COMMUNICATION NOTES

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
Communication can be defined as:

 The process of passing information or message from one person to another

through medium or a channel.

 Process of exchanging information, ideas, thoughts, feelings and emotions

through speech, signals, writing, or behavior.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

For any effective communication to take place the following elements must be
present.

Sender: the sender initiates communication

Receiver: the receiver is the target of the communication
Message: the message is what the sender communicates to the receiver.
Channel: the channel is the means used to transmit the message from the sender to
the receiver.
Feedback: it is the response the sender gets from the receiver.

PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION
1. Good reputation
Effective communication with customers and either business enables company
establish good reputation this increase prestige of the company.
2. Improves public relations
When a company communicates with general public to keep them informed of
its activities more people become interested to deal with that company.
3. Better business prospects
Due to good communication the company can attract more customers.
4. It helps us improve our services

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 5. Job requirements
Most jobs require communication skills such as personnel public relations,
marketing, editing, research, advocates, etc. executives are expected to make
speeches, give interviews to media and all these require good communication
skills.

6. To inform
One of the most important objectives of communication is passing and receiving
information.

7. To advice
Information is factual and objective, advice on the other hand involves personal
opinions. It is subjective and neutral. When advice is given to person he/she may use
it to decide or not to use it. Advice flows downwards and horizontal and is aimed at
influencing the opinions or behavior of other person.

8. To order
An order is an authoritative communication, directive. Orders flow from top to
bottom.

9. To suggest
A suggestion is different from other forms of communication. In other forms it flows
from superiors to subordinates but a suggestion may flow from subordinate to
superior. It is mild and subtle and moves in all directions.

10.To persuade
It is aimed at influencing the attitudes, feelings or beliefs of others.

11.To educate
Education is a conscious process of communication. Its main purpose is to widen
knowledge and improve skills.

12.To warn
To caution people of any impending issues or behaviours.

13. Raise morale

Morale is a powerful factor representing the sum of many qualities such as courage,
fortitude, resolution and confidence.

14.To motivateMotivation means to energize and activate a person and challenge

their behavior towards the attainment of desired goals.

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PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

For communication to be effective, the communicator has to observe the following

principles:

1. Clarity;
Communicator must use simple words/means and avoid the use of jargon.
2. Completeness/content;
The communicator must include all the relevant facts in his message.
3. Conciseness;
The communicator must be as brief as possible so as to win the attention of the
receiver. This can be achieved through observing the following:-
 Including only the relevant parts.
 Avoid repetition.
 Organizing the message in a simple, logical way.
4. Consideration;
The communicator must try to understand the audience. This will enable the
establishment of rapport with audience and hence, communication will be
smooth. The communicator should not always emphasize on the negative aspect
of the audience.
5. Courtesy;
The communicator will create friendliness with the audience. This can be
achieved by use of common courtesy and being civil e.g. Thank you, good
morning etc.
6. C orrectness;
The communicator must ensure that:-
 He gives the correct facts
 Uses the correct language
 Sends the message at the correct time
 Sends the message through the correct medium.
7. Concreteness
 Being definite, vivid and specific rather than vague. Facts and figures
being presented in the message should be specific.

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ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

As an effective communicator, you should understand the following essentials of

communication:

The subject: also known as the content of communication, is the information that you
would like to be understood by your receiver.

The audience: is the receiver of your message and you need to have enough
information about them. For example their personality, age status, education, political
inclination, etc how are they likely to react to the content of your message?

Purpose: in other words you ask yourself whether you want to persuade, inform,
influence, educate, advice, entertain, provoke, stimulate thought.

Appropriate channel: is the vehicle by which the message is passed on to the

audience. for example by use of words, pictures or both, or use spoken or written.

Proper presentation: is the means by which you will achieve the most desired
response from your audience. It is the best way you organize your points you want to
drive home to your audience.

ROLE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN

COMMUNICATION

1. Information Communication and Technology allows a number of people to

have access to the same information at the same time instead of having to wait
e.g for a file to be returned to the cabinet i.e information is instantly available.

2. Computers can be used to produce volumes of information sufficient for

operations.

3. Tasks that were previously done by hands in what are known as manual system
can now be done much more quickly and efficient by electronic means.

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4. Electronic mail allows messages to be sent faster to parts of the world in
different time zones without the need to wait for an appropriate time or the next
working day.

5. Electronic conferencing makes it possible to be held between people at different

ends of the country or even in different parts of the world by use of television,
camera and receivers, computer technology and telephone lines.

6. Most organizations/companies are able to store information in data bases and

that information can be retrieved easily and quickly.

7. Confidentiality:- electronic data base make it possible for any authorized uses to
have access to certain information.

8. Portability:- carrying a large amount of information has been made easier by

using e.g flash disk, diskettes, floppy disc e.t.c.

9. Storage of vast amount of data and processing.

10. Editing:- errors can be corrected on screen so that there should be no errors in
the final document.

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COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Stages of communication process

Communication is a two way process that takes place through several stages:

a. Conception of the message: at this stage an idea, thought or feeling is

formulated in the minds of the sender as a result of an external or internal
stimulus or motivation.

b. Encoding: this involves giving the message a communication form in verbal or

non verbal language

c. Channel selection: the sender selects the most appropriate and effective vehicle
that will deliver the message to the receiver, for example telephone, letter, e-
mail.

d. Transmission: the message is transferred to the receiver through the selected

channel. At this stage there is a possibility of the message being interfered with
by “noise”

e. Reception: this is the physical act of receiving the message through any of the
six senses- hearing, touching, tasting seeing and smelling.

f. Decoding: this involves the receiver trying to assign meaning to the language
used as he/she relates the language to his knowledge of terms and vocabulary.

g. Comprehension: takes place when the receiver tries to spend moments to

absorb the meaning and to understand the technical jargon used by the sender.

h. Interpretation: is similar to what is loosely termed as reading between the

lines. This means that you as a receiver should search out the underlying
meaning.

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 i. Feedback: the receiver reacts to the message by encoding his response in a
language that the sender can understand and transmit it back to the originator of
the message. The receiver goes through the same communication process as the
sender had done only when this cycle is completed can communication can be
said to have been effective

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

However, carefully an act of communication is planned, it is inevitable that

breakdowns will sometimes occur. Some of the breakdown or barriers arise in the
process of communication mainly from the sender and the receiver, while others are
due to external factors.

A. Barriers caused by the sender

1. Sender‟s lack of awareness of receivers needs

If the sender does not have a clear idea of what the communication aims to achieve
before encoding the message there will be a breakdown.

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2. Language
If the language used by the sender is unfamiliar to the receiver there will be a
breakdown in communication and how it is said. Facial expressions, gestures and
the way in which a message is conveyed can also result in a receiver gaining a
false impression. The tone of voice can also be detected even in a written message.

3. Use of the wrong medium

If the medium chosen is not appropriate for the message, the message can be
delayed or distorted. For example, if you had to tell a group of employees about
their new salaries each of which is different, it would be tactless to type a notice
and to display it on a notice board instead of sending personal letters to those
concerned. A careful choice of medium would avoid any misunderstanding.

4. Poor timing
Deciding on the most appropriate time to communicate is as important as knowing
what medium to use. Ensure that the receiver has enough time to pay careful
attention to a message in order to understand the message and give the expected
feedback.

5. Information overload
The message the sender wishes to communicate should contain the right amount of
information to avoid an overload. Too much information is bad as too little
information because it reduces audience‟s ability to concentrate effectively on the
most important messages.

B. Barriers caused by the receiver

1. Poor listening skills

The receiver may deliberately refuse to listen to an incoming message. This is what
is known as selective listening. However, lack of concentration, lack of interest,
difficulty in comprehending the content, poor mental attitude and cultural
differences between the sender and the receiver also cause a breakdown in
communication.

2. Prejudice
This means preformed attitude towards the sender, the message or both. Prejudice
may arise from the difference between the sender and receiver owing to their
differing social status, education or age.

3. Lack of feedback

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 If the receiver fails to give feedback to the sender or he gives a delayed feedback,
this will automatically result to breakdown in communication.

4. Psychological factor
Such as people‟s state of mind e.g health or marriage problems.

C. Barriers caused by external factors

1. Noise
This can be physical noise in a room, a poor telephone connection, or other forms
of interference like poor handwriting.

2. Physical distance
The geographical distance between the sender and receiver may also be a source of
communication breakdown.

3. Too many steps in the communication process

If an oral message is channeled through many people, the message is likely to get
distorted. In written communication, for example a letter passing through many
bureaucratic steps in an organization may not reach the correct destination in the
desired time for appropriate action to be taken.

Ways of overcoming barriers

1. Training employees in relevant techniques of communication e.g. listening

skill, or speaking skills
2. Ensuring that the media of communication is carefully chosen
3. Communication must be well planned and well constructed
4. Ensure that only necessary message is communicated to avoid overload.
5. Observe the principles of effective communication
6. A climate of trust and confidence should be created in the organization e.g.
employees should be encouraged to share information whatever their position.
7. Equipment used for communication must be maintained
8. Ensuring that the organization structure is straightforward and the
communication lines are simple and clear.

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ETHICAL ISSUES IN COMMUNICATION

Ethics in communication essentially deals with how honest, fair, and responsible
communicators are being at the individual, group, and mass communication levels.

1. Truthfulness
A communicator has a responsibility to ensure that the information given out is
truthful. Conscious distortion of facts on the part of the communicator is clearly
unethical. However, truth may at times conflict with other virtues such as public
interest, privacy and confidentiality.
2. Fairness
In giving information concerning parties, the communicator should not consciously
lean towards one side at the expense of another.
3. Cultural sensitivity
Respect is very important in communication. A communicator has the
responsibility of avoiding making offensive or discriminatory speech on the
grounds of race, gender, creed or otherwise.
4. Honesty
It is unethical for one to attempt to pass other people‟s ideas and theories as their
own. Credit should always be given when quotes from other people; whether
copyrighted or not are cited. If the information is intended to achieve a sale, the
salesperson is obliged not to withhold any piece of information that may put the
potential buyer at a disadvantage.
5. Censorship
Authorities, including governments may feel compelled to control what kind of
information reaches the public. It is mostly due to self interest and survival. This
withholding of information may result into the public being not adequately
empowered to make beneficial decisions.
Sometimes, censorship is done on propriety reasons, such as the control of
pornographic material.
6. Objectivity
Communicators need to be faithful to the facts of the subject and report
dispassionately. Personal emotions should be avoided as much as possible, as they
have the likelihood of influencing the audience unduly.

