LECTURE ONE

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This part will deal with introductory concepts in regard to human growth and
development, which encompasses human changes from conception to death
covering:-
 Developmental psychology
 Child development.
 Lifespan of Human development.
We will look at definitions of the terms growth and development, followed by
the relationship between growth and development, the principles of growth and
development and the importance of studying human growth and development.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:-
a. Define the terms growth and development.
b. Discuss the principles of growth and development.
c. Explain the importance of studying human growth and development.
1.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Development
It is a progressive series of qualitative changes that occur in a predictable
pattern as a result of the interaction between biological and environmental
factors. It is a unique kind of change that is cumulative and occurs over time in
a social context. For example language use, thought processing, reading skills,
and peer relationships.
Growth
This is a progressive series of quantitative changes that occur in a lifespan of a
human being. It runs parallel to human development. Examples of these
quantitative changes include the physical change in weight and height. Thus
these quantitative changes are measurable and observable (physical) during
from infancy through to death.

Human Development
This is a branch of knowledge concerned with the nature and regulation of
significant structural, functional and behavioral changes occurring in human as
they develop in age and maturity. Structural growth refers to changes for
instance in shape and size.
Functional changes relate to the ability of the various organs of the body for
instance in regard to the speed of reaction, breathing, reading etc.
Behavioral changes refers to the function manifestation in behavior for instance
when we think before acting.
Criteria to determine developmental changes
 Orderliness- Developmental changes are not haphazard For example
walking skills of an infant do not emerge haphazardly Its a progressive
sequences starting with the lifting of the head, sitting, crawling, walking
and finally run.
 Superior functioning- When a child walks, s/he can move around and
discover the environment.
 Development stage- involves long lasting modification of behaviour.
1.2 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
a) Early philosophers
This can be traced to early philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle who are
credited with origin of science for human development. They used two
methods:-
 Philosophical writings on education and child rearing practices. They
philosophized how a good citizen could be reared.
 The philosophers made daily observations of children which were simple
and they wrote about this in regard to the for example speech, emotions
and play.
Plato (300 BC) philosophized about creating an ideal citizen i.e. a perfect
citizen. He expressed several views by describing the nature of men. He
observed that being good by nature can however be corrupted by others noting
that parents should not corrupt their children. He indicated that the society's
obligation was to protect children from being corrupted. He stressed early
education for children so as to be molded as good citizens. He also advocated
moderation in child rearing practices.
Aristotle (300 BC) is credited with emphasizing the role of individual
differences in developmental psychology. He especially felt that children are
different hence boys and girls are different. He observed that it is up to us to
create an environment that can take care of individual differences. He further
advocated that children should be reared in their families. (At this time, children
were reared by the state).
b) Dark ages 4 AD -14th Century
This is the period when Athenians civilization collapsed and all the power went
to Rome. Consequently, the church was the most influential body with regard
to issues of behavior and development (Roman Catholic). The church dictated
what was moral and believed that human beings are born sinful and it was the
duty of the one rearing the child to address the sin.
c) 1200 -Mid 1700
This is the renaissance period which is a sad period in relationship to
child development. It was characterized by extreme wickedness particularly
towards the child. The child was not regarded as significant unless the parents
were assured of the child's survival. The child mortality was very high since
they were not breast fed as breast feeding was considered as vulgar. Instead,
servant was hired to rear the children. The children were not allowed to crawl
as this was regarded as animal-like. As soon as a child was able to stand, s/he
was dressed in garments reinforced with iron to the whole body to ensure
uprightness. Such children were regarded as miniature adults. At the ages of 6
years, children were overworked under harsh conditions. They worked in
mines and were not allowed to play. Weaklings were killed or abandoned.
d) 17th Century
At the beginning of the 17th Century, the evil practices started to wane. People
began to realize childhood as a unique and crucial period of human life. They
specifically recognized the innocence of children and the need to safeguard
and strengthen the innocence.
e) John Locke (1632-1704)
He was an Englishman, physician and philosopher. He opposed the idea that
children are born sinful and proposed that they are born tabula rasa i.e. empty
slate ready for experience i.e. to be taught to write its own story. He observed
that if experiences are good, the child grew up well. Locke was a nurture
proponent- who believed that the environment determined the child's
development
f) Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
He was a French philosopher who came after Locke and proposed that
children are inherently good in nature and have potential to be good. He is the
first nature proponent. He likened children to plants that grow and blossom
after being watered and manure.
He felt that parents have a responsibility and should be patient that nature
(potentiality) would unfold at the right time. He emphasized individual
differences and advocated that children should be be reared by their parents.
