, a PhD st udent in Luque's t eam,
demonst rat ed experiment ally a 50% increase in out put power of bifacial solar cells, relat ive t o
ident ically orient ed and t ilt ed monofacial ones, when a whit e background was provided.[105] In
1981 t he company Isofot on was founded in Málaga t o produce t he developed bifacial cells, t hus
becoming t he first indust rializat ion of t his PV cell t echnology. Wit h an init ial product ion capacit y
of 300 kW/yr of bifacial solar cells, early landmarks of Isofot on's product ion were t he 20kWp
power plant in San Agust ín de Guadalix, built in 1986 for Iberdrola, and an off grid inst allat ion by
1988 also of 20kWp in t he village of Not o Gouye Diama (Senegal) funded by t he Spanish
int ernat ional aid and cooperat ion programs.

Due t o t he reduced manufact uring cost , companies have again st art ed t o produce commercial
bifacial modules since 2010. By 2017, t here were at least eight cert ified PV manufact urers
providing bifacial modules in Nort h America. The Int ernat ional Technology Roadmap for
Phot ovolt aics (ITRPV) predict ed t hat t he global market share of bifacial t echnology will expand
from less t han 5% in 2016 t o 30% in 2027.[106]

Due t o t he significant int erest in t he bifacial t echnology, a recent st udy has invest igat ed t he
performance and opt imizat ion of bifacial solar modules worldwide.[107][108] The result s indicat e
t hat , across t he globe, ground-mount ed bifacial modules can only offer ~10% gain in annual
elect ricit y yields compared t o t he monofacial count erpart s for a ground albedo coefficient of
25% (t ypical for concret e and veget at ion groundcovers). However, t he gain can be increased t o
~30% by elevat ing t he module 1 m above t he ground and enhancing t he ground albedo
coefficient t o 50%. Sun et al. also derived a set of empirical equat ions t hat can opt imize bifacial
solar modules analyt ically.[107] In addit ion, t here is evidence t hat bifacial panels work bet t er t han
t radit ional panels in snowy environment s as bifacials on dual-axis t rackers made 14% more
elect ricit y in a year t han t heir monofacial count erpart s and 40% during t he peak wint er
mont hs.[109]

An online simulat ion t ool (ht t ps://nanohub.org/t ools/pub) is available t o model t he performance
of bifacial modules in any arbit rary locat ion across t he ent ire world. It can also opt imize bifacial
modules as a funct ion of t ilt angle, azimut h angle, and elevat ion above t he ground.[110]

Intermediate band

Intermediate band photovoltaics in solar cell research provides met hods for exceeding t he
Shockley–Queisser limit on t he efficiency of a cell. It int roduces an int ermediat e band (IB) energy
level in bet ween t he valence and conduct ion bands. Theoret ically, int roducing an IB allows t wo
phot ons wit h energy less t han t he bandgap t o excit e an elect ron from t he valence band t o t he
conduct ion band. This increases t he induced phot ocurrent and t hereby efficiency.[111]

Luque and Mart i first derived a t heoret ical limit for an IB device wit h one midgap energy level
using det ailed balance. They assumed no carriers were collect ed at t he IB and t hat t he device
was under full concent rat ion. They found t he maximum efficiency t o be 63.2%, for a bandgap of
1.95eV wit h t he IB 0.71eV from eit her t he valence or conduct ion band. Under one sun illuminat ion
t he limit ing efficiency is 47%.[112] Several means are under st udy t o realize IB semiconduct ors
wit h such opt imum 3-bandgap configurat ion, namely via mat erials engineering (cont rolled inclusion
of deep level impurit ies or highly-mismat ched alloys) and nano-st ruct uring (quant um-dot s in host
het ero-cryst als).[113]

Liquid inks

In 2014, researchers at California NanoSyst ems Inst it ut e discovered using kest erit e and
perovskit e improved elect ric power conversion efficiency for solar cells.[114]