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CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Communication can be broadly classified into six main categories:

A. Formal Communication

This is the type of communication that follow formal channel of communications and
includes, organizational channels and officially recognized positions. Thus it followed
the course laid down in an organizational structure of the enterprise. Therefore as the
name formal suggests is the deliberately created, officially prescribed path for flow of
communication in an attempt to regulate the flow of organizational communication to
ensure that information flows smoothly accurately and timely.
Formal channel of communication emphasized on the charnel of command or thro
proper channels.
Therefore it can be summarized that formal communication follows channel of formal
relationships of continuity and responsibility established by management.

Uses of formal communication

 Communicates the vision of the organization
 Communicates the objectives to the members very clearly
 Used to instill the necessary discipline as required by the organization

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 B. Informal Communication

This is quite often described as “grapevine”. It takes place between persons or groups
at the same time the same or different levels of hierarchy on the basis of informal
relationships. Information passes informally between persons or groups as they come
in to contact with each other in the course of performing their duties example:
According to structure, a section commander (CPL) maybe required to report direct
to the [platoon sergeant yet because of their informal relationship with the platoon
commander, they may prefer to take orders or instructions from the platoon
commander. Informal communication is also known as “grapevine”. This
communication does not arise out of the organization needs but this is never the less
an integral part of its communication system. Rumors that all the time spread in any
organization follow the grapevine.

Uses of informal communication

 Used in informal relations with friends, workmates or family

 It is used any time and place to give feedback to any organization
 Used to air grievances
 Used to help put people at ease and avoid or relieve stress
C. Internal Communication

Internal communication refers to the exchange of information or messages between

persons and departments of the same organization e.g., Communication between the
employer and the employees, or communication between a company and its
shareholders.

Uses of internal communication

 Used to create good relationships within the organization
 Brings about coordination, cooperation and team work
 Used to encourage and motivate the members to continue and to work harder
for better output.

D. External Communication

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 External communication refers to the exchange of information or messages between
particular organizations and outside offices, outside persons or other outside
organizations. Communication with the customers and suppliers, other business
organizations, government departments and service institutions come within this
category.

Uses of external communication

 Enables organizations to access other services
 Used for business purposes
 Used to inform and bring awareness
 Used for analysis, this brings about improved performance.
E. Inter-personal Communication

This is the communication that exists between a person or people or organization

without the same purpose but with mutual understanding despite being in different
entities in their businesses or operations.
Uses of inter – personal communication
 Used to create mutual understanding between individuals
 Used to bring about healthy competition in organizations, businesses or even
individuals.
 Used to ensure security
 Used for socialization and creating friendship.

F. Intra-personal Communication

This is the kind of communication within oneself, a person, group or an organization

within itself and having the same goal and purpose to achieve for themselves or to all
of them as a group.
Uses of intra – personal communication
 Used to create teamwork and unity
 Used for reconciliation in case of differences

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FORMS OF COMMUNICATIONS

I. Oral Communication

Oral communication means communicating by the word of mouth, face to face

conversation, telephone (mobile) conversation, training courses, consultation,
meetings, conference, radio broadcast, group discussion and seminars and
announcements over public address system, speeches etc.
Therefore, oral communication takes place through the spoken word. Hence its
primary medium is the word of mouth.

Advantages of oral communications

1. It saves time - In a number of cases where action is required to be taken

immediately, it is best to transmit the message orally.

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 2. Gives immediate feedback - Most of oral communication allows immediate
feedback of information and unlike written communication where the sending
of the message and the sending of feedback occurs at different times.
3. It is Convenient - Normally orally communication requires no advance
preparation of the message, as in the case with written communication.
4. It’s cost effective - Oral communication does not involve a lot of cost for
example (when it is within the organization). One does not incur the extra cost
of procuring written materials or facilities.
5. It is more reliable - it provides an opportunity for feedback and clarification
6. It also provides opportunities for responding appropriately to a non-verbal
communication.

Disadvantages of oral communication:

1. Costly - Oral communication may be costly in terms of the cost of mediums d

e.g. meetings, conferences and seminars are very expensive in terms of money
and materials.
2. Oral communication provides no record for future references and oral message
cannot be retrieved for future use or reference.
3. It may sometimes be time consuming especially in meetings and conferences
when after various deliberations nothing concrete comes out.
4. Although all messages offer a great opportunity for clarification, there are also
greater chances of misunderstanding.
5. Sometimes it may be affected by previous strained relationships i.e. between
superiors and subordinates.
6. In oral messages, there are no responsibilities for mistakes if any cannot be
specifically traceable or assigned.
7. Constantly there may be more opportunities for misunderstanding owing to the
relative immediacy of both the communication and feedback opportunities with
no time for reference.
8. Adequacy - It allows adequate illustration of messages as it is capable of
accommodating illustrative mediums like charts, graphs, maps e.t.c.This helps
to improve the clarity of meaning in communication.

II. Written Communication.

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 This is communication through written words for example where the primary
medium is the written word. There are times when writing is the best method of
communication i.e. letters memos telegrams, minutes, and questioners‟ e.t.c.

Advantages of written communication

1. Accurate and precise - meaning it‟s formulated with great care.

2. Used for future reference- unlike oral, it acts as a record for the future.
3. Durability- written communication always conveys the message for a long
time, thus provides a permanent record.
4. Provides evidence – proves that a communication was made at a certain
time.
5. Cheap- sometimes cheaper compared to oral communications, circulars can
be sent to a large number of people saving may be times for meetings.

Disadvantages of written communication

1. Time consuming- in prove reading, mailing and typing.

2. Non-confidential- mostly passed through third party hand.
3. Slow and lacks speed
4. Costly
5. May be personalized

III. Visual Communication

Visual communication includes gestures and facial expressions, tables and charts,
diagrams, posters, slides, films strips e.t.c.
We are all familiar with two pieces of bone put in a cross, fashioned with a skull
placed in between, and we all know that they signify danger. In public places and
vehicles we often see a notice showing a lighted cigarette with cross mark on it; again
the meaning is clear to everybody: no smoking.
Communication through such visuals is very effective because it‟s sure and
instantaneous.

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Advantages of visual communication

1. It‟s very precise, concise and instantaneous information can be summarized by

use of sound messages with an impact.
2. It‟s relatively cheap.
3. Can be used to change attitudes and behavior.
4. Can be used to send elementary ideas, orders, warnings and instructions.
5. It can be used in combination with other media.
6. Visual aids command attention.

Disadvantages of visual communication

1. It does not give comprehensive details about the subject matter.

2. It requires time and special skills or knowledge to prepare and present.
3. It can be costly, mostly when it involves the use of new technology

IV. Audio-visual communication

Audio-visual communication is a type of communication that makes use of telecast

films, cinemas, video tapes, digital videos, and the like. It is the latest medium of
communication.
It‟s the combination of sight and sound. It may make use of written word also.
Visual communication is not found to be adequate itself. People will usually casually
glance at it and let it go just like that. It is likely that they will miss the message, but if
the slides are accompanied with explanation and narration, it will facilitate
interpretation and ensure that the message is fully understood.

Advantages of audio visual communication

1. Information is retained much longer than through any other means.

2. It can be used for mass publicity such as advertising, mass propaganda and
mass education.
3. Audio visual appears much to our senses ensuring comprehension of the subject
matter.
Disadvantages of audio visual communication

1. It‟s quite expensive

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 2. It always consumes a lot of time e.g. In preparation
3. Requires a lot of skills, knowhow and expertise.

CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION
An organization‟s structure influences the communication patterns within the
organization. The structure of an organization should provide for communication in
three distinct directions: vertical, horizontal and diagonal. These three directions
establish the framework within which communication in an organization takes place.

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Directions of communication

1. Vertical Communication

In organization, vertical communication is between those who are on different levels

of authority within the company. Examples are manager to employee, general
manager to managers etc. This communication channel occurs in two ways: Upward
and Downward.

(i) Upward Communication

Upward communication is the process of information flowing from lower levels of

hierarchy to the upper levels. Five types of information communicated upward in an
organization are as follows (Canary, 2011)

 Problems and exceptions. These messages describe serious problems and

exceptions to routine performance in order to make the leader aware of
difficulties.
 Suggestions for improvement. These messages are ideas for improving task-
related procedures to increase the quality or efficiency of organization
members.
 Performance reports. These messages include periodic reports that inform the
leader how individual organization members and departments are performing.
 Grievances and disputes. These messages are employee complaints and
conflicts that travel up the school organization hierarchy for a hearing and
possible resolution. If the grievance procedure is backed up by the presence of a
collective bargaining agreement, organization members are even more
encouraged to express true feelings.

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  Financial and accounting information. These messages pertain to costs,
accounts receivable, interest on investment, tax levies and other interest to the
board/administration.

Importance of upward communication

 Gives an employee an opportunity to express problems and grievances

 It provides feedback to management e.g. on what employees likes or dislikes
about the organization
 It provides the employee an opportunity to offer constructive suggestions.
 Makes the working environment friendly hence creating harmony and
cohesion between subordinate and superiors.

Limitations

 Information may be deliberately distorted before it is passed to the superior to

avoid irritating them.
 Superior or bosses may not take information from subordinate seriously [this
may be due to superiority complex]
 Most employees/subordinates are usually reluctant to communicate to their
bosses. This may be due to fear of victimization or being seen as
incompetent.
 Problem of bypassing - This problem arises where some workers ignore their
immediate superiors and up to the top most authority.

(ii) Downward communication

It is the flow of information from higher to lower levels of an organization. Canary

(2011) has identified five general purposes of downward communication:

 Implementation of goals, strategies and objectives. Communicating new

strategies and goals provides information about specific targets and expected
behaviours.
 Job instructions and rationale. These are directives on how to do a specific
task and how the job relates to other activities of the organization.
 Procedures and practices. These are messages defining the institution‟s
policies, rules, regulations, benefits and structural arrangements in order to get
some degree of uniformity in organization practices.

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  Performance feedback. Departmental progress reports, individual performance
appraisals, and other means are used to tell departments or individuals how
well they are doing with respect to performance standards and goals.
 Socialization. Every institution/organization tries to motivate staff members to
adopt the institution‟s mission and cultural values and to participate in special
ceremonies. It is an attempt to get a commitment, a sense of belonging, and a
unity of direction among staff member (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2008).

The downward flow of communication provides a channel for directives, instructions,

and information to organizational members. However, much information gets lost as it
is passed from one person to another. Moreover, the message can be distorted if it
travels a great distance from its sender to the ultimate receiver down through the
formal organization hierarchy (Tourish, 2010).