He discouraged parents from prescribing or inducing children to learn certain
things and instead allow them to choose what they wanted to learn. He also
emphasized the development of children in phases or stages.
g) Charles Darwin (1809-1886)
He came about 100 years after Rousseau. He proposed that species evolved
or developed, societies develop or evolve and human beings similarly evolve
or develop. They all develop from a lower form. He observed that human
beings development mirror or perfects the development of species. His other
contribution was that he came up with a methodology of studying children
known as Baby Biography, later to be called Baby Journals. A baby biography
is a daily record of a child's activities, accomplishments etc. Darwin started the
William's (first son) baby journal.
h) John B Watson (1875-1958)
This touches on the 20th Century. By this time, people had already established
child study as a discipline. John Watson proposed that we could shape
children's behavior by arranging stimuli and response. This dictate
development. He is a nature proponent.
i) B F Skinner
He proposed that we operate actively on our environment depending on the
consequences. He was for reinforcement to enhance or reduce behaviour
depending on their type. For example, when we give attention to children due
to good behavior, these are enhanced.
j) Abraham Maslow
He differed with his predecessors who were behaviorists He believed that
human development is not only tied to reinforcement but that human beings
are self-determined. Each individual determines what s/he wants to be. He
gave the individual a more active role in his own environment. He proposed
that children will develop when they are comfortable and when their lower
needs are met i.e. safety, love, belongingness, esteem, shelter, affiliation, self-
actualization. When all these are met, they become self-actualized and so use
their potentials.
k) Stanley Hall
This is a late 20th Century theorist He has been referred to as the father of
adolescence psychology. He identified psychology as a unique life span and
wrote extensively on the needs and challenges of adolescence.
l) Sigmund Freud
He focused on adult development and how it is shaped by early developmental
experiences.
m) Erickson
He was student of Freud and his contribution differed from Freud's because he
goes far and beyond in adult development to death. He looked at the lifespan
and thus he was a span develop mentalist.
1.4 METHODS OF COLLECTING SYSTEMATIC DATA IN PSYCHOLOGY
a) Experimental approach
The characteristics of this approach are to manipulate an independent
variableto find out more about dependent variable. Example of subjecting two
groups of children to stimuli such as a loud bang. The control group would not
receive the stimuli. The control group is to ensure that the differences between
the two groups is a result of the your manipulation.
Random sampling is to be carried out in both groups. The experimental
approach is limited in studying development. It may be:-
 is unethical
 Induce fear in children, low esteem, and deprivation of food.
b) Non-experimental
This approach is used when the researchers cannot manipulate subjects either
because it is unethical or not acceptable. The naturalistic approach is used by
researchers to record information about kids, adolescents or adults in their
natural environments.
1.5 SPECIFIC RESEARCH TECHNIQUES
They include:-
a) interview and questionnaires
People or children report about their own behaviour. Interviews is oral while
questionnaire is written.
b) Case study
A specific study of an individual or group of persons. In a case study, one or
few individuals or even an institution is studied in details. For example in a
classroom, a child who is restless and does not pay attention may be having
psychometric disorders.
The key advantage of a case study is generalization. Using one case to make
a general judgment of the whole group.
c) Projective technique
These are indirect techniques specifically used to study personality e.g.
Rorschach test or Rorschach ink blot.
 Pour ink on a blank paper and ask the subjects what they see.
 Use an ambiguous picture to know about your past life, traumas, good
form of living, etc. for example a picture of a man and woman pausing
in a suggestive way. If sexually abused, one may see it that way. If in
a loving relationship, one may again associate it as such.
d) Clinical methods
The method combines observation with individualized questioning. It is mostly
used by doctors. They observe the person as they post questions. Questions
are generated spontaneously It is a good method by researchers have be good
to know what questions to ask and the sequence. This method was used by
Piaget.
1.6 METHODS OF STUDYING DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGE
a) Longitudinal
The researcher selects a group of children and follows them for a couple of
years or for life time. For example the study for social skills of 2 years old kids
sharing behavior, reciprocal turns, then some race are studied for the next 8
years.
Advantage
It allows one to see the changes as they occur within the same group.
Disadvantages
 Subject mortality- they could die or shift to another location or loose
interest in the study
 it is expensive to follow subjects for years.
 It is laborious.
 Takes a lot of time.
b) Cross sectional
Different groups of kids who differ in terms of their age but are similar in
important aspects or attributes e.g social economic status, ethnicity are
compared.
A=2yrs B=4 yrs C=6yrs D8 yrs
Using the above, a researcher can study how they share at different ages. The
children must be equivalent along variables that may influence their behavior.
Gender/sex should be balanced so that a group does not have one sex only.
Advantages
Inexpensive- in terms of resources i.e. time, money and labor.
Disadvantages
 it does not allow a researcher to witness the development changes that
occur.
 It is hard to equalize the group.
 Historical factors- past or present may have changed e.g. change in
education systems
Due to the above shortcomings, researchers have come up with sequential
designs which is more moderate and combines longitudinal and cross
sectional approaches. However, it cannot remove the effects of historical
factors .