In December 2022, it was report ed t hat MIT researchers had developed ult ralight fabric solar
cells. These cells offer a weight one-hundredt h t hat of t radit ional panels while generat ing 18
t imes more power per kilogram. Thinner t han a human hair, t hese cells can be laminat ed ont o
various surfaces, such as boat sails, t ent s, t arps, or drone wings, t o ext end t heir funct ionalit y.
Using ink-based mat erials and scalable t echniques, researchers coat t he solar cell st ruct ure wit h
print able elect ronic inks, complet ing t he module wit h screen-print ed elect rodes. Test ed on high-
st rengt h fabric, t he cells produce 370 wat t s-per-kilogram, represent ing an improvement over
convent ional solar cells.[115]

Upconversion and downconversion

Phot on upconversion is t he process of using t wo low-energy (e.g. , infrared) phot ons t o produce
one higher energy phot on; downconversion is t he process of using one high energy phot on (e.g. ,
ult raviolet ) t o produce t wo lower energy phot ons. Eit her of t hese t echniques could be used t o
produce higher efficiency solar cells by allowing solar phot ons t o be more efficient ly used. The
difficult y, however, is t hat t he conversion efficiency of exist ing phosphors exhibit ing up- or down-
conversion is low, and is t ypically narrow band.

3+ 3+ 3+
One upconversion t echnique is t o incorporat e lant hanide-doped mat erials (Er , Yb , Ho or a
combinat ion), t aking advant age of t heir luminescence t o convert infrared radiat ion t o visible light .
Upconversion process occurs when t wo infrared phot ons are absorbed by rare-eart h ions t o
generat e a (high-energy) absorbable phot on. As example, t he energy t ransfer upconversion
process (ETU), consist s in successive t ransfer processes bet ween excit ed ions in t he near
infrared. The upconvert er mat erial could be placed below t he solar cell t o absorb t he infrared
light t hat passes t hrough t he silicon. Useful ions are most commonly found in t he t rivalent st at e.
+ 3+ 3+
Er ions have been t he most used. Er ions absorb solar radiat ion around 1.54 μm. Two Er ions
t hat have absorbed t his radiat ion can int eract wit h each ot her t hrough an upconversion process.
The excit ed ion emit s light above t he Si bandgap t hat is absorbed by t he solar cell and creat es
an addit ional elect ron–hole pair t hat can generat e current . However, t he increased efficiency was
small. In addit ion, fluoroindat e glasses have low phonon energy and have been proposed as
3+
suit able mat rix doped wit h Ho ions.[116]

Light-absorbing dyes

Dye-sensit ized solar cells (DSSCs) are made of low-cost mat erials and do not need elaborat e
manufact uring equipment , so t hey can be made in a DIY fashion. In bulk it should be significant ly
less expensive t han older solid-st at e cell designs. DSSC's can be engineered int o flexible sheet s
and alt hough it s conversion efficiency is less t han t he best t hin film cells, it s price/performance
rat io may be high enough t o allow t hem t o compet e wit h fossil fuel elect rical generat ion.

Typically a rut henium met alorganic dye (Ru-cent ered) is used as a monolayer of light -absorbing
mat erial, which is adsorbed ont o a t hin film of t it anium dioxide. The dye-sensit ized solar cell
depends on t his mesoporous layer of nanopart iculat e t it anium dioxide (TiO2) t o great ly amplify
t he surface area (200–300 m2/g TiO2, as compared t o approximat ely 10 m2/g of flat single
cryst al) which allows for a great er number of dyes per solar cell area (which in t erm in increases
t he current ). The phot ogenerat ed elect rons from t he light absorbing dye are passed on t o t he n-
t ype TiO2 and t he holes are absorbed by an elect rolyt e on t he ot her side of t he dye. The circuit
is complet ed by a redox couple in t he elect rolyt e, which can be liquid or solid. This t ype of cell
allows more flexible use of mat erials and is t ypically manufact ured by screen print ing or
ult rasonic nozzles, wit h t he pot ent ial for lower processing cost s t han t hose used for bulk solar
cells. However, t he dyes in t hese cells also suffer from degradat ion under heat and UV light and
t he cell casing is difficult t o seal due t o t he solvent s used in assembly. Due t o t his reason,
researchers have developed solid-st at e dye-sensit ized solar cells t hat use a solid elect rolyt e t o
avoid leakage.[117] The first commercial shipment of DSSC solar modules occurred in July 2009
from G24i Innovat ions.[118]

