Temperature Measurement

Dr.K.Sulochana
 Temperature
• Temperature is an intensive parameter : the temperature of 2 different bodies which
are put together is not the sum of the two temperatures of the different bodies.
Temperature is also not directly measurable.
• The primary thermometer is a sensor that links temperature to others physical
parameters with a law like the ideal gases law (PV=nRT), it is a thermodynamical
temperature of which unit is Kelvin (K).
• But such primary thermometers are quite difficult to use and expensive.
• Even, they cannot cover all the different experimental cases. But we need sensitive,
reproductible, consistent and easy to use, sensors.
• To link physical laws with reality, an international scale of temperature has been
defined.
• A scale of temperature is made up of:
• a thermometer, a sensor with an output depending on temperature;
• an interpolation function that links the sensor’s output with temperature;
• fixed points of temperature to define the interpolation function.
• The International Temperature Scale, first defined in 1927, has been reviewed to
reduce the difference between absolute temperature and temperature in the scale. The
last scale was defined in 1990 hence ITS 90. The triple point of water is the major
point of definition (t=0.01 °C).
• Temperature is the most commonly measured parameter in commercial and
industrial settings.
• Industries as diverse as food processing, pharmaceuticals, cold storage,
paper manufacturing, and others absolutely rely on process temperatures
being within a certain range.
• Measuring temperature involves a wide range of specialty sensors such as
– thermocouples
– thermistors
– resistive temperature detectors (RTDs)
– infrared (IR) sensors
– bimetal thermometers, etc.
• These sensors produces an electrical output such as resistance, millivolts or
milliamps which correspond to the temperature.
• These output signals are sent to a readout or controller where they are
displayed or used to control a process function.
 SI Unit of Temperature
• The Kelvin (K) is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic
temperature of the triple point of water.
• The temperature 0 K is commonly referred to as "absolute zero."
• On the widely used Celsius temperature scale, water freezes at 0°C and
boils at about 100°C.
• One Celsius degree is an interval of 1 K, and zero degrees Celsius is
273.15 K.
• An interval of one Celsius degree corresponds to an interval of 1.8
Fahrenheit degrees on the Fahrenheit temperature scale.
• The standard temperature at the triple point of water is provided by a
special cell, an evacuated glass cylinder containing pure water.
• When the cell is cooled enough so that a mantle of ice forms around
the reentrant well, the temperature at the interface of solid, liquid, and
vapor is 273.16 K.
• Thermometers to be calibrated are placed in the reentrant well.
 Temperature Units
• The three units used to specify the temperature in general are
• Kelvin
• Celcius
• Fahrenheit

• The Kelvin temperature scale begins at absolute zero, the coldest

possible temperature and the point at which even atoms would stand
perfectly still
• The relationship between Kelvin and other two units are:
C  K  273.15
F  ( K  273.15) *1.8  32

• The common temperature reference Points are

• Surface of the sun – 5900 K
• Boiling Point of water – 373 K
• Body temperature – 310.3 K
• Freezing point of water – 273 K
 Primary Calibration Laboratory
• A primary laboratory needs to realize the ITS-90 and provide calibration for Standard
Platinum Resistance Thermometers (SPRTs) over the temperature range of -196°C to
962°C.
• ITS-90 is the internationally recognized standard for maintaining worldwide temperature
compatibility.
• Laboratories realizing the ITS-90 reproduce a series of intrinsic temperatures using fixed-
point cells and associated maintenance baths and furnaces to maintain phase transition
plateaus at the specific points.
• Each cell needs a dedicated SPRT check standard to monitor its performance at every
realization.
• And a realization SPRT is also needed to enable the cells to be brought to plateau.
• An annealing furnace is required when working at temperatures above 500°C to prevent
damage to all SPRTs.
• The resistance of the SPRTs is measured by a 0.1-ppm dc bridge balanced against a 10-
ohm standard resistor maintained in an oil bath.
• Software is very helpful in providing for the calculation of coefficients and interpolation
tables.
• When performing thermocouple calibrations, a high performance digital multimeter
(DMM) is used to measure the voltage output of thermocouples.
• Ice-making equipment provides an ice point for thermocouple reference junctions
Some Fixed Points of Temperature as per ITS 90