2001 2002 2003 2004

A,2yrs A=3yrs A=4yrs A=5yrs
B,4yrs B=5yrs B=6yrs B=7yrs
C,6yrs C=7yrs C=8yrs C=9yrs
D,8yrs D=9yrs D=10yrs D=11yrs

1.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

a. Development is achieved through growth. One can grow but not develop.
For example a child can increase in size but may not be able to walk.
b. Development is a continuous life long process while growth is limited.
c. Growth refers to organic changes while development refers to non
organic functional changes.
d. Growth is quantitative while development is qualitative.
1.8 PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Principles are general patterns that hold true in describing the way a human
being develops. The main principles are:-
a. Development follows a definite orderly, sequential and predictable
pattern rather than random. For example a child sits, then stands and walks.
This order cannot be reversed.
b. Development follows two directional trends:-
i. Cephalocaudal trend- development proceeds from the head
to the heel. For example the child can hold the head upright and use
the hands before walking or using the legs.
ii. Proximodistal trend- Development proceeds from the
centreline of the body to the other parts. For example a child waves
the hands before using the fingers to pick something.
 c. Although development is a continuous process, it is not always smooth
and gradual. There are growth spurts that are periods of accelerated
growth. For example, the first two years and the adolescent period are
period of accelerated growth.
d. There are critical or sensitive periods in the development of body organs
and psychological functions. These are periods when the potential for
growth as well as harm from the environmental is at its maximum. Any
interference may result in permanent deficiencies or malfunction. For
example 14th to 19th day. This is the period when most organs of the body
are developing.
e. All developmental changes are a product of two basic processes-
maturation (heredity) and experience (learning).
f. Development is shaped by its historical/cultural context. For example
those born in the age of computers and internet are likely to have different
experiences.
g. Different aspects of development are interrelated. For example physical
development will influence social and mental development.
h. Human development is a holistic process and not piecemeal. It involves
physical, intellectual, spiritual, moral and emotional development.
i. Development is an individualized process. That is each child has a
characteristic rate of development regardless of the stage of development.
These differences may be due of genetic factors, nutrition, illness, lack of
exercise etc.
j. Development proceeds from general to specific and simple to complex.
For example babies move their arms (gross movement) before grasping
with thumb and index fingers (specific).
k. Development is cumulative process i.e. changes do not emerge all of a
sudden. Past event often have implications for the future.
l. There is much plasticity in human development. Plasticity refers to the
capacity for change in response to positive or negative life experiences. The
cause of development can change abruptly if important aspects of ones life
change. Example lack of food leads to retarded growth.
1.9 IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
 a. The teacher must know the basic principles of growth and development and
the characteristics that emerge at different age levels in order to provide
effective guidance for harmonious development of children.
b. Children come to school with individual differences due to their different
homes and environment. The teacher needs to know the potentialities and
capabilities of each and every child so that he may exploit them to the
maximum for the benefit of the society.
c. To ensure continuity from the past to the present, the teacher needs to
understand past aspects of development. The teacher will understand the
present in terms of its past. What students are is as a result of what they
have been through.
d. The teacher is an agent of socialization and there is need to know those
whom he will socialize with in order to facilitate their development as good
citizens.
e. The teacher needs to know and understand the basis of development and
what is abnormal.
f. To improve the quality of learning and teaching because the teacher knows
the normal characteristics of children at different ages.
g. The teacher will be able to understand himself/herself better.
1.10 SUMMARY
 Growth and development is both quantitative and qualitative respectively.
 There are general patterns or principles of development
 It is important to study human growth and development so as to understand
others and ourselves around us.
Review questions
i. Compare and contrast growth and development giving relevant examples.
ii. Describe the basic principles of growth and development
iii. Explain why it is important to study human growth and development.