Chapter II

48
49
 MATERIALS AND METHODS

II.1 Chemicals
Cerium (III) nitrate [Ce(NO3)3.6H2O] (Aldrich, AR grade, 99%), Zirconyl (IV)
nitrate [ZrO(NO3)2.2H2O] (Aldrich, AR grade, 99%), Erbium nitrate [Er(NO3)3.6H2O],
[La(NO3)3.6H2O] (Aldrich, AR grade, 99%), dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)and
Ascorbic acid (Fluka, AR grade) were purchased and used as received. The dilution or
concentration is used accordingto the experiment’s demand. For the green synthesis,
the freshly harvested Morindacitrifolia fruits, Jatrophagossypiifolia leaves and
Annonamuricata leaves were collected for preparing the extracts.
Ascorbic acid

The organic compound with the chemical formula C₆H₈O₆ is commonly

called ascorbic acid and is soluble in water. This nutrient is considered indispensable
for human health. It is present in various fruits and vegetables, with a notable
concentration in citrus fruits, strawberries, kiwi, and bell peppers [1]. Ascorbic acid,
also known as Vitamin C, is essential to numerous physiological processes. It is vital
for synthesizing collagen, neurotransmitters, and select hormones [2, 3]. It is a
monosaccharide with a carboxylic acid functional group. It shares a similar chemical
structure to glucose. Ascorbic acid is observed to exist in low pH conditions within
biological systems. Using ascorbic acid as a reducing agent has been extensively
employed in synthesizing nanomaterials, including metal oxides and metal
nanoparticles/nanocomposites.

Fig II.1 Structure of Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)

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Brilliant green dye
Basic green 1, called Brilliant green (BG) dye, is classified as a
triphenylmethane dye and synthetic organic compound. It is used as a fluorochrome, a
histology dye, an antiseptic medication, an antibacterial agent, a toxin, and an
environmental contaminant. This material serves as a chromophore and exhibits
antimicrobial properties in diverse fields. The dye manifests as a crystalline powder or
granules, showing a vivid green hue. The compound exhibits aqueous solubility,
albeit with variable degrees of dissolution contingent on the formulation or intended
use case. The dye's characteristic vivid green hue has been utilized for staining
biological specimens and its applications in textiles, cosmetics, and medicine. The
ingestion, inhalation, or topical application of Brilliant Green dye may result in
toxicity [4 – 8]. It is imperative to exercise prudence and adhere to safety protocols to
mitigate the likelihood of exposure. It is essential to adhere to appropriate disposal
techniques to avert environmental pollution.

Fig II.2 Structure of Brilliant green dye

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Safranin – O Dye
Safranin–O (SO) is also known as Basic red 2 dye is a biological stain used in
histology and Cytology. It is used as a counterstain in colouring cell nuclei red. It is
used as counterstain in both Gram stains and endospore staining. Safranin–O can also
be used for the detection of Cartilage, Mucin and Mast cell granules. In analytical
chemistry, Safranin is used as redox indicator. It is widely used in textile industries
and for biological purpose. It is generally used to dye wool, tannin mordant cotton and
silk. Out of the different dyes presently available, basic dyes are among the brightest
class of soluble dyes used by textile industries. Basic dyes are also known as cationic
dyes. It is stain which is positively charged (cationic) which can react with material
which is negatively charged (anionic). Safranin – O is a typical example of an organic
dye that belongs to Quinone-Imine class. The chemical structure of the dye is shown
below:

Fig II.3 Structure of Safranin – O Dye

JatrophaGossypiifolia
It is a vegetal species widely known as “bellyache bush” and is a multipurpose
medicinal plant primarily used in folk medicine to treat various diseases. It is broadly
distributed in countries of tropical, subtropical, and dry tropical weather and
tropicalsemiarid regions. Several human and veterinary uses in traditional medicine
include leaves, stems, roots, seeds, and latex. The preparation consists of infusion,
decoction, and maceration based on this plant by oral or topical routes. Mainly it is
used as antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antiophidian, analgesic, antipyretic,
50
antimicrobial, healing, antianemic, antidiabetic, and antihemorrhagic activities [9 –
12]. Also, this plant can be used for biodiesel production, pesticide, insecticide,
vermifuge, ornamentation, and even in religious rituals [13–17].