1 Boiling Point of Liquid Nitrogen (BPLN2)* -196 °C

2 Triple Point of Mecury (TPHg) -38.8344 °C
3 Triple Point of Water (TPH2O)+ 0.01 °C
4 Melting Point of Gallium (MPGa) 29.7646 °C
5 Freezing Point of Indium (FPIn) 156.5985 °C
6 Freezing Point of Tin (FPSn) 231.928 °C
7 Freezing Point of Zinc (FPZn) 419.527 °C
8 Freezing Point of Aluminum (FPAl) 660.32. °C
9 Freezing Point of Silver (FPAg) 961.78 °C
* This is a comparison point used by virtually all laboratories to avoid the
complexity and expense of realizing the Triple Point of Argon (TPAr at -
189.3442 °C). The BPLN2 requires an SPRT traceable to a national
standard at the TPAr.
+ The fundamental reference point of the ITS-90
 Primary Std at NPL
• The unit of temperature at present is defined as a fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic
temperature of triple point of water (TPW).
• The primary standards of temperature based on TPW and other fixed points called the
thermal equilibrium states are well established at NPL as per ITS-90 in the form of sealed
cells of high purity materials.
• The temperature scale from -189°C to 962°C, (FPs Ar, Hg, Sn, Zn, Al, Ag) is realized by
SPRT with uncertainty varying from ±0.17 m°C at TPW (0.01°C) to maximum ± 6 m°C at
Ag point (961.78°C).
• In the thermocouple thermometry, the range from 0°C to 1554°C is realized by standard
Type-S & R TCs with uncertainty varying from ±0.32°C at indium point (In,156.5985°C)
to ± 0.5°C at Palladium point (Pd,1554°C).
• The radiation temperature scale has been established by installing photoelectric linear
pyrometer, LP4 and realizing the silver point (Ag, 961.78°C) and copper point (Cu,
1084.62°C) in the form of metal-in-graphite blackbodies with an uncertainty better than ±
0.5°C.
• The high temperature range from 800°C to 2200°C is thus maintained by transfer standard
lamps using LP4 pyrometer with uncertainty varying from ± 0.9 °C to ± 2.5°C while the
total radiation infrared thermometry is available in the range from 50°C to 3000°C.
• The apex level calibration in temperature metrology is available in the laboratory in the
range from -200°C to 3000°C.
 Temperature Sensors
• Method
• Fluid Expansion (Liquid-in Glass Thermometer)
• Resistance Change (RTD and Thermistor)
• Electromotive Force (Thermocouple)
• Mode of operation
– Active
• Thermocouple
– Passive
• RTD
• Thermistor
 Liquid-in Glass Thermometer
• These devices use the thermal expansion and contraction
of a liquid to indicate temperature.
• By calibration with a standard thermometer, a scale of
temperature can be marked on the stem.
• The sensitivity depends on:
- the volume of the bulb
- the difference between the expansion of the liquid and the
expansion of the glass.
RANGE LIQUID DIFFERENTIAL
EXPANSION
COEFFICIENT (in°C)
-200 to 20°C Pentane 0.001
-110 to 100°C Alcohol 0.001
-38 to 650°C Mercury 0.00016
-56 to 650°C Mercury-thalium 0.00016
 Mercury Glass Thermometer
• Mercury has a lot of advantages, but it is hazardous.
• The thermometers are usually nitrogen filled to retard vaporization or
separation.

• Attention must be paid with liquid-in-glass thermometers because of:

– parallax error
– interpolation error
– differential expansion between liquid and glass
– changes in the volume of the bulb produced by external or internal pressure
– breaking up of the liquid column
– adhesion to the glass
– interferences: pollution, breathing
– emergent stem: with a partial immersion, the effective temperature of the stem
is different from that of the bulb, an error will result.