Importance of downward communication

 Providing feedback to the subordinate

 Give specific directives about the job
 May be used to appraise subordinate for their performance
 Explain policies and organization procedure.

Limitations
 Delay may occur if the communication lines are long
 Information may also be lost along the line
 Information may be distorted and hence it looses its originality
 Subordinates may tend to resist information if they feel that they are not
involved in decision making.

2. Horizontal communication

Is the communication between people of the same level of authority. Like an

organizational chart one communicates horizontally with people of same
„authority‟ with similar „power‟ or grade or pay band. It is usually less structured
and informal compared to vertical communication. This communication may take
place as telephone call, e-mails, memos, letters, informal discussions, gossip,
teleconferencing, videoconferencing etc.

Importance
 It promotes understanding and co-ordination among various departments

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 3. Diagonal communication

Diagonal communication occurs between officers who are at different levels of

authority and who serve under different commands. It could take place between a
sergeant in a department unit and the internal affairs division or legal advisor at
headquarters. This type of communication is common in tactical situation which
require the quick transfer of information or advice; in hostage situation or cases of
civil unrest. Diagonal communication is usually verbal and thus is conducted by
telephony or radio.

Advantages of diagonal communication

1. It is a most direct method of communication as employees gets quick answers

to questions asked that would have taken long.
2. It is a most selective method of communication
3. It is one of the fastest methods of communication by disseminating information.
4. In critical situations, it would seem to be the most essential and logical type of
communication.
5. It allows cross communication between departments

Disadvantages of diagonal communication

1. It can destroy lines of authority and formal chains of command

2. It can leave immediate superiors uninformed of what their subordinates are
doing.
3. It can lead to conflicting orders and hence to further confusion.
4. It is usually verbal, and thus is untraceable if things go wrong.

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OFFICIAL ETIQUETTE, PROTOCOL AND DIPLOMACY

Etiquette is guidelines and rules on the proper way to behave at work, how to practice
good business etiquette, and how to make a good impression on your boss and co-
workers. 'Etiquette' in the dictionary, it will be defined as an aspect of decorum which
is a code that governs the various expectations of social behavior as per the
conventional norm, within a society, a social class or a group. Etiquette is usually
unwritten and generally tend to reflect the formulae of conduct in the society.

Proper etiquette generally, among others dictates that:-

a) When walking on the path or driving on Kenyan roads, always keep left.
b) When sneezing or coughing cover your mouth
c) When receiving handshake, do not allow your hand to linger for long.
d) When you need something that is not within your reach, kindly ask the person
seated next to you to pass it on.
e) When you step on someone‟s toe, say sorry.
f) When lining up for service, do not jump the queue.
g) When you come across a lost and found item, hand it back to the owner.

Official etiquette encompasses circles of rules governing social or diplomatic

intercourse. These circles vary from the more or less of social usage to the rigid
conventions of e.g Court, Police, Military circles e.t.c and they extend to the legal,
medical and other professions. It is important to note that every profession or
occasion has got its own unique conventional requirements or norms.

Police etiquette is within the confines of disciplines.

Disciplines being defined as obedience to orders and considerate to surbodinates.

Being a disciplined service all aspects of etiquette must be interpreted along the
lines of discipline.

In the Police Service, etiquette dictates that:-

a) A Police officer should not smoke when actively engaged and in uniform.
b) An officer should appear tidy in arms, clothing and equipments.
c) Should always respect their seniors.
d) Should not drink intoxicating liquor while on duty.

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 e) Should not use any obscene abusive or insulting language to a fellow officer.
f) Should not engage in a fight with a collegeue.
g) Police officer should maintain confidentiality of information.
h) Observe official working hours.

PROTOCOL

Means the formal etiquette and code of behavior, precedence, and procedure for state
and diplomatic ceremonies. Protocol has always been associated with
acknowledgment of hierarchical standing of all present.

In the Police service, protocol follows the ranking structure from the Constable to the
Inspector General.
DIPLOMACY

Refers to the skill in managing negotiations, handling people so that there is little or
no ill will.

Language of communication

Language development is the development of the basic form of communication

between human beings. Just as it is the basic form, it is also the most developed. We
cannot communicate in any real sense without language since communication
involves a mutual exchange of information and understanding by effective means.
This implies that for communication to be effective, it must have an exchange of ideas
with understanding. Unless the flow goes both ways, no real communication takes
place.
Skill in communicating does not come without planning and effort. Like any other
skill, it develops through practice.

Categories of language of communication

a) Verbal communication (verbal language)
b) Non verbal communication (body language)

Verbal language (verbal communication)

Speaking is the primary means of communicating. Verbal as a means of

communication has the following advantages:
 It can personalize the message.

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  It can tailor the message to the person present
 It‟s a fairly faster means of communicating that gets feedback immediately.
 It allows for a quick reaction to analyze whether the message is sent

Writing on the other hand establishes a permanent record of the message for referral at
a later date.

Body Language (Non Verbal Communication-NVC)

We communicate with much more than words. Research shows that much of our
communication is non verbal. NVC or body language includes facial expressions,
gestures, eye contact, postures and even tone of voice. The ability to understand and
use non verbal communication is a powerful tool that will help one connect with
others, express what he/she really means, navigate challenging situations and build
better relationships, for example at home, in work place, etc.

Types of Non Verbal Communication (Body Language)

i. Facial Expression: -i.e. happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear , disgust etc
ii. Body Movement and postures:- sit, walk, stand up etc
iii. Gestures
iv. Eye contact :- the way you look at someone can communicate affection,
hostility, attraction etc
v. Touch :- i.e. a firm handshake, a tap on the shoulder etc

Non verbal communication plays five roles:

 Repetition: - used to repeat the message someone is making verbally

 Contradiction
 Substitution
 Complementing:- e.g. a senior person who pats on his her juniors back in
addition to giving praise
 Accenting: - pounding a table can underline a message.

NB; It is not what you say that matters but how you say it.
Both verbal and non verbal communication can be used simultaneously in
communication.

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COMMUNICATION WITHIN THE RANK

As a police officer the ability to communicate effectively enables you to influence the
attitudes and actions of your colleagues, subordinates and seniors. You sell your ideas
or seek redress better through effective communication. The ability to express yourself
clearly and effectively can be your most valuable skill and therefore it is important to
use the most desirable language depending on whom you are communicating with.
In the police service, just like in any other organization where hierarchical relationship
exist, communication requires even greater effort to yield the degree of understanding
necessary for effective operations .
Formal communication flows in any of the three (3) directions:-
 Downward
 Upward
 Horizontal/lateral

Downward communication

This communication flow from the higher level to the lower level has become the
most used channel for transmitting orders, instructions and directives.
For example, the commissioner of police recalling all officers on leave or terminating
all pending leaves would communicate this through a circular to the provinces (ppos)
who in turn communicate it down to the Districts (ocpds ) down to the stations (ocss)
and eventually to the intended personnel

Upward communication

This happens when subordinates communicate with their seniors. Here the
subordinates have opportunity to make known their ideas and opinions.
For example, a police officer with grievance should present the same to his immediate
supervisor. If she/he feels that his/her grievance is not adequately addressed, he/she
should request to be paraded before or may address his grievance to the next available
senior officer and this may go on eventually to the commissioner of police i.e. from
ocs to ocpd to ppo and eventually to the compol .

Horizontal / Lateral communication

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This refers to transmitting and receiving of information between people of the same
level of responsibility or rank. It‟s the strongest of all communication flows in terms
of information.
For example, a constable may notice a deficiency in their mess and communicate the
same to others who in turn request for the correction of the deficiency from their
welfare. Decisions of helping one another, advising or sharing sorrows/happiness
together are entail much horizontal communication

SUITABLE LANGUAGE AT THE WORKPLACE

1. Always use the respectful word „Sir‟ or „Madam‟, whenever talking to those
senior to you.
2. Always call your juniors by name or rank or rank and name rather than the rank
only.
3. When answering the phone at your desk say… “Hello”, this is Mr. X” Do not
say phrases such as “ Mr. X here!” or simply “Hello”. Also remember to state
the organizations name to outside callers.
4. Show appreciation for the slightest courtesy extended to you.
5. Always apologize if your intrusion is an interruption of a discussion, someone‟s
concentration or other activity.
6. Never use sexist or any discriminatory language.

ACCEPTED PROTOCOL AND DIPLOMACY

 Provide your senior with information as required.

 Keep your senior well informed in a timely fashion.
 Respect all other employees.
 Cooperate with your seniors
 Cooperate with all employees both uniformed and civilian.
 Do not be arrogant.

IMPORTANCE OF OFFICIAL ETIQUETTE

 Fosters harmony within and across the ranks.

 Boosts the confidence of junior officers when in the company of their seniors.
 Observance of etiquette makes people around feel important, respected and
appreciated.
 It helps to create a positive first impression about the individual and the
organization they represent.

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  Knowledge in etiquette builds confidence in social and business environments.
 Makes one comfortable in different environments and cultures.

WRITING SKILLS

Punctuation

The chief purpose of punctuation is to make the meaning of a written passage clear.
Punctuate carelessly and you will communicate inefficiently and probably misleading.
Observe how the apostrophe or its absence, changes the meaning of these three
sentences:
These are my brothers – these people are my brothers
These are my brother‟s – these things belong to my brother
These are my brothers‟ – these things belong to my brothers
My aunt, who lives in Scotland, is 93 today.
This implies that I have one aunt. Take away the commas and the meaning changes:
My aunt who lives in Scotland is 93 today.
This implies that I have more than one aunt, and I am referring to the one who lives in
Wales.
There are two broad tendencies in punctuation nowadays. You could call them
 Heavy punctuation
 Light punctuation

In simple terms heavy punctuation is the tendency to use as many different marks as
possible and as often as possible. Its aim is to make sure that the reader interprets the
text exactly as the author intended.
Light punctuation gives more scope for the reader to sort out things for himself for the
sake of a text that flows more quickly. One characteristic of light punctuation is its use
of commas, instead of brackets, dashes and semi colons and to use the comma itself as
little as possible.
Heavy punctuation is appropriate for serious discussions.

FULL STOP

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  The chief use of the full stop (or point or period) is to end an assertion –
typically a declarative sentence (one that is not a question or an exclamation)
such as
I want to know whether swallows really do fly south for the winter.
 Full stops are also widely used after abbreviations – e.g. M. A., a.m., etc and
after numbers and letters listing points.
 Addresses sometimes end with a full stop and have a comma at the end of each
line.

THE COMMA

 Its main typical use is to separate main clause linked by conjunctions such as
and, but or for and nor.