Quantum dots

Quant um dot solar cells (QDSCs) are based on t he Grat zel cell, or dye-sensit ized solar cell
archit ect ure, but employ low band gap semiconduct or nanopart icles, fabricat ed wit h cryst allit e
sizes small enough t o form quant um dot s (such as CdS, CdSe, Sb2S 3, PbS, et c.), inst ead of
organic or organomet allic dyes as light absorbers. Due t o t he t oxicit y associat ed wit h Cd and Pb
based compounds t here are also a series of "green" QD sensit izing mat erials in development
(such as CuInS 2, CuInSe 2 and CuInSeS).[119] QD's size quant izat ion allows for t he band gap t o be
t uned by simply changing part icle size. They also have high ext inct ion coefficient s and have
shown t he possibilit y of mult iple excit on generat ion.[120]

In a QDSC, a mesoporous layer of t it anium dioxide nanopart icles forms t he backbone of t he cell,
much like in a DSSC. This TiO2 layer can t hen be made phot oact ive by coat ing wit h
semiconduct or quant um dot s using chemical bat h deposit ion, elect rophoret ic deposit ion or
successive ionic layer adsorpt ion and react ion. The elect rical circuit is t hen complet ed t hrough
t he use of a liquid or solid redox couple. The efficiency of QDSCs has increased[121] t o over 5%
shown for bot h liquid-junct ion[122] and solid st at e cells,[123] wit h a report ed peak efficiency of
11.91%.[124] In an effort t o decrease product ion cost s, t he Prashant Kamat research group[125]
demonst rat ed a solar paint made wit h TiO2 and CdSe t hat can be applied using a one-st ep
met hod t o any conduct ive surface wit h efficiencies over 1%.[126] However, t he absorpt ion of
quant um dot s (QDs) in QDSCs is weak at room t emperat ure.[127] The plasmonic nanopart icles can
be ut ilized t o address t he weak absorpt ion of QDs (e.g., nanost ars).[128] Adding an ext ernal
infrared pumping source t o excit e int raband and int erband t ransit ion of QDs is anot her
solut ion.[127]

Organic/polymer solar cells

Organic solar cells and polymer solar cells are built from t hin films (t ypically 100 nm) of organic
semiconduct ors including polymers, such as polyphenylene vinylene and small-molecule
compounds like copper pht halocyanine (a blue or green organic pigment ) and carbon fullerenes
and fullerene derivat ives such as PCBM.

They can be processed from liquid solut ion, offering t he possibilit y of a simple roll-t o-roll print ing
process, pot ent ially leading t o inexpensive, large-scale product ion. In addit ion, t hese cells could
be beneficial for some applicat ions where mechanical flexibilit y and disposabilit y are import ant .
Current cell efficiencies are, however, very low, and pract ical devices are essent ially non-exist ent .

Energy conversion efficiencies achieved t o dat e using conduct ive polymers are very low
compared t o inorganic mat erials. However, Konarka Power Plast ic reached efficiency of 8.3%[129]
and organic t andem cells in 2012 reached 11.1%.

The act ive region of an organic device consist s of t wo mat erials, one elect ron donor and one
elect ron accept or. When a phot on is convert ed int o an elect ron hole pair, t ypically in t he donor
mat erial, t he charges t end t o remain bound in t he form of an excit on, separat ing when t he excit on
diffuses t o t he donor-accept or int erface, unlike most ot her solar cell t ypes. The short excit on
diffusion lengt hs of most polymer syst ems t end t o limit t he efficiency of such devices.
Nanost ruct ured int erfaces, somet imes in t he form of bulk het erojunct ions, can improve
performance.[130]

In 2011, MIT and Michigan St at e researchers developed solar cells wit h a power efficiency close
t o 2% wit h a t ransparency t o t he human eye great er t han 65%, achieved by select ively absorbing
t he ult raviolet and near-infrared part s of t he spect rum wit h small-molecule compounds.[131][132]
Researchers at UCLA more recent ly developed an analogous polymer solar cell, following t he
same approach, t hat is 70% t ransparent and has a 4% power conversion efficiency.[133][134][135]
These light weight , flexible cells can be produced in bulk at a low cost and could be used t o
creat e power generat ing windows.