• The use of a liquid-in-glass thermometer assumes:

– the expansion law is known
– the glass doesn’t expand
– no interaction between glass and liquid
Temperature sensor characteristic
Resistance Temperature Detector
• An Resistive Temperature Detector is basically a temperature
sensitive resistor.
• It is a positive temperature coefficient device, which means that
the resistance increases with temperature.
• The resistance of the metal increases with temperature. The
resistive property of the metal is called its resistivity (ρ).
• The resistive property defines length (l) and cross sectional area
(a) required to fabricate an RTD of a given value.
l
R
a

• Two types : Special PRT (SPRT) and PRT (or RTD)

 RTDs
• Platinum with a temperature coefficient of 0.00385 - 0.003923 W/W/°C and practical
temperature range of -452 to +1100°F (-269 to +593°C).
• The platinum RTD has the best accuracy and stability among the common RTD
materials.
• The resistance versus temperature curve is fairly linear and the temperature range is
the widest of the common RTD materials.
• Platinum has a very high resistivity, which means that only a small quantity of
platinum is required to fabricate a sensor and making platinum cost competitive with
other RTD materials.
• Platinum is the only RTD commonly available with a thin film element style.
• The ASTM Specification E1137 "Standards Specification for Industrial Platinum
Resistance Thermometers" gives many details and specifications for them over the
range from -200 °C to 650°C.
• It defines two RTD grades, Class A and Class B
– Class A is considered high accuracy and has an ice point tolerance of +/- 0.06 ohms.
– Class B is standard accuracy and has an ice point tolerance of +/-0.12 ohms.
• Class B is widely used by most industries. The accuracy will decrease with
temperature.
• Class A will have an accuracy of ±0.43Ω (±1.45°C) at 600°C and class B will be ±1.06
Ω (± 3.3°C) at 600°C.
RTD – Stability and Interchangeability
Stability:
• It is a measurement of drift over time, often referred to as long-term stability.
• Most manufacturers specify stability as less than 0.05°C per year.
• Stability is affected by the sensor design. A well-designed, high quality
sensor will have less drift.
• Stability is also affected by the sensor's service environment.
• High vibration, mechanical abuse and thermal shock will affect stability.
Interchangeability:
• Interchangeability is the measure of variability of base tolerance and
temperature coefficient from sensor to sensor.
• This is important when replacing a sensor, to ensure that the system
retains its rated performance characteristics.
• System designers should know what sensor tolerances will support their
performance expectations when specifying the sensor.
 Platinum RTDs-Common Standards

Organization Standard Temperature Normal

Co-efficient resistance
at 0ºC
British Standard BS 1904: 1984 0.003850 100
Deutschen Institut für Normung DIN 43760: 1980 0.003850 100

International Electrotechnical IEC 751: 1995 0.00385055 100

Commission (Amend. 2)
Scientific Apparatus SAMA RC-4-1966 0.003923 98.129
Manufacturers of America

Japanese Standard JIS C1604-1981 0.003916 100

American Society for Testing and ASTM E1137 0.00385055 100
Materials
*Sensing Devices, Inc. manufactures platinum RTDs to these thermometry standards.
Resistance/Temperature Table for 385 Platinum
(100.0 Ω) at 0°C
 RTD Lead-wire Configurations
• RTDs are available with three different lead-wire
configurations.
• Two wire RTD
• Three Wire RTD
• Four wire RTD

• The selection of lead-wire configuration is based

on desired accuracy and instrumentation to be
used for the measurement.
 Two wire Configuation
• The two wire RTD is the simplest wire configuration. One wire is
attached to each side of the element.
• A measure can be taken by any device equipped to measure
resistance, including basic multimeter.
• This is the least accurate way of measuring temperature, due to
the fact that the lead-wire resistance is in series with the sensing
element.
• The lead-wire is at a different temperature than the sensing
element and also has different resistance verses temperature
characteristics.
• The longer the lead-wire the greater the effect on the
measurement.
 Three wire configuration
• The three wire RTD is the most popular configuration for use in industrial
applications. When used correctly, the three wire configuration eliminates the
series resistance.
• This permits an accurate measurement of the sensing element. Two of the leads
are connected to one side of the sensing element and the single lead to the other
side.
• The resistance in L1 and L3 should be matched as close as possible, this will
cause the lead resistance to cancel themselves.
• The color code for a three wire RTD is two red wires and one white.
 Four wire configuration
• A four wire RTD is the most accurate method to measure an
RTD.
• It is primarily used in laboratories and is seldom seen in an
industrial application.
• A four wire RTD circuit removes the effect of mismatched
resistances on the lead wires.
• A constant current is passed through L1 and L4. L2 and L3
measure the voltage drop across the RTD element.
• The color code for a four wire RTD is usually two red wires and
two white wires.
Advantages and Disadvantages of RTDs
Advantages:
1. Linearity over a wide operating range.
2. Wide operating temperature range.
3. High temperature operation.
4. Interchangeable over a wider range than other temperature
transducers.
5. Better stability at high temperature.