 The comma is most likely to be used between clauses, when the clauses are
long contrasted and complete.
e.g. The cottage was old, but the garden was new.

 Commas are used to separate large whole numbers into units of three as for
thousands and millions e.g. 153,601.

THE HYPHEN (-)

 The hyphen looks like a short dash, but hyphen and dash are used very
differently. The dash separates whereas the hyphen unites.
 Mostly used after a prefix or other word element e.g Un-American, non-
European.
 The hyphen is used to unite separate words into compound forms that function
as a single unit. E.g. head-waiter, tax-payer, up-to-date.

BRACKETS ( )

The basic function of brackets is to separate the bracketed material clearly from what
surrounds it. The material set off by the brackets is less closely integrated with its
surroundings than material set off by commas.

SEMI COLON (:-)

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The most characteristic use of semicolon is to separate clauses that might have been
two different sentences but are closely connected in thought or meaning.

For example, the house was dark; the woman was extremely frightened.

COLON (:)

 Its correct use is to introduce materials that explain or interprets what precedes
it. e.g. They didn‟t sleep last night: they must be tired.
 Colon and list - It introduces a number of items listed separately
e.g we offer the following services:
 Typing
 Internet services
 Printing
 photocopying
 May be used after formal salutation preceding a message e.g
Ladies and gentlemen: it gives me great pleasure to introduce John the new
sales manager.
 It is used after various headings in correspondences. E.g. To: Subject:

APOSTROPHE (’)

 Apostrophes have two chief purposes to indicate possession and other kinds of
relationships e.g Robert‟s pen
 Apostrophe comes before the s if the noun is singular e.g. one judge‟s opinion
 Apostrophe comes after the s if that s serves to make the noun plural e.g The
judges‟ opinions.
 Apostrophe comes before the s if the noun is already plural without the s e.g.
The people‟s palace.

QUOTATION MARKS (“ ”)

The main purpose of quotation marks also called quote marks, quotes or inverted
commas is to enclose material that is brought into a text outside it such as quotation
from books or words used by other person‟s e.g. She asked, did he say “hearing” or
“earring”?.

QUESTION MARK (?)

It comes at the end of a direct question. E.g. would you like a drink?

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EXCLAMATION MARK (!)

It is often used after imperatives or commands. E.g. shut up!

THE DASH (-)

Is used to interrupt a sentence e.g she was extraordinarily tall – the tallest woman I
had ever seen. A dash can be used to indicate and finish dialogue e.g help help! I cant
seem to – “she fell to the ground, gasping for breath”.

THE SLASH (/)

 Used to indicate a choice between the words it separates.

 The slash can be translated as or and should be used where the words or could
not be used in its place.
 To avoid gender problems with pronouns, some writers use he/she, his/her, and
him and her.


THE ELLIPSIS (…)

 An ellipsis used when you‟re quoting material and you want to omit some
words.
 The ellipsis can also be used to indicate a pause in the flow of a sentence and is
especially useful in quoted speech.

COURTESY IN WRITING

Courtesy in writing refers to the respectful, polite and considerate way of

communicating through written form. Writing is a skill; like other skills, it can be
learned and in like most skills it is not inborn. It is best learned by doing.
By observing courtesy while writing, we help reduce the burden on our reader of
striving to understand and thereby making the
communication of information more effective.

There are three key elements in communicating on a paper

 Structure and layout
 Content
 Style and tone

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Structure and layout

 Correct layout should be used. Layout greatly affects the ease with which
information is assimilated. Letters are geometrical shapes with conventionalized
meanings. Equally indention, spacing, underlining and layout of blocks of types
communicate much. Appropriate layout should thus be adopted
 Correct sequence of events should be adopted. Many instructions fail because
they are out of sequence or contain gaps. E.g. An essay should have an
introduction then body and finally conclusion
 Numbering- Use appropriate numbering system. Do not use decimal numbers
for subsidiary points. They are best reserved for headings and subheadings
where the hierarchy and interrelationships or sections is being shown.

Style and tone

The style and tone of written communication is important to ensure the message is put
over and received clearly. For this one should:-
Keep it simple
 Prefer familiar words to the far- fetched
 Prefer concrete word to the abstract
 Prefer short word to the long
 Strive for clarity above all things (even above brevity)
 Be natural
 Be Concise
 Let the tone reflect your true feelings but beware of being angry, suspicious,
insulting, patronizing or presumptuous.
 Be courteous (cordial and tactful) for example while ending a letter use a phrase
yours faithfully/sincerely/affectionately accordingly.

Content

 The content should contain all the information required to be communicated. it

should be compact.
 It should be devoid of ambiguity (open to having several possible meanings or
interpretations, difficult to comprehend or lacking clearness)

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  Words with double meaning should also be avoided e.g replace, refit, reconnect.

Example: - check undercarriage locking pin if bent replace.

The pilot took out the pin and examined it. It was indeed bent, so he carefully
put it back into the mechanism. The aircraft subsequently crashed. One should
take precautions to understand these words.
 Ellipsis (omission of some part of a sentence) can lead to misunderstanding. It
should thus be avoided. E.g. put in 3 pints of water – drop in spaghetti – stir.
Examples

 In writing a business letter you should always test the draft to ensure that:

 The message is clear

 Points are made in the best order

 It has the right style and tone.

 The most appropriate word and phrases are being used.

 The grammar/spelling is correct

 The layout is attractive.

 The closing formulae/ending is appropriate.

CLASS ACTIVITY

Punctuate the following paragraphs

Nearly two thirds of deaths in the world are cause by non communicable diseases such
as cancer diabetes heart and lung disease which are rapidly increasing at a cost to the
global economy of trillions of dollars according to UN estimates and preliminary
results of a new study.
Secretary general ban ki moon said in a report circulated Monday that while the
international community has focused on communicable diseases such as HIV AIDS
malaria and tuberculosis the four main non communicable diseases has been side
lined he added we need to put more emphasis in combating these diseases in the
developing world

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Punctuated paragraphs
Nearly two-thirds of deaths in the world are caused by non-communicable diseases
such as cancer, diabetes, heart and lung diseases which are rapidly increasing at a cost
to the global economy of trillions of dollars, according to U.N. estimates and
preliminary results of a new study.
Secretary-General Ban ki-Moon said in a report circulated on Monday that while the
international community has focused on communicable diseases such as HIV/AIDS,
malaria and tuberculosis, the four main non-communicable diseases has been
sidelined. He added, “We need to put more emphasis in combating these diseases in
the developing world.”

Courtesy in writing

Its critical that the content of your correspondence reflects the same level of politeness
and thoughtful attention to detail that would be shown if your exchange were taking
place in person. Courtesy writing should contain the following points;

1. Professionalism
When someone has the advantage of interacting with you in person, he/she can tell by
your eye contact, listening skills, body language and even the way you present
yourself just how seriously you take your position and your company‟s reputation.
Always consider how someone unfamiliar with the issue that prompted the
correspondence will perceive you and your business.

2. Respect
A courteous business letter conveys to your recipient that you are not only sensitive to
his/her concerns but believe in the value of taking the time to acknowledge those
concerns in writing.

3. Clarity
Frustrations in correspondence occur when you either misinterpret what the
correspondent really wants from you or assume a level of knowledge that the
correspondent doesn‟t actually have. Courtesy in business letters is a combination of
paraphrasing your understanding of the problem prior to addressing its solution as
well as explaining policies, procedures and practices in a clear, concise way.

4. Empathy

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Expressing your understanding, apologizing for any confusion or inconvenience, and
offering remedies are considerate ways to let customers know that trying to
accommodate their best interest is a company/institution priority.

5. Appreciation
People like to know they‟re appreciated. It validates their existence and affirms their
contributions towards society.
6. Use of correct language
7. Choice of words
8. Confidentiality

PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

A paragraph is a collection of sentences which all relate to one main idea or topic.

The topic sentence

The sentence that states the main idea of a paragraph is called the topic sentence.

Example: The commercials for televised football games are truly “big business” for
regular
Season games, commercials can cost an advertiser thousands of dollars for 30 seconds
of airtime.
For the super bonus, they can cost millions of dollars for a couple of minutes of
airtime. All together,
Football commercials earn hundreds of millions of dollars a year for advertising
agencies and television networks.
The first sentence states the topic of the paragraph that commercials during football
games are timely “big business”. The first sentence is therefore the topic sentence.
The other three sentences support this topic sentence. In this paragraph, the supporting
sentences give specific facts to explain why commercials during football games are
big business.
In most paragraphs, the topic sentence is at the beginning of the paragraph, it may
even come in the middle of a paragraph or at the end.
The supporting sentences are those sentences that give examples or develop the idea
stated in the topic sentence.

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Four of the most common ways that supporting sentences develop a topic are through;
examples, analysis, analogy or narration.

EXAMPLES

One way in which a topic is developed is with examples

Example; besides the new, specialized computer stores, many retail stores have taken
advantage of growing demand for computer software. Most departments‟ store chains,
for example, now have computer departments. In addition, discount stores throughout
the country are selling growing numbers of low cost home computers. Appliances
store also have added computers to their lines of sound and audio equipments. Even
book stores stock a range of software disks and cassettes on their ever expanding
shelves of computer, books and magazines.
The first sentence states the topic that many retail stores now carry computer products.
The remaining four sentences develop this topic sentence by giving four specific
examples of retailers who have done so, including department stores, discount stores,
appliance stores and bookstores.

ANALYSIS

The second way to develop a sentence is through analysis. Analysis paragraph

development means breaking down the topic sentence into its main parts or categories.
Here is an example of a paragraph developed in this way.
Example
An overhead projector has three main systems of parts. The optical system uses
mirrors and lenses to focus the image of a transparency on to a screen. The electrical
system consisting of a cord, switches, a fuse, a bulb, a fan, provides light and cooling.
The housing system which includes the main cabinet a focusing posts and the lens
holder, protects the other components and keeps them properly aligned with each
other,
The topic –the three main systems of parts of an overhead projector is stated in the
first sentence. The remaining sentences analyze the topic dividing it into subtopics
that presents specific details.

ANALOGY

A third way to develop a topic is analogy. An analogy is a comparison of one topic to

another topic that is more familiar to an audience. An analogy helps develop a
paragraph by relating an unfamiliar topic to more familiar ideas.
Example

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Some financial analysts compare investing in the stock market to riding on a roller
coaster. Like a roller coaster, the stock market goes up and down. Some of these ups
and downs are steeper than others and often they occur suddenly. However, the more
times a person rides a roller coaster the more that person knows what to expect. In the
same way through experience investors can learn to predict the ups and downs of a
stock market. The topic sentence is again at the beginning of a paragraph. The four
sentences that follow the topic sentence develop the analog by showing specific
comparisons between investing in the stock market and riding a roller coaster.