(a) Aerial parts of plant (b) Flowers

Fig II.4 JatrophaGossypiifolia L.
Morinda citrifolia
Morindacitrifolia, known commercially as Noni, grows extensively worldwide
and is one of the most significant sources of traditional medicines. It is a small
evergreen tree or shrub. It can grow in infertile, acidic and alkaline soils and is at
home in dry and wet areas. All parts of the plant have traditional and modern uses,
including roots and bark (dyes, medicine), trunks (firewood, tools), and leaves and
fruits (food, medicines). The medicinal applications, both traditional and modern,
span many conditions and illnesses, although most of these have yet to be
scientifically supported. Noni is well suited for inter-cropping within traditional
agroforestry subsistence farming systems or as a mono-crop in full sun. It has attained
significant economic importance worldwide in recent years through various health
and cosmetic products made from leaves and fruits. These include fruit juices and
powders made from the fruits or leaves [18].

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 Plant Tree Flowers and Friuts

Fig II.5 Morinda citrifolia

Annona muricata
Annona muricata commonly called Soursopor Graviola, is a tropical plant
renowned for its fruit, filled with selected restorative benefits, in supplement to
particular toxicological impacts [19]. Annona muricata belongs to the Annonaceae
(Custard apple) family of the order Magnoliales and Division Magnoliophyta. Out of
70 species, Annona muricata is found to be the most extensively grown. The Annona
muricata tree grows up to 5–10 m tall and 15–83 cm in breadth with low branches. It
has a tendency to blossom and fruit for a large segment of the year, though there are
more characterized seasons relying upon altitude. It is scattered in the tropical areas.
The flowers of the plant are yellow-green in colour. The fruit is an ovoid berry, dull
green in shading. Each fruit may contain about 55 to170 seeds, which are black when
fresh and turn light brown when dry. The fruit is filled with a white and creamy pulp
with a distinct aroma and flavour [20, 21].

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 Fig II.6Annonamuricata
II.2 GREEN SYNTHESIS OF CERIA – ZIRCONIA NANOCOMPOSITES
II.2.1. Synthesis with Jatropha gossypiifolia plant extract
The extract was prepared using freshly harvested leaves of Jatropha
gossypiifolia. A total of 10 gm leaves were carefully collected and subjected to a
thorough washing process using double distilled water. Following this, the leaves
were meticulously cut into small, finely chopped pieces. To prepare the leaf extract, a
quantity of leaves was carefully placed inside a flask with a capacity of 250 ml.
Subsequently, 100 ml of double distilled water was added to the flask. The flask
containing the leaves and water was then subjected to a temperature of 80°C in a
water bath for 40 minutes. The resulting mixture obtained was filtered using
Whatman No: 1 filter paper, and the filtrate obtained from this process was
subsequently utilized to synthesize CeO2-ZrO2nanocomposites.
Ceria-Zirconia nanocomposites were synthesized using the hydrothermal
method with varying molar ratios of Ce: Zr, specifically 1:1, 0.8:0.2, 0.6:0.4, 0.4:0.6,
and 0.2:0.8. Cerium nitrate and Zirconyl nitrate were individually dissolved in double
distilled water and subsequently combined within a Pyrex glass dish. A clear solution
was obtained by adding 20 mL of Jatropha gossypiifolia leaf extract to the
abovementioned mixture and subjecting it to vigorous stirring at 500 rpm using a
magnetic stirrer. The reaction mixture was calcinated for 2 hours at a temperature of
53
500°C to obtain the CZ nanocomposites. The composition of these nanocomposites is
provided in Table II.1.
Table II.1 Composition of synthesized Ceria–Zirconia nanocomposites
Sample code Nanocomposites Formula Mole ratio of Ce : Zr