Disadvantages:
1. Low sensitivity.
2. Higher cost than many other temperature transducers.
3. Requires no point sensing.
4. Can be affected by contact resistance, shock, and acceleration.
5. Requires three or four wire operations.
 Thermistors
• A thermistor is a type of resistor used to measure temperature changes, relying on
the change in its resistance with changing temperature.
• Thermistor is composed of sintered semiconductor material, which exhibits a
large change in resistance proportional to a small change in temperature.
• If the relationship between resistance and temperature is assumed to be linear,
then the change in resistance is given by:
ΔR = k.ΔT
where
ΔR = change in resistance
ΔT = change in temperature
k = first-order temperature coefficient of resistance

• Thermistors are of two types depends on k – negative temperature

coefficient or positive temperature coefficient.
• NTC thermistors are much more commonly used than PTC
thermistors, especially for temperature measurement applications.
Converting resistance to temperature
The Steinhart-Hart Equation

where T is the temperature (in Kelvin)

R is the resistance at T and Rref is resistance at Tref
A1, B1, C1, and D1 are the Steinhart-Hart Coefficients
Data sheet of typical thermister
 Specification of Thermistors
Accuracy:
• Thermistors are one of the most accurate types of
temperature sensors.
• OMEGA thermistors have an accuracy of ±0.1°C or
±0.2°C depending on the particular thermistor model.
• However thermistors are fairly limited in their
temperature range, working only over a nominal range
of 0°C to 100°C.

Stability:
• Finished thermistors are chemically stable and not
significantly affected by aging.
 Advantages of Thermistors
• A main advantage of thermistors for temperature measurement is their
extremely high sensitivity. For example, a 2252  thermistor has a sensitivity
of -100 /°C at room temperature.
• Higher resistance thermistors can exhibit temperature coefficients of -10
k/°C or more, in comparison, a 100  platinum RTD has a sensitivity of
only 0.4 /°C.
• The physically small size of the thermistor bead also yields a very fast
response to temperature changes.
• Another advantage of the thermistor is its relatively high resistance.
Thermistors are available with base resistances (at 25°C) ranging from
hundreds to millions of ohms.
– This high resistance diminishes the effect of inherent resistances in the lead wires,
which can cause significant errors with low resistance devices such as RTDs.
– For example, while RTD measurements typically require 3-wire or 4-wire
connections to reduce errors caused by leadwire resistances, 2-wire connections to
thermistors are usually enough.
 Disadvantages of Thermistors
• The major tradeoff for the high resistance and sensitivity of the
thermistor is its highly nonlinear output and relatively limited
operating range. Depending on the type of thermistors, upper ranges
are typically limited to around 300°C.
• The curve shows the resistance-temperature curve for a 2252
thermistor. The curve of a 100 RTD is also shown for comparison.
• The thermistor has been used primarily for high-
resolution measurements over limited temperature
ranges. The classic example of this type of
application is medical thermometry.

• However, continuing improvements in thermistor

stability, accuracy, and interchangeability have
prompted increased usage of thermistors in all
types of industries.
 Thermistor characteristics
The following are typical characteristic for the popular 44004
thermistor from YSI:
Parameter Specification
Resistance at 25°C 2252 ohms (100 to 1M available)
Measurement range -80 to +120°C typical (250°C max.)
Interchangeability (tolerance) ±0.1 or ±0.2°C

Stability over 12 months < 0.02°C at 25°C, < 0.25°C at 100°C

Time constant < 1.0 seconds in oil, < 60 seconds in still air
Self-heating 0.13°C/mW in oil, 1.0°C/mW in air
Coefficients a = 1.4733 x 10-3, b = 2.372 x 10-3, c = 1.074 x
10-7
Dimensions Ellipsoid bead 2.5mm x 4mm

To ensure the interchangeability, thermistors are laser trimmed in the

manufacturing process.
Typical applications of Thermistor
Over current protection – PTC thermistors
• Telecommuniction Equipment
• SMPS of PCs
• Automotive systems
• Consumer Electronics
Over Temperature Sensing - PTC thermistors
• Power supplies
• Power transistors
• Transformers
• Convertors (DC-DC etc.)
Temperature sensing and control – NTC/PTC Thermistors:
• Automotive Probes
• Air conditioning
• Heater controls(Spas,Pools etc.)
• Liquid and Air sensing
• Copier/Printer
 Thermocouple
• It is a two-terminal element consisting of two dissimilar metal
wires joined at the end.