NARRATION

A fourth way to develop a topic is by narration. Narration presents a series of events

in the order that they happened. In narration the audience is given an accurate
description of what happened.
Examples;
The agreement between mc Gregor Technologies and foster communications took
several months to produce. The first discussions ended when major errors were
discovered in mc gregor offered to open its financial records to an independent audit.
In exchange fosters management agreed a lowered percentage of returns during the
first three years of the contract. After several weeks of negotiation on details, the
agreement was signed on August 4.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD PARAGRAPH

Effective paragraphs have four main characteristics: a topic sentence, unity, coherence
and adequate development. Each of these characteristics is discussed below.

i. Unity
Unity refers to the extent to which all of the ideas contained within a given paragraph
hang together in a way that is easy for the reader to understand. When the writer
changes to a new idea – one which is not consistent with the topic sentence of the
paragraph – the writer should begin a new paragraph. Unity is important because it
aids the reader in following along with the writer‟s ideas.

ii. Coherence
Coherence refers to the extent to which the flow of ideas in a paragraph is easily
understood by the reader. For this reason, coherence is closely related to unity. When
a writer changes main ideas or topics within a paragraph, confusion often results. To
achieve coherence, then, a writer should show how all of the ideas contained in a
paragraph are relevant to the main topic.

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iii. Adequate development

A paragraph is adequately developed when it describes, explains and supports the

topic sentence. A good rule to follow is to make sure that a paragraph contains at least
four sentences which explain and elaborate on the topic sentence.

iv. Topic sentences

Beginning a paragraph with a topic sentence is one of the best ways to achieve clarity
and unity in one‟s writing. The function of a topic sentence is to describe what the
paragraph will be about, such that the reader has clear expectations about what will
follow. An effective topic sentence typically contains only one main idea. The
remainder of the paragraph then develops that idea more fully, offering supporting
points and examples.

ESSAY WRITING

An essay is a brief piece of writing which is often written from an author‟s point of
view. It contains three main sections i.e. introduction, body, and conclusion.
NB: The concept of an essay has been extended to other medium beyond writing e.g.
film essay, photographic essay etc

Importance of essay writing

 It improves writing skills
 Used as a way of assessing the performance of a student
 It improves thought system in sorting out ideas, organizing them and putting
them down for others to read.

Common types of essays

 Narrative
 Expository /explanatory

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  Descriptive
 Argumentative

1. NARRATIVE

Narration is the basic way of presenting a story. The writer tells the story as it
happened, the order of events is given in the sequence it happened (chronological
order). A narrative usually have a plot (main event) e.g. when narrating about your
first day in high school.

2. EXPOSITORY/EXPLANATORY

These attempts to explain so that the reader may understand what the writer needs to
be understood. When writing make it simple and easy to understand. Do not put in
your own opinions or views . it also attempts to explain so that the reader may
understand what the writer needs to be understood. These may be any of the
following:
 What the subject or topic is about
 How the thing being explained works
 Showing the relationship between one thing and another one
 Explain how various parts of one thing or objects functions.
 Why something happened the way it happened.

Expository essay may be written using the following approaches:

 Analysis
 Subject and predicate
 Compare and contrast
 Illustrations

3.DESCRIPTIVE

The purpose of descriptive writing is to make our reader see,feel and hear what we
have seen felt and heard. We may describe a place, an object, a topic, a building etc.
when writing this essay the best way to create a vivid experience is to focus on the
five senses i.e sight, smell, taste, sound, and touch. These shows your reader rather
than tell them what happened

Planning your descriptive essay

39
  What do you want to describe?
 What is your reason for writing your description?
 What are the particular qualities you want to focus on?

4.ARGUMENTATIVE
It is a writing that requires the learner to investigate a topic, collect, generate and
evaluate evidence and establish a position on the topic in a concise manner. It calls for
extensive research. In this kind of essay we not only give information but also present
an argument with the pros(supporting ideas) and cons (opposing ideas) of an
argumentative issue. We could clearly take our stand and write as if we are trying to
persuade an opposing audience to adopt the new belief or behavior.
The structure of argumentative essay is held together by the following:
 A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first paragraph
of the essay
 Clear and logical transition between the introduction, body and conclusion.
 Body paragraphs that include evidential support
 Evidential support
 The conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis but address a light of
evidence generated.

Examples
 Stress is good for human body

Selling and using marijuana in public places should be considered illegal.

STEPS IN ESSAY WRITING PROCESS

1. Decide on your topic.

2. Prepare an outline or diagram of your ideas.
3. Write your thesis statement.
4. Write the body.
a. Write main points.
b. Write the sub-topics
c. Elaborate on the sub-topics
5. Write introduction
6. Write conclusion
7. Add finishing touches

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FUNCTIONAL WRITING

This refers to writing which aims at conveying specific information in generally

standardized ways in order to achieve a clearly defined purpose.

EXAMPLES OF FUNCTIONAL WRITING

i. Business letters
ii. Memorandum
iii. Notices
iv. Agenda
v. Minutes
vi. Advertisements
vii. Press releases

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 1. Business letters

Business letters are messages that one individual, group, or company writes and sends
to another individual, group or company with the purpose of conducting business.

They are written to request information, collect payments or to sell products.

A good letter should be structured in a way that it will arouse interest, create desire to
be read, carry with conviction, and induce action of the recipient.

Parts of a letter
1. Your address
2. The dates
3. The inside address – the name and title and full address of the person of
whom you are writing.
4. The salutation– is a greetings to the addressee that precedes the message.
e.g dear/madam.
5. Subjects
6. The body of the letter
7. Complimentary clause
8. Courteous clause
9. The Signature consists name, designation and department.

The following parts of a letter only apply to some letters that you might write and
therefore are included for some specific purposes.

a. Enclosures:- refer to any documents that you may want to send to your reader.
These may be copies of your certificates and testimonials, copies of earlier
correspondence on the same or related subject, e.t.c.. Enclosures is abbreviated
as Enc.
b. Copies:- usually abbreviated as CC, indicate to whom else you would like to
share the information with main recipient of the letter.

There are four basic letter styles used in writing business letters.

i. Block style
ii. Modified block style
iii. Indented style
iv. Simplified style

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1. Block style:- in this style all letter parts begin at the left margin.

43
2. Modified block style (semi block) :- it is a style in which the date,
complimentary clause and the writers name and the title begin at
the centre of the page. All other parts begin at the left margin and
the paragraphs are not indented.

44
3. Modified block style with Indented paragraph:- The paragraphs in the
body of the letter are indented five body spaces. In addition a subject line if
used is indented five spaces.

45
4. AMS Simplified style (Administrative Management Society):- which is a
managers professional organization has developed a business letter style that
saves letter preparation time. The AMS simplified style is letter style in
which the salutation is replaced by a subject line, the complimentary clause
is omitted and all letter parts begin at the left margin.

46
 2. The memorandum

The name of this document is often shortened as memo.

A memo is written message from one person to another (or several people) within the
same organization. Memos are meant to serve several purposes:

 To provide information
 To request information
 To inform of action or decision
 Or to request action or decision

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 3. Notice

A notice of a meeting is a formal communication sent by the secretary summoning

members to attend a meeting. It is prepared by the secretary in collaboration with the
chairman. It must contain;

 Name of the organization calling the meeting.

 Day and time of the meeting
 Venue of the meeting
 Signature of the secretary

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 4. Agenda

This is a programme of the details of the business to be discussed. It is normally sent

to the members to give them adequate time to prepare their discussion. The agenda
must be signed by the secretary to the meeting.

5. Press release

Is a news story that a company prepares about itself and furnishes to the news media.
They provide information about such events as appointments of new employees,
promotions of those already employed, relocation to new offices and the introduction
of new products and services.

6. Advertisements

Is a form of communication for marketing and used to encourage or persuade an

audience (viewers, readers or listeners:- sometimes a specific group) to continue or
take some new action.

They are usually paid for by sponsors and viewed via various traditional media:-
including mass media such as newspaper, magazines, television commercial, radio
advertisements e.t.c.

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SUMMARY WRITING

A summary is a condensed version of a larger reading.

Importance of summary writing

 It helps improves reading skills as you can pick main ideas of a reader
 Critical thinking skills are improved as one can decide on the main ideas of the
reading to include in the summary
 Writing and editing skills are improved as one drafts and edit the summary
 Heaps expand the students vocabularies as a student paraphrase a reading
 Useful when you have a lot of repetitive action
 You get a whole or general meaning of an article
 One is made to focus on the main idea

Steps in summary writing

Initially, summary writing seems like a challenging task. It requires careful reading
and reflective thinking about the article. Most of us, however, tend to skim read
without focused reflection, but with time and effort, the steps listed here can help you
become an effective summary writer.
►Read the article
►Reread the Article.
- Divide the article into segments or sections of ideas. Each segment deals
with one aspect of the central theme. A segment can comprise one or
more paragraphs. Note: news magazine articles tend to begin with an
anecdote. This is the writer‟s lead into the article, but does not contain the
thesis or supporting ideas. Typically, a feature lead does not constitute a
segment of thought.
- Label each segment. Use a general phrase that captures the subject
matter of the segment. Write the label in the margin next to the segment.
- Highlight or underline the main points and key phrases.
►Write One-Sentence summaries.

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- Write a one-sentence summary for each segment of thought on a separate
sheet of paper.
►Formulate the Thesis Statement.
- Formulate a central theme that weaves the one-sentence segment summaries
together. This is your thesis statement.
- In many articles, the author will state this directly. You may wish to take
his direct statement of the thesis and restate it in your own words. Note:
In news magazine articles, the thesis is often suggested through the
article‟s title and sub-title.
- In other articles, you may have to write your own one-sentence thesis
statement that summarizes this central theme.
►Write Your First Draft.
- Begin with a proper citation of the title, author, source, and date of
publication of the article summarised.
- Combine the thesis statement and your one-sentence segment summaries
into a one-to-two-paragraph summary.
- Eliminate all unnecessary words and repetitions.
- Eliminate all personal ideas and inferences.
- Use transitions for a smooth and logical flow of ideas.
- Conclude with a “summing up” sentence by stating what can be learned
from reading the article.
►Edit Your Draft. Check your summary by asking the following questions:
- Have I answered the who, what, when, why, and how questions?
- Is my grammar, punctuation, and spelling correct?
- Have I left out my personal views and ideas?
- Does my summary “hang together”? Does it flow when I read it aloud?
- Have someone else read it. Does the summary give them the central
ideas of the article?
►Write Your Final Draft.