In 2013, researchers announced polymer cells wit h some 3% efficiency. They used block
copolymers, self-assembling organic mat erials t hat arrange t hemselves int o dist inct layers. The
research focused on P3HT-b-PFTBT t hat separat es int o bands some 16 nanomet ers
wide.[136][137]

Adaptive cells

Adapt ive cells change t heir absorpt ion/reflect ion charact erist ics depending on environment al
condit ions. An adapt ive mat erial responds t o t he int ensit y and angle of incident light . At t he part
of t he cell where t he light is most int ense, t he cell surface changes from reflect ive t o adapt ive,
allowing t he light t o penet rat e t he cell. The ot her part s of t he cell remain reflect ive increasing
t he ret ent ion of t he absorbed light wit hin t he cell.[138]

In 2014, a syst em was developed t hat combined an adapt ive surface wit h a glass subst rat e t hat
redirect t he absorbed t o a light absorber on t he edges of t he sheet . The syst em also includes an
array of fixed lenses/mirrors t o concent rat e light ont o t he adapt ive surface. As t he day
cont inues, t he concent rat ed light moves along t he surface of t he cell. That surface swit ches
from reflect ive t o adapt ive when t he light is most concent rat ed and back t o reflect ive aft er t he
light moves along.[138]
Surface texturing

Solar Impulse aircraft are Swiss-

designed single-seat monoplanes
powered entirely from photovoltaic cells

For t he past years, researchers have been t rying t o reduce t he price of solar cells while
maximizing efficiency. Thin-film solar cell is a cost -effect ive second generat ion solar cell wit h
much reduced t hickness at t he expense of light absorpt ion efficiency. Effort s t o maximize light
absorpt ion efficiency wit h reduced t hickness have been made. Surface t ext uring is one of
t echniques used t o reduce opt ical losses t o maximize light absorbed. Current ly, surface t ext uring
t echniques on silicon phot ovolt aics are drawing much at t ent ion. Surface t ext uring could be done
in mult iple ways. Et ching single cryst alline silicon subst rat e can produce randomly dist ribut ed
square based pyramids on t he surface using anisot ropic et chant s.[139] Recent st udies show t hat
c-Si wafers could be et ched down t o form nano-scale invert ed pyramids. Mult icryst alline silicon
solar cells, due t o poorer cryst allographic qualit y, are less effect ive t han single cryst al solar
cells, but mc-Si solar cells are st ill being used widely due t o less manufact uring difficult ies. It is
report ed t hat mult icryst alline solar cells can be surface-t ext ured t o yield solar energy
conversion efficiency comparable t o t hat of monocryst alline silicon cells, t hrough isot ropic
et ching or phot olit hography t echniques.[140][141] Incident light rays ont o a t ext ured surface do not
reflect back out t o t he air as opposed t o rays ont o a flat surface. Rat her some light rays are
bounced back ont o t he ot her surface again due t o t he geomet ry of t he surface. This process
significant ly improves light t o elect ricit y conversion efficiency, due t o increased light absorpt ion.
This t ext ure effect as well as t he int eract ion wit h ot her int erfaces in t he PV module is a
challenging opt ical simulat ion t ask. A part icularly efficient met hod for modeling and opt imizat ion
is t he OPTOS formalism.[142] In 2012, researchers at MIT report ed t hat c-Si films t ext ured wit h
nanoscale invert ed pyramids could achieve light absorpt ion comparable t o 30 t imes t hicker planar
c-Si.[143] In combinat ion wit h ant i-reflect ive coat ing, surface t ext uring t echnique can effect ively
t rap light rays wit hin a t hin film silicon solar cell. Consequent ly, required t hickness for solar cells
decreases wit h t he increased absorpt ion of light rays.