• Seebeck effect: A conductor generates a voltage when it is

subjected to a temperature gradient
• Measuring this voltage requires the use of a second conductor
material
• The other material needs to be composed of a different
material
• In most applications, one of the junctions — the "cold junction" — is
maintained at a known (reference) temperature, whilst the other end is
attached to a probe.
• For example, in the image below, the cold junction will be at copper tracks
on the circuit board. Another temperature sensor will measure the
temperature at this point, so that the temperature at the probe tip can be
calculated.
• Standard tables show the voltage produced by thermocouples at any given
temperature, so for example in the above diagram, the J type thermocouple
at 350°C will produce 19.09 mV. But, without cold junction compensation,
at room temperature (23°C), the voltage produced will be (19.09 – 1.277)
17.813 mV.

350°C
• Unfortunately it is not possible to simply connect a voltmeter to the
thermocouple to measure this voltage, because the connection of the
voltmeter leads will make a second, undesired thermocouple junction.
• To make accurate measurements, this must be compensated for by using a
technique known as Cold Junction Compensation (CJC).
• The law of intermediate metals states that a third metal, inserted between the
two dissimilar metals of a thermocouple junction will have no effect
provided that the two junctions are at the same temperature.
• This law is also important in the construction of thermocouple junctions.
• It is acceptable to make a thermocouple junction by soldering the two metals
together as the solder will not affect the reading.
• In practice, however, thermocouples junctions are made by welding the two
metals together (usually by capacitive discharge) as this ensures that the
performance is not limited by the melting point of solder.
• All standard thermocouple tables allow for this second thermocouple junction
by assuming that it is kept at exactly zero degrees centigrade.
• Traditionally this was done with a carefully constructed ice bath (hence the
term 'cold' junction compensation).
• Maintaining a ice bath is not practical for most measurement applications, so
instead the actual temperature at the point of connection of the thermocouple
wires to the measuring instrument is recorded.
• Typically cold junction temperature is sensed by a precision thermistor in
good thermal contact with the input connectors of the measuring instrument.
• This second temperature reading, along with the reading from the
thermocouple itself is used by the measuring instrument to calculate the true
temperature at the thermocouple tip.
• For less critical applications, the CJC is performed by a semiconductor
temperature sensor. By combining the signal from this semiconductor with the
signal from the thermocouple, the correct reading can be obtained without the
need or expense to record two temperatures.
• Understanding of cold junction compensation is important; any error in the
measurement of cold junction temperature will lead to the same error in the
measured temperature from the thermocouple tip.
 Thermocouple – Merits and demerits
Merits:
• They have rugged construction
• Thermocouple are inexpensive
• Thermocouples are simpler to use than resistance thermometers
• There is no need of a bridge circuit and an excitation source

