Addis Ababa Science and Technology University

Lecture notes for

Unit operation For Environmental Engineering
(ChEg3102)
Department: Environmental Engineering

By: Tayto Mindahun (MSc in Process Engineering)

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
 Chapter 4
Heat exchanging equipment
Definition of heat and heat transfer
▪ Heat is the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another as a result of temperature
difference. The science that deals with the determination of the rates of such energy transfers is the heat
transfer.
▪ Heat transfer describes the flow of heat (thermal energy) due to temperature differences and the
subsequent temperature distribution and changes.

▪ The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-temperature medium to the lower-temperature one, and
heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same temperature.
Modes of heat transfer
 Principles of conduction
▪ Consider the conductive heat flow through the wall given in the figure below,
heat flows from the face of high temperature to the face of low temperature.
▪ The rate of heat transfer through the wall may be expressed as:
(𝐰𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚)(𝐭𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐝𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞)
𝐪𝐱 ∝
(𝐰𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐭𝐡𝐢𝐜𝐤𝐧𝐞𝐬𝐬)

𝐀𝐝𝐓
▪ Or it can be expressed as: 𝐪𝐱 ∝ 𝐝𝐱
𝒅𝑻 (1)
▪ or, by inserting a constant of proportionality, 𝒒𝒙 = −𝒌𝑨 𝒅𝒙

▪ where qx is the rate of heat flow in the direction of heat transfer by conduction
(W); k is thermal conductivity (W/[m ℃]); A is area (normal to the direction of
heat transfer) through which heat flows (𝑚2 ); T is temperature (℃); and x is
length (m), a variable.
▪ Equation (1) is also called Fourier’s law for heat conduction.
 Principles of convection
▪ Consider heat transfer from a heated flat plate, PQRS, exposed to a flowing fluid, as shown in Figure
below. The surface temperature of the plate is Ts, and the temperature of the fluid far away from the
plate surface is T∞.
▪ The rate of heat transfer from the solid surface to the flowing fluid is proportional to the surface
area of solid, A, in contact with the fluid, and the difference between the temperatures Ts and T∞. Or,

▪ Note that the convective heat transfer coefficient, h, is not a property of the solid material. It depends on a
number of properties of fluid (density, specific heat, viscosity, thermal conductivity), the velocity of fluid,
geometry, and roughness of the surface of the solid object in contact with the fluid.
▪
 Radiation heat transfer
▪ Radiation heat transfer occurs between two surfaces by the emission and later absorption of
electromagnetic waves (or photons). In contrast to conduction and convection, radiation requires
no physical medium for its propagation.

T is temperature (K)

❑e is emissivity, which describes the extent to which a surface is similar to a blackbody. For a blackbody, the
value of emissivity is 1.
 Heat exchangers

▪ Heat exchangers are commonly used in practice in a wide range of applications, from heating and air-
conditioning systems in a household, to chemical processing and power production in large plants.
Classification of Heat Exchangers

▪ two fluids usually move perpendicular to each other

 Classification of Heat Exchangers

Recuperator heat exchanger Regenerative heat exchanger

Classification of Heat Exchangers

Based on transfer process

Classification of Heat Exchangers

Based on flow arrangement

Classification of Heat Exchangers
 Types of heat exchangers
▪ Different heat transfer applications require different types of hardware and different configurations of
heat transfer equipment.
▪ The most common types of heat exchangers are the following:
 Plate heat exchangers
▪ Plate heat exchangers are built of thin plates forming flow channels. The fluid streams are separated
by flat plates which are smooth or between which lie corrugated fins.
 Gasketed plate heat exchangers
▪ A series of thin plates with corrugation or wavy surfaces that separate the fluids.

Gasket

▪ Gaskets prevent intermixing of the two fluids and fluid leaking to the
outside, as well as directing the fluids in the plates as desired.
 Spiral plate heat exchangers
▪ Spiral plate heat exchangers are formed by rolling two long, parallel plates into a spiral using a
mandrel and welding the edges of adjacent plates to form channels.

▪ Pins welded to the metal sheet to

maintain distance between metal
surfaces

▪ The spiral heat exchanger is

particularly effective in handling of:
➢ sludge,
➢ viscous liquids, and
➢ liquids with solids in suspension
including slurries.
 Lamella heat exchangers
▪ The lamella (Ramen) type of heat exchanger consists of a set of parallel, welded, thin plate
channels or lamellae (flat tubes or rectangular channels) placed longitudinally in a shell.
▪ A lamella heat exchanger consists of an outer cylindrical /tubular shell covering a bundle of
small lamellas/ narrow flat tubes, edge welded, of the given shape. These elements provide a
large heat transfer area to the equipment.