Encapsulation

Solar cells are commonly encapsulat ed in a t ransparent polymeric resin t o prot ect t he delicat e
solar cell regions for coming int o cont act wit h moist ure, dirt , ice, and ot her condit ions expect ed
eit her during operat ion or when used out doors. The encapsulant s are commonly made from
polyvinyl acet at e or glass. Most encapsulant s are uniform in st ruct ure and composit ion, which
increases light collect ion owing t o light t rapping from t ot al int ernal reflect ion of light wit hin t he
resin. Research has been conduct ed int o st ruct uring t he encapsulant t o provide furt her
collect ion of light . Such encapsulant s have included roughened glass surfaces,[144] diffract ive
element s,[145] prism arrays,[146] air prisms,[147] v-grooves,[148] diffuse element s, as well as mult i-
direct ional waveguide arrays.[149] Prism arrays show an overall 5% increase in t he t ot al solar
energy conversion.[147] Arrays of vert ically aligned broadband waveguides provide a 10% increase
at normal incidence, as well as wide-angle collect ion enhancement of up t o 4%,[150] wit h
opt imized st ruct ures yielding up t o a 20% increase in short circuit current .[151] Act ive coat ings
t hat convert infrared light int o visible light have shown a 30% increase.[152] Nanopart icle coat ings
inducing plasmonic light scat t ering increase wide-angle conversion efficiency up t o 3%. Opt ical
st ruct ures have also been creat ed in encapsulat ion mat erials t o effect ively "cloak" t he met allic
front cont act s.[153][154]

Autonomous maintenance

Novel self-cleaning mechanisms for solar panels are being developed. For inst ance, in 2019 via
wet -chemically et ched nanowires and a hydrophobic coat ing on t he surface wat er droplet s could
remove 98% of dust part icles, which may be especially relevant for applicat ions in t he
desert .[155][156]

In March 2022, MIT researchers announced t he development of a wat erless cleaning syst em for
solar panels and mirrors t o address t he issue of dust accumulat ion, which can reduce solar out put
by up t o 30 percent in one mont h. This syst em ut ilizes elect rost at ic repulsion t o det ach dust
part icles from t he panel's surface, eliminat ing t he need for wat er or brushes. An elect rical charge
impart ed t o t he dust part icles by passing a simple elect rode over t he panel causes t hem t o be
repelled by a charge applied t o t he panel it self. The syst em can be aut omat ed using a basic
elect ric mot or and guide rails.[157]
Manufacture

Early solar-powered
calculator

Solar cells share some of t he same processing and manufact uring t echniques as ot her
semiconduct or devices. However, t he st rict requirement s for cleanliness and qualit y cont rol of
semiconduct or fabricat ion are more relaxed for solar cells, lowering cost s.

Polycryst alline silicon wafers are made by wire-sawing block-cast silicon ingot s int o 180 t o 350
micromet er wafers. The wafers are usually light ly p-t ype-doped. A surface diffusion of n-t ype
dopant s is performed on t he front side of t he wafer. This forms a p–n junct ion a few hundred
nanomet ers below t he surface.

Ant i-reflect ion coat ings are t hen t ypically applied t o increase t he amount of light coupled int o
t he solar cell. Silicon nit ride has gradually replaced t it anium dioxide as t he preferred mat erial,
because of it s excellent surface passivat ion qualit ies. It prevent s carrier recombinat ion at t he
cell surface. A layer several hundred nanomet ers t hick is applied using plasma-enhanced chemical
vapor deposit ion. Some solar cells have t ext ured front surfaces t hat , like ant i-reflect ion coat ings,
increase t he amount of light reaching t he wafer. Such surfaces were first applied t o single-
cryst al silicon, followed by mult icryst alline silicon somewhat lat er.

A full area met al cont act is made on t he back surface, and a grid-like met al cont act made up of
fine "fingers" and larger "bus bars" are screen-print ed ont o t he front surface using a silver past e.
This is an evolut ion of t he so-called "wet " process for applying elect rodes, first described in a US
pat ent filed in 1981 by Bayer AG.[158] The rear cont act is formed by screen-print ing a met al past e,
t ypically aluminium. Usually t his cont act covers t he ent ire rear, t hough some designs employ a
grid pat t ern. The past e is t hen fired at several hundred degrees Celsius t o form met al elect rodes
in ohmic cont act wit h t he silicon. Some companies use an addit ional elect roplat ing st ep t o
increase efficiency. Aft er t he met al cont act s are made, t he solar cells are int erconnect ed by flat
wires or met al ribbons, and assembled int o modules or "solar panels". Solar panels have a sheet of
t empered glass on t he front , and a polymer encapsulat ion on t he back.