Demerits:
• Thermocouples have limited use in temperature spans of less than about
33°C because of the relatively small change in junction voltages with
temperature.
• Thermocouples require an amplifier for many applications.
• Thermocouples need expensive accessories for control applications.
Thermocouples - Material
S.No Type Material Colour (+/-)
1 Type T Copper / Constantan Blue/Red
2 Type J Iron / Constantan White/Red
3 Type E Chromel / Constantan Purple/Red
4 Type K Chromel / Alumel Yellow/Red
5 Type S Platinum 10% Rhodium/ Black/Red
Pure Platinum
6 Type R Platinum 13% Black/Red
Rhodium/Pure Platinum
7 Type B Platinum 30% Rhodium/ Gray/Red
Platinum 6% Rhodium
8 Type N Nicrosil / Nisil Orange/Red
Thermocouples - characteristics
Thermocouples - Tolerence
Thermocouples –Scale Factor
K Type Thermocouple Chart
Temperature Conversion Equation
T = a0 + a1V + a2V2 + …. + anVn
 Precautions
Connection problems:
• Many measurement errors are caused by unintentional
thermocouple junctions.
• Remember that any junction of two different metals will
cause a junction.
• If you need to increase the length of the leads from your
thermocouple, you must use the correct type of thermocouple
extension wire (eg type K for type K thermocouples).
• Using any other type of wire will introduce a thermocouple
junction.
• Any connectors used must be made of the correct
thermocouple material and correct polarity must be observed.
Lead Resistance:
• To minimise thermal shunting and improve response times,
thermocouples are made of thin wire (in the case of platinum types
cost is also a consideration).
• This can cause the thermocouple to have a high resistance which can
make it sensitive to noise and can also cause errors due to the input
impedance of the measuring instrument.
• A typical exposed junction thermocouple with 32 AWG wire (0.25
mm diameter) will have a resistance of about 15 Ohms / meter.
• The Pico TC-08 has an input impedance of 2 MΩ so will have an
error of less than 0.01% for 12 meters of such cable.
• If thermocouples with thin leads or long cables are needed, it is worth
keeping the thermocouple leads short and then using thermocouple
extension wire (which is much thicker, so has a lower resistance) to
run between the thermocouple and measuring instrument.
• It is always a good precaution to measure the resistance of your
thermocouple before use.
Common Mode Voltage:
• Although thermocouple signal are very small, much larger voltages often
exist at the input to the measuring instrument.
• These voltages can be caused either by inductive pick up (a problem when
testing the temperature of motor windings and transformers) or by 'earthed'
junctions.
• A typical example of an 'earthed' junction would be measuring the
temperature of a hot water pipe with a non insulated thermocouple.
• If there are any poor earth connections a few volts may exist between the
pipe and the earth of the measuring instrument.
• These signals are again common mode (the same in both thermocouple
wires) so will not cause a problem with most instruments provided they are
not too large.
• For example, the TC-08 has a common mode input range of -4 V to +4 V.
• If the common mode voltage is greater than this then measurement errors
will result.
• Common mode voltages can be minimised using the same cabling
precautions outlined for noise, and also by using insulated thermocouples.
Thermal Shunting:
• All thermocouples have some mass. Heating this mass takes energy so will
affect the temperature you are trying to measure.
• Consider for example measuring the temperature of liquid in a test tube:
there are two potential problems.
• The first is that heat energy will travel up the thermocouple wire and
dissipate to the atmosphere so reducing the temperature of the liquid around
the wires.
• A similar problem can occur if the thermocouple is not sufficiently immersed
in the liquid, due to the cooler ambient air temperature on the wires, thermal
conduction may cause the thermocouple junction to be a different
temperature to the liquid itself.
• In the above example a thermocouple with thinner wires may help, as it will
cause a steeper gradient of temperature along the thermocouple wire at the
junction between the liquid and ambient air.
• If thermocouples with thin wires are used, consideration must be paid to lead
resistance.
• The use of a thermocouple with thin wires connected to much thicker
thermocouple extension wire often offers the best compromise.
 Temperature Calibration
• When discussing temperature calibration it is important to note that
output of the temperature sensors cannot be adjusted.
• Instead, the controller or readout is adjusted to account for the
inaccuracy of the sensor.
• Calibration is a comparison between two devices. The first device is
the unit to be calibrated, often called the device under calibration
(DUC). The second device is the standard, which has a known
accuracy.
• Using the standard as a guide, the DUC is adjusted until both units
display the same results while exposed to the same temperature.
• Typically, calibration of an instrument is checked at several points
throughout the calibration range of the instrument.
• Not all standards are created equally. While all standards have a known
accuracy, there are some—known as primary standards— that are the
highest level of accuracy for a specific parameter.
• Primary standards achieve their high accuracy by relying upon
measurement technologies using fundamental physical constants that
do not drift such as the triple point of water.
• These fixed values minimize uncertainty, making primary standards
the most accurate calibration tools.
 International Temperature Scale 90

• Temperature calibrations are done in accordance with the

International Temperature Scale of 1990.
• ITS-90 is the legal temperature scale that establishes a number
of fixed point temperatures that can be used as reference
values.
• The purpose of which is to define procedures for calibrating
temperature equipment in such a way that the values of
obtained are precise and reproducible, while at the same time
approximating the corresponding thermodynamic values as
closely as possible.
 Instruments needed to calibrate a
temperature sensor with / without indicator
For contact sensor type which involves comparison calibrations, you will need:
• A temperature source to heat or cool the sensor under calibration (DUC)
• A temperature standard to provide the accurate known temperature that is
compared with the DUC
• Measuring devices to read the temperature of the standard and sensor, if it is
without indicator

As the name implies, during a comparison calibration, a DUC is compared to a more

accurately calibrated temperature standard, while both are maintained at the same
constant temperature in the temperature source.