POINTS TO NOTE WHEN WRITING A SUMMARY

1. Do not rewrite the original work
2. Keep your summary short
3. Use your own wording
4. Refer to the central and main ideas of the original piece

51
 5. Read with who, what, when, and how questions in mind
6. Do not put in your opinions of the issues or topics discussed in the original
piece

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SUMMARY

a) Brief: the summary should be short
b) Complete: it should be complete
c) Objective: you should not put in your opinions
d) Accurate: it should accurately represent the ideas in the original text.
e) Balanced: it should represent the balance and proportion of the original work
f) Unbiased: it should not misinterpret or twist the ideas in the source text.
g) Original: use your own words.

52
REPORT WRITNG SKILLS

Definition of a report:-

A report is a document or oral presentation whether formal or informal, in which a

given problem is examined for the purpose of conveying information, reporting
findings, putting forward ideas or making recommendations.

- A report may be either oral or written

TYPES OF REPORTS

1. ROUTINE REPORTS

Routine reports are produced on regular basis e.g. weekly, monthly, quarterly, annual,
performance appraisal, recruits parade state, occasional reports.
SPECIAL REPORTS

These are usually commissions report. They include investigator reports e.g Tana
Delta, Baragoi incidence e.t.c
OCCASIONAL REPORTS

Types of report written when the need arises e.g a report which is made on the events
leading to the accident. They are non recurrent and deal with unique situations e.g
accident, disciplinary and status reports.

THE IMPORTANCE OF REPORTS

 A report is a basic management tool used in decision making.

 Provision of information about incidents and accidents.

53
  A manager cannot keep a personal watch over all the activities, so one has to
depend on reports coming from the heads of the various departments.
 Organizations that want to diversify their production, explore new markets
potentials, set up new agencies, enter into collaboration projects, have to
depend upon relevant reports.
 Examination of a problem.
 Feedback on activities
 Giving progress on job assignments
 Record purpose and future reference
 Legal purposes.
 It helps implement policies and procedures
 Monitor and control operation
 To put forward ideas
 Analyze facts
 To record a source of action
 For advocacy – to obtain new business or funding.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD REPORT

a) Precision: writer must be clear about the purpose of the report.

b) Accuracy: should be factual as possible to assist in decision making.
c) Relevance: facts should have a bearing on the central purpose of the report.
d) Reader focused: always keep in mind the person who is going t read the report.
e) Objectivity: conclusions to follow findings and recommendations to be based
on the conclusions.
f) Clarity: easy to understand, simple in language.
g) Comprehensiveness: must contain all necessary information.
h) Presentable: good and attractive to look at by use of good font (size and type),
line spacing, margins.
i) Concise: Short but complete.

PREPARATION FOR REPORT WRITING

Before writing a report, you should consider the following steps.

 Identify the audience, purpose and due date.

 Decide what the report will cover.

54
 Determine how long each part of the report will take to prepare and in what
order the parts must be completed.
 Decide on the report style (layouts and writing style. You will choose a writing
style based on your audience, the level of formality of the report and the
report‟s purpose, among other things.
 Begin your research and collect your source list for the final report.
 Organize your findings and write your report introduction.
 Include your results in the body of your report.
 Form conclusions (and recommendations if appropriate).
 Enhance your report with graphics.
 Write the preliminary pages of your report (summary, table of contents, title
page).
 Revise for most effective layout design and writing style.

Layout/format

Most reports contain the following sections:

1. Title page – it is the first page of a report. It includes:-

 Name of the authorizer or the person to who it is being submitted.
 Name of the writer.
 Department from the originator
 Date of submission.

2. Acknowledgements – (usually only in wrong reports). A list of people or

organizations from within or outside.
3. Contents page – (always included in a report of more than four pages). It is
clear well formatted list of all sections and sub-sections of the report. Don‟t
forget to put the page numbers. Make sure the headings on the list
correspondence with those on the long body.
4. Executive summary – usually in long reports. – it is very brief outline of the
report to give the potential reader of general idea of what its about
5. Introduction – always included. You include a little background and indicate
the reasons of writing the report.
6. Terms of reference/purpose and scope– a definition of the task; your specific
objective and purpose of writing.
7. Procedure – sometimes included.
8. Methods included if applicable.

55
 9. Main body – always included. It is the substance of the report.
10.Findings/Results – (possibly included in scientific report). This section
records the observation and would normally use statistics, tables or graphs.
11.Conclusion – always included. Your conclusion should draw out the
implication of your findings with deductions of facts described in the main
body. Don‟t include any new material here.
12. Recommendation - they should follow all logically from conclusion. They
should be specific, measurable and achievable. They should propose how the
situation or problem could be improved by suggesting action to be taken.
13.References – always included. A list giving the full details of all the sources
to which you have made reference without text.
14.Appendices – sometimes include, e.g questionnaires, tables, letters, charts. It
is supplementary information which you consider to be too long to include
in the main body.
15.Glossary – occasionally included. Include a glossary if the report includes a
lot of specialized vocabulary or acronyms which may not be familiar to the
reader.

Editing

Check ;

a. General layout
b. text organization
c. Coherence
d. grammar, spelling and punctuation
e. Referencing
f. Style
g. Make sure your discussion flows logically.
h. Read what you have written.

Dissemination

 Presentation
 Produce copies and distribute them to the relevant authority.

Referencing styles

Referencing is acknowledging the sources of information that you have used in your
written work. The various parts that constitute a reference are called bibliographic

56
 details. These details concern the publication, distribution and ownership (authorship
of the book or place of publication).

They include:

 Author
 Title/edition statement
 Publisher

There are several different styles of referencing:

 APA
 MLA
 Oxford
 Harvard
 Chicago

Each style has its own rules for properly citing sources.

 Author-date styles (e.g. APA, MLA, and Harvard) put the author's name inside
the text of the assignment
 Documentary-note styles (e.g. Chicago and Oxford) put the author's name in a
footnote at the bottom of each page, or in an endnote at the end of the assignment
All of the most common styles list every source used in a document at the end, in a
reference list or bibliography (see reference list vs. bibliography for the difference
between these).
The styles differ in format. For example, an APA in-text citation incorporates the
author's name, the year of publication, and sometimes the page number, separated by a
comma:
(Lazar, 2006, p. 52)
An MLA in-text citation, on the other hand, does not include the year or commas:
(Lazar 52)
Likewise, an APA reference list entry puts the year in brackets after the author's name:

57
 Lazar, J. (2006). Web usability: A user-centered design approach. Boston, MA:
Pearson Addison Wesley.
An MLA works cited entry puts the year at the end of the entry:
Lazar, Jonathan. Web Usability: A User-Centered Design Approach. Boston:
Pearson Addison Wesley, 2006.
There are other differences between these two styles: APA uses italics for book titles,
whereas MLA commonly underlines. APA gives first initials whereas MLA uses full
first names. When formatting a reference, follow the style you have been set closely.

 APA style is commonly used in Education, Business, and some Social Sciences
and Humanities disciplines.
 MLA style is often used in English and Media Studies.
 Oxford style is often used in History, Philosophy, and Classics.
 Harvard and Chicago styles are used by some individual disciplines.
If you are unsure what referencing style you are required to use, check your
introductory course materials. If a style is not specifically mentioned, ask your course
coordinator.

Other styles
There are several styles that are not covered on OWLL. These are rarely used, but
some assignments will require you to follow styles such as the Australian Guide to
Legal Citation or styles specific to a print journal.
Vancouver style is sometimes used in science journals, for example. This style uses a
number to represent each source, and lists the sources in the reference list in the order
they were used.

58
CONDUCTING MEETINGS AND MINUTES WRITING

Definition:

A meeting is a gathering of two or more people that has been convened for the pupose
of achieving a common goal through verbal interaction such as sharing and reaching
an agreement.

Roles of meetings

 Gathering information.
 Is to coordinate activities e.g. a meeting of head of departments
 To provide the frame-work within which risks and sensitive issues can be
shared and discussed before action is taken
 To update participants on the current state of the affairs in the organization e.g.
measures being taken to eradicate problems within the organization
 It gives people an opportunity to solve their problems
 It brings people together to consult on key issues
 To exchange information or views

59
  To make policies for organization
 To express grievances
 To persuade people to agree with set proposals
 Conduct training
 Communicating information from the management to the workers

Types of meetings

1. Formal meetings

Formal meetings follow rules set down in statutes, constitutions, and standing orders
for by-laws. They are preplanned meetings, have predetermined set of topics and
objectives that one wishes to achieve.

The records of these meetings are properly kept and they guide the subsequent
meetings. Examples of such meetings include: company general meetings, executive
committee meetings, and board of directors meetings, managerial meetings.

Documentation includes notice, agenda, motions and minutes.

2. Informal meeting

In these meetings, there are no formal rules or procedures. They take a more relaxed
approach. They are generally not planned in advance.
Documentation is not formally done, notes instead of minutes may be written.
Examples of such meeting include encounter meetings, brainstorming meetings,
working party meetings, and intradepartmental meetings, status update meetings.

Distinction between formality and informality is determined by the climate or

atmosphere generated within an organization.

Preparation

In preparing for a meeting, you will need to do the following:

 Determine the meetings objective

 Members must be given adequate time and notice of the meeting
 Workout the agenda that will achieve the objective

60
  The venue must be chosen in advance and should be suitable lighting,
ventilation and temperature of the room is adequate.
 The time of the meetings must be convenient and duration specified
 Determine sitting needs
 Arrange for light refreshments
 Select participants
 Determine whether the the leader must be adequately prepared

Conducting the meetings

1. Begin the meeting on time

2. Set clearly the objectives of the meeting which should be reinforced in the
opening introduction of the chairperson.
3. Verify that the group understands the objectives of the meeting.
4. Encourage participation from everyone
5. Control the meeting by following the announced agenda.
6. Make frequent summaries of the best alternative
7. Where appropriate appoint a committee for action
8. As a leader, express your opinion last.
9. Summarize and clarify meetings results.
10.At the conclusion of the meeting, should set a date for the next one and thank
the participants for the attendance and contributions
11. A true record of the minutes should be noted
12.Close/end the meeting in time

Advantages of meetings

I. Likely to develop solutions than any one individual could do.

II. Provide free interchange of ideas, stimulates and clarifies thinking
III. Group decisions could promote more effective coordination of subsequent
action plans
IV. Group is likely to take bigger risky than any individual would
V. You can pool ideas, to increase efficiency meeting s build good working
relationship- individuals have diverse opinions which are ready to be shared and
discussed
VI. Meetings boost individual morale

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VII. Meetings enhance team building.