Different t ypes of manufact uring and recycling part ly det ermine how effect ive it is in decreasing
emissions and having a posit ive environment al effect .[43] Such differences and effect iveness
could be quant ified[43] for product ion of t he most opt imal t ypes of product s for different
purposes in different regions across t ime.

Manufacturers and certification

Solar cell production by region[159]

Nat ional Renewable Energy Laborat ory t est s and validat es solar t echnologies. Three reliable
groups cert ify solar equipment : UL and IEEE (bot h U.S. st andards) and IEC.

The IEA's 2022 Special Report highlight s China's dominance over t he solar PV supply chain, wit h
an invest ment exceeding USD 50 billion and t he creat ion of around 300,000 jobs since 2011. China
commands over 80% of all manufact uring st ages for solar panels. This cont rol has drast ically cut
cost s but also led t o issues like supply-demand imbalances and polysilicon product ion
const raint s. Nevert heless, China's st rat egic policies have reduced solar PV cost s by more t han
80%, increasing global affordabilit y. In 2021, China's solar PV export s were over USD 30 billion.[160]

Meet ing global energy and climat e t arget s necessit at es a major expansion in solar PV
manufact uring, aiming for over 630 GW by 2030 according t o t he IEA’s "Roadmap t o Net Zero
Emissions by 2050". China's dominance, cont rolling nearly 95% of key solar PV component s and
40% of t he world's polysilicon product ion in Xinjiang, poses risks of supply short ages and cost
surges. Crit ical mineral demand, like silver, may exceed 30% of 2020's global product ion by
2030.[160]

In 2021, China's share of solar PV module product ion reached approximat ely 70%, an increase
from 50% in 2010. Ot her key producers included Viet nam (5%), Malaysia (4%), Korea (4%), and
Thailand (2%), wit h much of t heir product ion capacit y developed by Chinese companies aimed at
export s, not ably t o t he Unit ed St at es.[160]

China

As of Sept ember 2018, sixt y percent of t he world's solar phot ovolt aic modules were made in
China.[161] As of May 2018, t he largest phot ovolt aic plant in t he world is locat ed in t he Tengger
desert in China.[162] In 2018, China added more phot ovolt aic inst alled capacit y (in GW) t han t he
next 9 count ries combined.[163] In 2021, China's share of solar PV module product ion reached
approximat ely 70%.[160]

In t he first half of 2023, China's product ion of PV modules exceeded 220 GW, marking an increase
of over 62% compared t o t he same period in 2022. In 2022, China maint ained it s posit ion as t he
world's largest PV module producer, holding a dominant market share of 77.8%.[164]

Vietnam

In 2022, Viet nam was t he second-largest PV module producer, only behind China, wit h it s
product ion capacit y rising t o 24.1 GW, marking a significant 47% increase from t he 16.4 GW
produced in 2021. Viet nam account s for 6.4% of t he world's phot ovolt aic product ion.[164]

Malaysia

In 2022, Malaysia was t he t hird-largest PV module producer, wit h a product ion capacit y of 10.8
GW, account ing for 2.8% of global product ion. This placed it behind China, which dominat ed wit h
77.8%, and Viet nam, which cont ribut ed 6.4%.[164]

United States

Solar energy product ion in t he U.S. has doubled from 2013 t o 2019.[165] This was driven first by
t he falling price of qualit y silicon,[166][167][168] and lat er simply by t he globally plunging cost of
phot ovolt aic modules.[162][169] In 2018, t he U.S. added 10.8GW of inst alled solar phot ovolt aic
energy, an increase of 21%.[163]

Latin America : Lat in America has emerged as a promising region for solar energy development in
recent years, wit h over 10 GW of inst allat ions in 2020. The solar market in Lat in America has been
driven by abundant solar resources, falling cost s, compet it ive auct ions and growing elect ricit y
demand. Some of t he leading count ries for solar energy in Lat in America are Brazil, Mexico, Chile
and Argent ina. However, t he solar market in Lat in America also faces some challenges, such as
polit ical inst abilit y, financing gaps and power t ransmission bot t lenecks.