Typically the standard is four times more accurate than the thermometer under test.

Any sensor can be calibrated by comparison, and comparison calibrations can take
place either in a laboratory or on-site.
Temperature Calibrator Specifications
Temperature range: The temperature limits of the dry-well must meet your minimum test requirements
for the sensors being calibrated.

Accuracy: It specifies close the unit’s well temperature is to the programmed set point.

Stability: Stability is the temperature fluctuation of the instrument around the desired set-point over
time. It is also defined as the tendency of an attribute to remain within tolerance. When a calibrator
reaches its set-point, there is some fluctuation in temperature as the unit tries to maintain that
temperature. Stability adds to accuracy in determining overall system uncertainty.

Uniformity: It is the temperature homogeneity of the heat source throughout the test zone. All
calibrators have slight temperature differences from the bottom of the of the test well to the top (axial)
as well as from the middle of the test well outward (radial). A few simple strategies allow users to place
probes in such a way as to minimize uniformity errors.

Well Flexibility: When purchasing a dry-well, make certain that the probes you need to test will fit in the
unit’s heated block. Most dry-wells use removable sleeves to size the main temperature well. This gives
you the flexibility to calibrate a wider variety of probes with one instrument.

Sensor Immersion: Sensor immersion is a recurring topic when considering a dry-well for calibration of
temperature probes. Immersion can be the single largest contributor to error in dry-well calibrations.

Throughput: If you’re like the rest of the world, trying to calibrate as many sensors as possible in a limited
time period, get a block calibrator that allows you to insert more than one probe at a time.
 Reference Sensor (SPRT) Specification
Accuracy of the Sensor: It usually refers to the temperature deviation or tolerance grade at some reference
temperature of the sensor, as its “real” tolerance is temperature dependent.

Sensitivity: It is the amount to which the resistance changes as temperature changes.

Repeatability: The degree to which two successive readings of a temperature sensor agree refer to its
“repeatability”. That is, a sensors ability to repeat the same behavior under the same conditions for any
given temperature, even though it has been used and exposed to different temperatures, refers to its
repeatability (e.g. its ability to remain stable over many heating and cooling cycles). Repeatability is often
lumped together with the measure of stability and ordinary industrial platinum RTD sensors will specify
repeatability less than ±0.1°C per year of normal use and measured at 0°C. High precision RTD sensors can
be obtained with repeatability as low as 0.0025°C per year.

Stability/Drift: The stability of an RTD sensor refers to its ability to maintain the same resistance versus
temperature relationship for the same conditions over time. Stability and drift are often used
interchangeably and sometimes lumped together with repeatability measurements. Similar to repeatability,
a typical stability specification will limit drift to less than 0.1°C per year for rated operation.

Self Heating: Heat energy is generated while applying current to excite the RTD element in order to measure
its signal. The self-heating that occurs will drive error in temperature measurement. The self-heating of an
RTD sensor is most often expressed in mW/°C, which refers to the power required to raise the internal
element temperature by 1°C.

Response Time/Time Constant: The time constant of an RTD refers to the speed with which its element
changes resistance in response to a change in contact temperature. A rapid time constant helps to reduce
error in a measurement system that encounters rapid changes in temperature.
 Example – RTD Calibration
Mathematical model:
T T
C r
  T bath   T ref   T readout

where Tc = temperature of the DUC

Tr = temperature of the reference
δTbath= uncertainty due to bath
δTref= uncertainty due to reference sensor
δTreadout= uncertainty due to readout
• δTbath includes the following:
– Accuracy of the bath (rectangular)
– Stability of the bath (rectangular)
– Uniformity of the bath (rectangular)

• δTref includes the following:

– Accuracy of the sensor (rectangular)
– Stability/drift of the sensor (rectangular)
– Traceability (normal)

• δTReadout includes the following:

– Accuracy of the readout (rectangular)
– Resolution of the DUC readout (rectangular)
– Traceability (normal)