Disadvantages of meetings

i. May opt for first available solution

ii. may be difficult to a decision
iii. may be difficult to pin responsibility to any individual in a meeting would turn
out to be ineffective if the organizer failed to properly facilitate the session and
be and if the meeting agenda is not observed
iv. unnecessarily repetition of old ideas from previous meeting s pointless
v. personality control- meeting problematic people
vi. possible existence of conflicts- disagreements are expected in an interaction but
when arguments get out of hand the meeting will get out of hand the meeting
will end up in conflict
vii. confusion between meeting process and the content also happens
viii. decisions become hard to attain
ix. participants may loose work of key issues
x. you cannot expect meeting to effective all the time
xi. some meeting participants resort to problem avoidance in a meeting where the
common is that every and no problems on issues should be discussed
xii. there are possibilities of power tripping or manipulation by the leader especially
if personal objectives are involved

Challenges of meetings

I. Run out of time keeping the agenda and the objectives in the participants mind
II. Some participants rush to make decisions
III. Some do not want to participate
IV. When one or two participants take over the discussions some participant are
checking their mails or doing their work during meetings
V. Dealing with conflicts, when the person in charge has different objectives,
views than the participants
VI. How to keep everyone involved in discussions and decision making.

Minute taking

Def: Minutes are written records of the previous meetings that were held by the
management, board or staff in the organisation

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  Records of meetings must be written and stored to be retrieved when need
arises

 In committees or group meetings there must be a chairman to spearhead the

meeting as well as a secretary to write the minutes as the meeting proceeds

Importance of Minutes

1. They are the official records of issues discussed and agreed.

2. They may be used in implementing organisational decisions.
3. They may be used as evidence in the courts of law

Points to note

i. Minutes are expected to be accurate, clear and complete before they are stored
as official records of the organisation
ii. The language used when writing minutes must be objective and non-biased.

iii. Minutes should focus on results and agreed on actions

iv. Minutes should be highly summarized, not a burden to read – be brief;

summarize outcomes and points of agreement and disagreement; don‟t record
detailed input

Layout of Minutes

Heading - The name of the committee or other unit and the date, location, and starting
time of the meeting e.g.

Minutes ………meeting held in…………on………..at………

Members present
1. Chairman
2. Secretary
3. Member
In attendance

63
 1. Transport officer
2. Chief security officer
3. Kenya School of law rep.
 Absent with apologies
 Absent
 Agenda
 Min. 1/9/5/2012: Communication from the chair
 Min. 2/9/5/2012: Confirmation of minutes
 Min. 3/9/5/2012: Matters arising
 Min. 4/9/5/2012:
 Min. 5/9/5/2012: A.O.B
 Min. 6/9/5/2012: Next Meeting
 Confirmation
Confirmed by:
1. Chairman Signature Date

1. Secretary Signature Date

INTERVIEWS

Definition:

An interview is a conversation between two or more people (interviewer and

interviewee) where questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain information from
the interviewee.

Purpose of interview

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  Recruitment of staff – communicate information about yourself, your
experience and your abilities
 Disciplinary action
 Investigating complains and staff grievances
 Performance appraisal
 It is an attempt to get the truth either about the person or what the person thinks
 Seek further information about the position and the organization
 For separation of leaders and followers

Types of interviews

 The screening interviews

This refers to the preliminary interview which is done when there are many
applicants for a given. The aim of screening interview is to eliminate
unqualified applicants and prepare a short list of qualified applicants.

 The selection interviews

These kind of interview takes place to decide whether or not somebody will be
given a job or vacancy. The interviewer who is one or more senior staff
members will ask questions about the candidates background and experience,
ambitions and general interest and any other subject which will help in
accessing his or her suitability for post in question.

 Promotion interviews

This take place when an employee has applied for job at a higher level within
an organization. They are conducted in manner similar to selection interview,
and aim to discover whether the applicant has the necessary qualification and
abilities to perform the job in questions. A person or people in positions of
some seniority within the organization generally conduct them, perhaps in a
group so that the applicant suitability can be assessed from a number of
viewpoints.

 Disciplinary interviews

65
 These are the least pleasant kind of interviews, as they are carried out by a
senior employee when a worker has been accused of committing a breach of
regulations. Preparation must include a complete study of facts and the
interview should be guided solely by these facts. Personal bias and any other
considerations that might cloud the judgement of the interviewer should be
avoided. The interview must be conducted with complete impartiality and the
decision reached should be just.

 Appraisal interviews

They are sometimes called update interviews and provide a way of accessing
the work done, and progress made by an individual employee. They generally
take place at yearly intervals, and are conducted by departmental or section
head.
The interviewer reviews the workers progress during the past year and moves
on to consider future prospect such as the likelihood of promotion, staff
promotion and possible transfer to other tasks to a different department.

 The group interviews

Several job candidates are interviewed at once. The interviewer(s) are trying to
separate the leaders from the followers. May also be trying to find out that if are
a team player.

 Investigative interviews

This is also another type of interview, which is very common in organizations.

Included in this category are interviews with experts, interviews by survey
research firms or by researchers who collect data from different sources on one
or more topics.

Preparation by the interviewer

(a) Have a thorough knowledge of the company, its profile, operation and
employment policies.

66
 (b) Know the nature and profile of the job to be filled.
(c) Know the type of personality, character or temperament required for the job.
(d) Make proper seating arrangements for candidates in the waiting room.
(e) Make the interview room conducive for the interview that is with no
interruptions.
(f) Supply each member of the committee with a copy of the candidate‟s bio-data.
(g) Decide before hand who is going to initiate the interview.

Briefing

a) Greet the interviewee in a friendly and professional manner.

b) Introduce yourself and everyone else who is participating.
c) Make sure the interviewee is comfortable.
d) Introduce a small friendly talk to ease the attention that interviewees generally
have.

Conduct of interview

How to conduct an interview (interviewer)

a) Welcome the candidate in a friendly way, offer warm smile to the candidate,
talk to him in a friendly tone of voice, hold a small talk with him/her in an area
he/she is familiar.
b) After the candidate has been made comfortable then you should start talking to
him/her on the subject you want to know about. You will want to know for
example, the candidate‟s qualifications (ability to do the job), aspiration
(willingness to do the job), social effectiveness and emotional balance
(relationship with others) character (trustworthiness).
c) Preview for the applicant how the interview will proceed.
d) It is good to start with easy open ended questions which will help the applicant
to relax.
e) Avoid unstructured overly general questions.
f) Avoid yes/no question, guessing game questions and all personalized questions.
g) Make notes about the candidate and discuss the notes with other panelists when
the candidate has left.
h) Give the candidate time to ask questions.
i) If a decision has to be made immediately let the candidate know shortly after
the discussion.
j) Thank the candidate for his/her time and tell him/her by when he/she should
expect a response from you.

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More effective questions should be based on the following areas:

 Interest in the organization.

 General or specific work related questions.
 Education and training career goal.
 Previous job performance.
 Salary and benefits

Preparation by the interviewee

a) Make sure you know everything there is to know about yourself such as
academic qualifications, ambition, hobbies etc.
b) Gather as much information about the company as possible.
c) Watch the news the night before the interview incase you are asked about the
current events.
d) Prepare a list of questions you predict the interview may ask.
e) Prepare appropriate answers for your predicted questions.
f) Prepare questions you would like to ask during the interview.
g) Plan how you will look i.e dressing. Be well groomed.
h) Arrive for the interview on time i.e. ten to fifteen minutes before time.
i) Organize all the documents you will carry for the interview e.g certificates.

How to conduct yourself at the interview

a) Be punctual for the interview.

b) Walk carefully into the interview room, do not wear a scowl or a stupid smile
when entering the interview room.
c) Greet the interviewers politely avoid shaking hands unless the interviewers
stretch their hands to you.
d) Do not sit down until you have been asked to do so, adopt a natural and upright
composed posture when seated.
e) Pay attention to what is being said and do not interrupt the interviewer.
f) When responding give relevant answers only and be audible enough for all the
panelists to hear you.
g) Do not boast of your capabilities or qualifications.
h) If there is something you don‟t know admit it.
i) Give the interviewers your cooperation and respect.
j) Be calm throughout the interview do not loose your temper.
k) Adopt a positive approach throughout the interview.
l) Avoid mannerisms e.g chewing gum, shifting in your seat, chewing fingers,
smoothing you hair or playing with the pen or paper.

68
 m) When asked of previous employer, be frank but do not criticize your former
employer.
n) Ask questions where full information has not been provided by the interviewer.
o) When the interview is over do not forget to thank the interviewer.

Debriefing

a) The interviewer should explain to the interviewee what will happen next and
possibly give a time frame.
b) Once the decision is made communicate with the interviewee as soon as
possible.

69
PUBLIC RELATIONS AND CUSTOMER CARE

INTRODUCTION
In order to build the image of the organization, employees need to develop a cordial
relationship with the public. They have to communicate with the publics (who are
their customers) about to handle customer‟s complaints very well in order to win their
loyalty, trust and respect.

DEFINITIONS

Publics

Public refers to the innumerable distinct groups of people with common interests
which police organization comes into contact with e.g. women, children, students,
hawkers, teachers, street urchins, religious groups, mungiki adherents, transporters,
Matatu touts etc.

Public Relations: This is a deliberate, planned and sustained effort to establish and
maintain mutual understanding between an organization and its public. It is therefore a
customer focus relationship built on client friendly service. Public relations thus,
consist of all communication with all the people an organization has contact with.

Customer

A customer is any person who comes to our organization because they need certain
services. Such persons include;- BUYERS, SELLERS, SUPPLIEIRS,BROKERS

Customer care

Customer care is the activity of taking care of customers and helping them with any
complaint or problem.

TYPES OF CUSTOMERS AND CUSTOMER COMPLAINTS

70
We need to actively seek customer complaints, recognize the type of customer that is
complaining and respond appropriately to the person complaining.
At least five types of complainers can be identified. Each type is motivated by
different beliefs, attitudes and needs. The following are definitions of the types of
customers, how one might respond to them and the danger of not handling them
effectively.

1. The meek customer

-Generally will not complain.
Response: Must work hard at soliciting comments and complaints
and act appropriately to resolve complaints.

2. The Aggressive Customer

-Opposite of the Meek Customer. Readily complains, often loudly and at
length.

Response: Listen completely ask „‟what else?‟‟, agree that a problem

exists and indicate what will be done to resolve it and when.

Danger: Being aggressive in return .The Aggressive customer does not

respond well to excuses or reasons why the service was unsatisfactory.