Middle East and Africa : The Middle East and Africa has also experienced significant growt h in
solar energy deployment in recent years, wit h over 8 GW inst allat ions in 2020. The solar market in
t he Middle East and Africa has been driven by t he low-cost generat ion of solar energy, t he
diversificat ion of energy sources, t he fight against climat e change and rural elect rificat ion are
mot ivat ed. Some of t he not able count ries for solar energy in t he Middle East and Africa are Saudi
Arabia, Unit ed Arab Emirat es, Egypt , Morocco and Sout h Africa. However, t he solar market in t he
Middle East and Africa also faces several obst acles, including social unrest , regulat ory
uncert aint y and t echnical barriers.[170]

Materials sourcing

Like many ot her energy generat ion t echnologies, t he manufact ure of solar cells, especially it s
rapid expansion, has many environment al and supply-chain implicat ions. Global mining may adapt
and pot ent ially expand for sourcing t he needed minerals which vary per t ype of solar cell.[171][172]
Recycling solar panels could be a source for mat erials t hat would ot herwise need t o be mined.[43]

Disposal

Solar cells degrade over t ime and lose t heir efficiency. Solar cells in ext reme climat es, such as
desert or polar, are more prone t o degradat ion due t o exposure t o harsh UV light and snow loads
respect ively.[173] Usually, solar panels are given a lifespan of 25–30 years before t hey get
decommissioned.[174]

The Int ernat ional Renewable Energy Agency est imat ed t hat t he amount of solar panel elect ronic
wast e generat ed in 2016 was 43,500–250,000 met ric t ons. This number is est imat ed t o increase
subst ant ially by 2030, reaching an est imat ed wast e volume of 60–78 million met ric t ons in
2050.[175]

Recycling

The most widely used solar cells in t he market are cryst alline solar cells. A product is t ruly
recyclable if it can harvest ed again. In t he 2016 Paris Agreement , 195 count ries agreed t o reduce
t heir carbon emissions by shift ing t heir focus away from fossil fuels and t owards renewable
energy sources. Owing t o t his, Solar will be a major cont ribut or t o elect ricit y generat ion all over
t he world. So, t here will be a plet hora of solar panels t o be recycled aft er t he end of t heir life
cycle. In fact , many researchers around t he globe have voiced t heir concern about finding ways t o
use silicon cells aft er recycling.[176][177][178][179]

Addit ionally, t hese cells have hazardous element s/compounds, including lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd)
or cadmium sulfide (CdS), selenium (Se), and barium (Ba) as dopant s aside from t he valuables
silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), silver (Ag), and copper (Cu). The harmful element s/compounds if not
disposed of wit h t he proper t echnique can have severe harmful effect s on human life and wildlife
alike.[180]

RECYCLING

There are various ways c-Si can be recycled. Mainly t hermal and chemical separat ion met hods are
used. This happens in t wo st ages[181]

PV solar cell separat ion: in t hermal delaminat ion, t he et hylene vinyl acet at e (EVA) is removed
and mat erials such as glass, Tedlar®, aluminium frame, st eel, copper and plast ics are
separat ed;

cleansing t he surface of PV solar cells: unwant ed layers (ant ireflect ion layer, met al coat ing and
p–n semiconduct or) are removed from t he silicon solar cells separat ed from t he PV modules;
as a result , t he silicon subst rat e, suit able for re-use, can be recovered.

CONVERSION

A research st udy was conduct ed by scient ist s t o see how efficient ly t he solar panels were made
from nanosilicon and nanosilicon/graphit e hybrids.[180] The experiment t echniques consist of

1. Recovery of PV Cells from End-of-Life PV Module – This is a pat ent ed t echnique where t he
solar panels are deconst ruct ed and each mat erial is cleaned separat ely.

2. Purificat ion of Broken PV Cells – 40 g of broken PV cells were placed in a glass bot t le of
500ml which cont ained 20% KOH (pot assium oxide). Heat t reat ment of t his aqueous solut ion was
done at 80 °C for 0.5 h. All Al met al and ot her impurit ies were dissolved in a 20% KOH solut ion, and
t he solid PV silicon was deposit ed as sediment . The solid PV was dried in a vacuum and 32 g of
impurit y-free PV recycled silicon was obt ained.