▪ There are no shell-side baffles, and therefore, lamella heat exchangers can be arranged for true
countercurrent flow.
Advantages and disadvantages of plate heat exchangers

Advantages Disadvantages
Tubular heat exchangers
 Tubular heat exchangers
▪ Tubular heat exchangers are built of circular tubes. One fluid flows inside the tubes and
the other flows on the outside of the tubes.
▪ Tube diameter, the number of tubes, the tube length, the pitch of the tubes, and the tube
arrangement can be changed.
▪ Therefore, there is considerable flexibility in their design.
 Double-pipe heat exchangers
▪ Double-pipe heat exchanger consists of one pipe placed concentrically inside another
pipe of larger diameter with appropriate fittings to direct the flow from one section to the
next
▪ One fluid in a double-pipe heat exchanger flows through the smaller pipe while the other fluid
flows through the annular space between the two pipes.

▪ Major use is for heating or cooling of process fluids

where small heat transfer areas are required and
when one or both fluids are at high pressure.
Advantages of double-pipe heat exchangers
 Flow arrangement in double-pipe heat exchanger
▪ Two types of flow arrangement are possible in a double-pipe heat exchanger according to flow
directions.
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
 Shell and tube heat exchanger
▪ This type of heat exchanger has an outer shell (a large pressure vessel) and a tube bundle. One fluid
flow inside the tube while the other fluid flows over the tube. In this way, it transfers heat from one
fluid to another.

▪ The fluid flows in this heat exchanger may have

crossflow or parallel flow.
▪ Baffles are commonly placed in the shell to force
the shell-side fluid to flow across the shell to
enhance heat transfer and to maintain uniform
spacing between the tubes.

▪ These types of heat exchangers are best-suitable for high-pressure applications. They
are most commonly used in large chemical processes and oil refineries.
Components of shell-and-tube heat exchangers
Classification of shell-and-tube heat exchangers
U-tube heat exchangers
Fixed tube heat exchangers
Floating tube heat exchangers
 Classification of shell and tube heat exchanger
▪ Based on the number of passes provided on the tube side as well as the shell side; the
shell and tube heat exchanger can be referred as:

1-1 shell and tube heat exchanger

1-2 shell and tube heat exchanger
2-4 shell and tube heat exchanger
1-1 shell and tube heat exchanger
1-2 shell and tube heat exchanger
2-4 shell and tube heat exchanger
Selection criteria for shell side and tube side fluid
 Fouling of heat transfer surfaces
▪ In heating equipment, when a liquid food comes into contact with a heated surface, some of its
components may deposit on the hot surface, causing an increase in the resistance to heat transfer.
▪ This phenomenon of product buildup on the heat transfer surface is called fouling.
▪ Fouling is the formation of unwanted material deposits on heat transfer surfaces during process
heating and cooling.

▪ Several variables contribute to fouling, including water pH, product viscosity, and the roughness of
component surfaces, among many others.
 Analysis of heat exchangers
▪ The overall purpose of heat exchanger is to transfer heat between two fluids at
different temperature.
▪ Hence, it is very important to know the temperature change to be achieved in the
fluid or to know the outlet temperatures of the hot and cold fluid streams.
▪ In order to achieve these tasks, the following two methods could be applied.

1. The log mean temperature difference (or LMTD) method and

2. The effectiveness–NTU (the number of transfer units) method
 The rate of heat transfer in a heat exchanger
▪ In the analysis of heat exchangers, it is often convenient to work with an overall heat
transfer coefficient, known as a U-factor.
Basic formula:
▪ The basic formula (equation) for heat transfer is,
Q = A* U*△T
Where,
Q = Total heat to be transferred, W
A = Required effective heat exchanger surface, based on the tube O.D , 𝑚2
U= Overall heat transfer coefficient, W/𝑚2 ℃
△T = effective mean temperature difference, OC

▪ For exchangers where the flow of the hot and cold fluids is true counter or concurrent, △T is equal to
the log mean temperature difference (LMTD).
▪ In most commercial exchangers, the use of shell baffles and multiple tube passes causes the flow to be
partially counter current and partially concurrent flow.
The log mean temperature difference method
▪ The LMTD is a logarithmic average of the temperature difference between the hot and cold fluid
streams at each end of the heat exchanger.
▪ The larger the value of LMTD, the higher heat is transferred.

∆𝐓𝟐 − ∆𝐓𝟏
∆𝐓𝐥𝐦 =
∆T2
ln
∆T1
Assumptions made in LMTD method:
▪ The overall heat transfer coefficient (U) is constant throughout the heat energy.
▪ The specific heats (Cp) and mass flow rates of both fluids is constant.
▪ The flow conditions are steady.
▪ There is no change of phase either of the fluid during the heat transfer.
▪ There is no loss of heat transfer to the surroundings, due to heat exchanger being perfectly
insulated.
▪ Axial conduction along the tubes of heat exchanger is negligible.
▪ The changes in kinetic energy and potential energy are negligible.
 Parallel flow heat exchanger

▪ For the parallel-flow heat exchangers, the end point temperature differences are
defined as follows:

▪ The temperature of the cold fluid can never exceed that of the hot fluid no matter how long the heat
exchanger is.
 Counter-flow heat exchangers
▪ For the counter-flow heat exchangers, the end point temperature differences
are defined as follows:
 Example 1
A counter-flow double-pipe heat exchanger is to heat water from 20°C to 80°C at a rate of 1.2 kg/s. The
heating is to be accomplished by geothermal water available at 160°C at a mass flow rate of 2 kg/s. The
inner tube is thin-walled and has a diameter of 1.5 cm. If the overall heat transfer coefficient of the heat
exchanger is 640 W/m2 · °C, determine the length of the heat exchanger required to achieve the desired
heating. [Properties: take the specific heats of water and geothermal fluid to be 4.18 and 4.31 kJ/kg ·
°C, respectively.]
Example 2

Steam in the condenser of a power plant is to be condensed at a temperature of 30°C with cooling water
from a nearby lake, which enters the tubes of the condenser at 14°C and leaves at 22°C. The surface
area of the tubes is 45 m2, and the overall heat transfer coefficient is 2100 W/m2 · °C. Determine the
mass flow rate of the cooling water needed and the rate of condensation of the steam in the condenser.
The Effectiveness–NTU Method
Number of transfer units(NTU) and Capacity ratio
 Example 3
A counter-flow double-pipe heat exchanger is to heat water from 20°C to 80°C at a rate of 1.2 kg/s.
The heating is to be accomplished by geothermal water available at 160°C at a mass flow rate of 2
kg/s. The inner tube is thin-walled and has a diameter of 1.5 cm. If the overall heat transfer
coefficient of the heat exchanger is 640 W/m2 · °C, determine the length of the heat exchanger
required to achieve the desired heating using the effectiveness–NTU method.

Example 4

Cold water enters a counter-flow heat exchanger at 10°C at a rate of 8 kg/s, where it is heated by a hot
water stream that enters the heat exchanger at 70°C at a rate of 2 kg/s. Assuming the specific heat of
water to remain constant at Cp 5 4.18 kJ/kg · °C, determine the maximum heat transfer rate and the
outlet temperatures of the cold and the hot water streams for this limiting case.
Selection of heat exchangers
1. Heat Transfer Rate
2. Cost
3. Pumping Power
4. Size and Weight
5. Type
6. Materials
7. Ease of servicing,
8. Low maintenance cost,
9. safety and reliability are some other important considerations in the
selection process.
 Condensers

❑ The condenser is also called a heat ejector. These are used in every refrigeration system and power
plant to condense gases or steam. It converts a subcooled liquid from a superheated and highly
pressurized vapor.
Types of condensers

(a) Parallel flow type, (b) Counter flow type

 Types of condensers
▪ In surface condenser, the exhaust steam and cooling water do not come in physical
contact, rather they are separated by heat transfer wall. Hence condensate remains
pure & can be reused.
 Advantages & disadvantages of surface condensers
Advantages:
▪ High vacuum efficiency.
▪ Pure condensate.
▪ Low quality cooling water can be used.
▪ It allows the expansion of steam through a higher pressure ratio.
Disadvantages:
▪ Large amount of water is required.
▪ Construction is complicated.
▪ Costly maintenance and skilled workers.
▪ Large floor area.
 Comparison of Jet & Surface Condensers
Jet Condensers
▪ Cooling water and steam are mixed up
▪ Requires small floor space
▪ The condensate cannot be used as feed water to boiler
unless it is free from impurities
▪ More power is required for air pump
▪ Less power is required for water pump
▪ Requires less quantity of cooling water
▪ The condensing plant is simple
▪ Less suitable for high capacity plants due to low vacuum
efficiency
Surface Condensers
▪ Cooling water & steam aren’t mixed up
▪ Requires large floor space
▪ The condensate can be used as feed water to
boiler as it is not mixed with cooling water
▪ Less power is required for air pump
▪ More power is required for water pump
▪ Requires large quantity of cooling water
▪ The condensing plant is complicated
▪ More suitable for high capacity plants as
vacuum efficiency is high
Elements of Condensing Plant:

▪ Condenser
▪ Air Extraction Pump
▪ Condensate Extraction Pump
▪ Cooling Water Circulating Pump
▪ Hot Well
▪ Cooling Tower
▪ Make up Water Pump
▪ Boiler Feed Pump
Boilers (Steam Generators)
Working principle of boilers (Steam Generators)
Classification of boilers (Steam Generators)
Classification of boilers (Steam Generators)
Classification of boilers (Steam Generators)
Classification of boilers (Steam Generators)
 Classification of boilers (Steam Generators)
Water tube versus fire tube boilers

▪ In a water tube boiler, the water is contained inside

tubes, and the hot gases from the burner pass around
the outside of the tubes.
▪ As the hot gases pass around the tubes, they heat the
water inside the tubes, generating steam.

▪ In a fire tube boiler, the hot gases from the burner pass through the tubes, heating the water that
surrounds the tubes. As the water is heated, it turns into steam, which can then be used for a variety of
purposes.
Selection of boilers (Steam Generators)
End of Chapter 4