3. The High Roller Customer

-Expects the absolute best and is willing to pay for it. Likely to complain in a
reasonable manner, unless a hybrid of the Aggressive Customer.

Response: Is interested in results and what you are going to do to

recover from the customer service breakdown. Always listen respectfully and
actively to fully determine cause. Ask „‟what else?‟‟ and correct the situation.
Like the Aggressive Customer, the High-Roller Customer is not interested in
excuses.

4. The Rip-off Customer: The goal is not to get the complaint satisfied but rather
to win by getting something the customer is not entitled to receive. A constant
and repetitive „‟not good enough‟‟ response to efforts to satisfy this customer is
a sure indicator of a rip-off artist.

Response: Remain unfailingly objective. Use accurate quantified data

to backup your response. Be sure the adjustment is in keeping with what the

71
 organization would normally do under the circumstances. Consider asking
„‟what can I do to make things right?‟‟ after the first „‟not good enough‟‟

5. The Chronic Complainer Customer:

-Is never satisfied; there is always something wrong. This customer‟s mission is
to whine. Yet he is your customer, and as frustrating as this customer can be, he
cannot be dismissed.

Response: Extraordinary patience is required. One must listen

carefully and completely and never let one‟s anger get aroused. A sympathetic
ear, a sincere apology, and an honest effort to correct the situation are likely to
be the most productive.

Unlike the Rip-Off Customer, most Chronic Complainer Customer will accept
and appreciate your efforts to make things right. This customer wants an
apology and appreciates it when you listen. Tends to be a good customer (in
spite of his constant complaining) and will tell others about your positive
response to his complaints.

ROLE OF PUBLIC RELATIONS AND CUSTOMER CARE IN AN ORGANISATION

1. Citizens can make their complaints or work of the organisation made known
through Telephone lines and web forms.
2. Enables an organization to communicate and work with the media e.g.
newspapers, radio and television stations.
3. An organization may engage in public relations activities that attempt to
strengthen the ties of communication and trust between citizens and the
organisation. These range from youth anti-drug programs, community
advisory boards to citizens, blood donations, sports e.tc.
4. Good Public relations and customer care can also help the organization
achieve the following benefits.

They help;-

(a) Build customer loyalty through positive customer service experience

72
 (b) Improve the image of the organization
(c) employees receive desired co-operation and assistance from the public
(d) Attract new customers via word of mouth
(e) Improve the police performance in terms of efficiency and effectiveness
(f) Reduce customer complaints and complaints handling resources and costs.
(g) Improve ease of dealing with organization for customers
(h) Increase customer retention
(i) Creates mutual understanding between the organization and the public
(j) Enhances effective communication with all the publics thereby creating
mutual understanding between the organisation and the publics
(k) Improve relationship and acceptance of the organisation by the publics

CUSTOMER CARE AND PUBLIC RELATION SKILLS

Public relations and customer care must posses the following skills so as to enhance
the reputation of the organization.
1. Empathy-Ability to listen with feeling so as to understand how the customer
feels.
2. Communication skills-Ability to communicate clearly and effectively to attract
customers.
3. Social skills-Ability to communicate and persuade and to interact with the
publics without causing any conflict or disagreement.
4. Negotiation skills-Ability to volunteer in a discussion for the safety and security
of all.
5. Stress handling skills –Ability to deal with emotional/stressful customers.
6. Active listening skills-Ability to listen and understand what the customer says
to be able to solve the problem effectively.
7. Team-working- working together to build the image of the organization
8. Problem solving skills-Ability to solve and handle customer complaint.
9. Customer service management skills-Ability to understand the policy, duties
and co values of the organization.
10.Counseling skills

CAUSES OF POOR POLICE/PUBLIC RELATIONS AND CAUSES OF CUSTOMER

COMPLAINTS

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The following are some of the causes of poor public relations that may weaken trust
between the citizens and the organization.
 Lack of communication
 Corruption
 Brutality, harassment and torture
 Misuse of firearms
 Abuse of power
 Poor methods of investigation
 Involvement of criminal activities
 False charges
 Unlawful confinement
 Inefficiency
 Slow response to calls of distress
 Poor recruitment methods
 Nepotism
 Lack of accountability and transparency
 Ignorance of law
 Improper handling of complaints against police
 Lack of courtesy to the members of public
 Failure to observe human rights etc

CHALLENGES FACED IN PUBLIC RELATION AND CUSTOMER CARE

1. Lack of commitment by some employees leading to customer complaints

2. Incompetent staff who are not trained in public relations and handling
customer complaints
3. Customer demands which are not realistic
4. Interference by politicians when handling organisational matters
5. Lack of knowledge of law and procedures by some publics
6. Uncooperative customers due to lack of trust and patience.
7. Lack of accountability and transparency by employees
8. Improper handling of complaints against employees
9. Lack of communication equipments
10.Lack of enough staff to handle duties.

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TECHNOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY – The application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially in
industry.

EMERGING TRENDS AND ISSUES IN

COMMUNIICATION/TECHNOLOGY IN COMMUNICATION

New communication technologies such as the internet, electronic mail, facsimile

and cellular phones have changed the way in which in which we like, learn and
work, unlike in the past in which we used to communicate by means of drums, horns
and smoke as well as sending people on an errand to deliver messages. Even letter
writing is becoming a thing of the past.
Each of the new technologies permits us to communicate with more people regardless
of the distance between us.
Technology has made the world smaller (a global village), communication more rapid
and access to information much easier. It has also created a new set of problems and
new issues regarding the proper use of all the new gadgets available to us. Therefore
knowing how to communicate using the new technologies is important for anyone
coming of age ink this century.
The key to using the technologies effectively is sensitivity to communication
situations, purposes, audiences and methods.
These new technologies for communication comprise the following:
I. Computers
II. Telecommunication
a) E-mail
b) Internet

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 -Facebook
-Twitter -social sites such as
-Blog spots
c) Website
iii).Telephone
iv) Radio
v) Newspapers
vi) Cellular phones e.t.c

IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY IN COMMUNICATION

i. Computers
By use of computers, many people are able to create and share
information with both outside and outside the organization. The
networking technology in computers has greatly extended the
connectivity between and within the departments and organizations i.e.
L.A.N –LOCAL Area Network and WAN Wide Area Network
ii. Telecommunication
a) Electronic mail
Uses the computers and telecommunication links to store
and send messages .messages are sent electronically to other
people. It allows many people to receive messages promptly.
Assignments can be remitted through mail
b) Internet
This is the largest world computer network .This is basically
a bunch of computers hooked together. It is an
amalgamation of interrelated computer networking which
permits electronic communication on a global scale. It

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 started in a small scale for the defence personnel in the USA
but has now grown to a world network.
iii. Telephone
Has been improved to have new features such as waiting for
a call where a beep indicates an incoming call and forwarding call
which allows the user to forward calls to another number.

iv. Cell phones

Mobile phones offer quick contact from any location. It is a remote
communicaatio0n device that has become an effective media of
communication

v. The modem
Makes it possible for people to transfer data from the desk top
computer to standard dial- up telephone lines.
vi. Facsimile machines
It sends or transmits hard copy of text , pictures and illustrations
over the telephone line. It uses digital process to learn and encode
what is fed into the machine. The receiving fax decodes the
message and prints out the document.

vii. Video conferencing

Is a way of meeting people in different locations .the images of
each group are transmitted by video to other locations. Interviews
can be held by people from different countries.
viii. Voice mails

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 Is a computerized mailbox. The voice mail messages are stored
into a computer disk.
ix. Video phones
Include a small video camera and screen. This allows both parties
to speak and see each other.

CHALLENGES POSED BY EMERGING ISSUES AND TRENDS IN

COMMUNICATIION.

1. New trends in communication such as the use of computers has eased work.
However this has also led to loss of employment as work that would have been
done by so many people can be performed by one person.
2. New trends in communication have led to the invention of modern
communication devices which are expensive to buy and maintain.
3. Technological advancement in communication is moving at a faster rate thus it
is difficult to cope up with. One thus needs to be updated on daily basis to
catch up with the latest trend. This has brought a toll on time and money. Most
of the communication devices are also being invented day in day out and as
such more devices are becoming obsolete hence the need to replace obsolete
devices regularly. This has proved expensive.
4. Communication device such as video conferencing is an efficient way of
communicating instead of travelling long distances to hold meetings. It is
however expensive to maintain.

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5. A social site such as facebook and twitter has eased communication between
people. It has also led to high rate of infidelity and breakage of families.
However it has also made people to get their soul mates, spouses, and business
partners‟ e.t.c.
6. Most of these new communication devices has limited area of use thus cannot
be accessed by many people, for example a mobile phone can only operate in
areas that are covered by a network provider, a computer mainly needs
electricity for sufficient operation.
7. Criminals have also taken advantage of the new trends in communication. For,
example mobile phones have become attractive to thieves who make easy
money by selling stolen phones. They also use new technology to con people
of their money.
8. Learning has been revolutionized. Many students study online, use online
library, and employ e-learning and virtual university. This has
compromised the standard of education.

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WAYS OF COPING WITH EMERGING ISSUES AND TRENDS.

Communication is a very important feature of every person‟s life regardless of

his/her occupation, responsibility, authority, station in life, age or gender.
Technological advancement however has revolutionized communication as a
process greatly.
1. It is therefore imperative to keep up to date with these emerging
trends to remain relevant.
2. This calls for continuous training on the use of these new methods
and trends in communication.
3. There is also need for replacement of old and outdated means
/medium that does not suit our current world. This calls for finance
and purchase of new equipment.
4. Guidance on the use of these means also need to be incorporated
especially to the youth as some may lead to erosion of morality and
humanity. They should not be given free hand in the access of some sites
that may be morally misleading.
5. People also need to be dynamic and embrace the new ways. most
people are however resistant to change and always want to maintain the
status quo. This may be detrimental to an organization.

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REFERENCE
References

Adler, R. B. and Rodman, G (1997) understanding communication, Orlando, Holt,

Rinehart and Winston, Inc.

Bovee, C. L. and Thrill, J. V. (1992) Business communication Today, New York:

McGraw – Hill

Clark, L.R. et al. (1990) Business English and Communication: Teachers Edition,

McGraw Hill Ryerson (Fourth Canadian Edition)

Davies, J. W. (2001) Communication skills: A guide for Engineering and Applied

Sciences Students, London, Pearson Education Ltd.

Sillars S. (1988) Success in Communication. London, John Murray Publishers.

Peel M. (1988) How to make meetings work. London, Keegan Page limited,

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