3. Conversion of Purified PV Recycled Silicon int o Nanosilicon and Nanosilicon/Graphit e Hybrid

Product ion - A large-scale planet ary ball mill (PULVERISETTE P5 5/4 classic line) was used.
Impurit y-free PV recycled cells/silicon were loaded inside a st ainless-st eel milling cont ainer
t oget her wit h five hardened st eel balls (diamet er of 25.4 mm). The sample was milled at a
rot at ion speed of 160 rpm for 15 h at room t emperat ure under an argon at mosphere of 300 kPa.
During high-energy ball milling, part icle size was reduced t o nanomet er level (<100 nm). The same
process was used t o produce a PV nano-Si/graphit e hybrid except for commercial graphit e
powder (Product -282863, Sigma-Aldrich, powder <20 μm, synt het ic) which was added wit h eight
hardened st eel balls. The mixt ure was milled at a rot at ion speed of 160 rpm for 20 h at room
t emperat ure under an argon at mosphere of 300 kPa. A hybrid of PV nano-Si/graphit e wit h a
weight rat io of 5 wt % PV nano-Si and 95 wt % graphit e was obt ained.

The obt ained PV nano-Si/graphit e elect rode showed excellent cyclic st abilit y wit h high-capacit y
ret ent ion even aft er long-t erm 600 cycles. These result s proved t hat silicon can be easily
convert ed int o nano-Si/graphit e hybrids and harvest ed int o PV modules and can work wit h t he
same efficiency as a c-Si module.

CHALLENGES

There are a lot of different PV modules in t he market which have different composit ions. So, it is
difficult t o have a common PV cell breakdown process. Also, recyclers have t o do qualit y cont rol
which is not possible if different PV modules have t o be recycled. There are also various
applicat ions of pure Si out side of t he Solar indust ry and t he recyclers might be t empt ed t o sell
t here if t hey get a higher value for t he product .[182]

Ot her quest ions t hat need t o be answered are [183]

To whom do t he recyclers sell t he recovered modules, component s, and/or mat erials?

What are t he cost s for different recycling scenarios?

Locat ion of recycling facilit ies?

Would mobile recycling facilit ies make more sense over cent ralized ones?

What infrast ruct ure should be est ablished for wast e module collect ion?

On t he policy side, t he main quest ions are t he following:

Who should pay for wast e module recycling?

The First Solar panel recycling plant opened in Rousset , France in 2018. It was set t o recycle
1300 t onnes of solar panel wast e a year, and can increase it s capacit y t o 4000
t onnes.[184][185][186] If recycling is driven only by market -based prices, rat her t han also
environment al regulat ions, t he economic incent ives for recycling remain uncert ain and as of 2021
t he environment al impact of different t ypes of developed recycling t echniques st ill need t o be
quant ified.[43]

See also

Renewable energy port al

Anomalous phot ovolt aic effect

Aut onomous building

Black silicon

Elect romot ive force (Solar cell)

Energy development

Sust ainable development

Flexible subst rat e

Green t echnology

Hot spot (phot ovolt aics)

Inkjet solar cell

List of t ypes of solar cells

List of solar engines

Maximum power point t racking

Met allurgical grade silicon

Microgenerat ion

Nanoflake

Phot ovolt aics

P–n junct ion

Plasmonic solar cell

Print ed elect ronics

Quant um efficiency

Renewable energy

Roll-t o-roll processing

Shockley-Queisser limit

Solar cell research

Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells (journal)

Solar module qualit y assurance

Solar roof

Solar shingles

Solar t racker

Spect rophot omet ry

St andardizat ion#Environment al prot ect ion

Theory of solar cells

Thermophot ovolt aics

Variable renewable energy

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PV Light house Calculat ors and Resources for phot ovolt aic scient ist s and engineers (ht t ps://w
eb.archive.org/web/20131011055159/ht t p://www.pvlight house.com.au/index.aspx)

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at Curlie

Solar Energy Laborat ory (ht t ps://web.archive.org/web/20071221234020/ht t p://www.sot on.ac.

uk/~solar/) at Universit y of Sout hampt on

NASA's Phot ovolt aic Info (ht t ps://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at -nasa/2002/sola

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