CZJC–1 CeZrO2 1:1

CZJC–2 Ce0.8Zr 0.2O2 0.8 : 0.2

CZJC–3 Ce0.6Zr 0.4O2 0.6 : 0.4

CZJC–4 Ce0.4Zr 0.6O2 0.4 : 0.6

CZJC–5 Ce0.2Zr 0.8O2 0.2 : 0.8

Photocatalytic degradation of Brilliant green (BG) dye

The Malachite green series of triphenylmethane dyes includes Brilliant green
(BG), which exhibits basic cationic properties. Brilliant green colorant was procured
from Merck (Germany) and employed as-received state without undergoing additional
purification steps. To prepare a stock solution, 1 gm of the BG dye was dissolved in
one liter of double distilled water, and the resulting solution has a concentration of
1000 mg/L. The concentration of different solutions used in the present investigation
through dilution and the pH of the solution can be modulated using a 0.1M solution of
sodium hydroxide or hydrochloric acid. The photocatalytic degradation of Brilliant
Green (BG) dye under direct sunlight irradiation has been observed for all the
synthesized samples of CZJC-1, CZJC-2, CZJC-3, CZJC-4, and CZJC-5. A series of
glass containers to hold 100 mL of dye solution with a concentration of 10 mgL -1 and
loaded the containers with varying quantities of photocatalysts, ranging from 10 to 50
mg and then investigated the degradation of the dye solution for 120 minutes.
The samples were taken from the mixture at 30, 60, 90, and 120 minutes using
a micropipette and centrifuged the samples at 2000 rpm for 5 minutes. After
centrifuging, analyze the supernatants to determine the final concentration of the dye.
The assessment of BG dye elimination is measured by the absorption at a wavelength
of 625 nm using a UV-visible spectrophotometer. The photocatalytic activity of
Ceria-Zirconia mixed metal oxide nanocomposites has been investigated at varying
pH levels of 4 and 10 to understand the impact of pH on the observed results upon
introducing HCl and NaOH to modulate the solution's pH [22, 23].

54
Photocatalytic degradation of Safranin–O (SO) Dye
Safranin – O (SO) dye has been used for photocatalytic degradation under
direct sun light irradiation for all the synthesized samples of CZJC–1, CZJC–2,
CZJC–3, CZJC–4 and CZJC–5. In this case, several glass vessels containing 100 ml
dye solution (10 mgL-1 of dye) and different amounts of photo catalysts (10, 20 30,
40, 50 mg) were used to degrade the dye solution for 120 minutes.
At an appropriate time intervals of 30, 60, 90 and 120 minutes, about 5 mL of
the samples were withdrawn from mixture by using a micropipette and centrifuged at
2000 rpm for 5 minutes. After centrifuged, the supernatants were analyzed for the
determination of final concentration of dye. The removal of SO dye was determined at
520 nm based on the absorption by using a UV–Visible spectrophotometer. The
experiments at different pH values of 4 and 10 were also carried out to reveal the role
of pH on photocatalytic activity of Ceria – Zirconia mixed metal oxide
nanocomposites. The pH values were adjusted by adding HCl and NaOH solutions
[24, 25].

II.2.2 Synthesis of Erbium doped CZ NCs with Morinda citrifolia fruit extract
Freshly collected Morinda citrifolia fruits were used to produce the extract.
One kilogram of fresh fruits was thoroughly washed with tap water and then washed
twice with double distilled water to remove dust and other contaminants. The fruits
were placed in a glass jar and fermented for 10 to 12 days. The extract was then
collected and filtered with Whatman filter paper No.1, and then the extract was
refrigerated at 4°C for further use. Erbium doped Ceria-Zirconia nanocomposites,
(CeO2) (Zr1-xO2) (Er2O3) xO2 (x = 0.0, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5) were synthesized using a simple
hydrothermal technique with Zr:Er molar ratios of 1:0, 0.9:0.1, 0.7:0.3, and 0.5:0.5.
Erbium nitrate [Er (NO3)3.6H2O], Cerium nitrate [Ce (NO3)3.6H2O], and Zirconyl
nitrate [ZrO (NO3)2.2H2O] were separately dissolved in double distilled water and
combined in a Pyrex glass dish. A 25 mL of Morinda citrifolia fruit extract was added
to the preceding mixture and vigorously stirred at 500 rpm with a magnetic stirrer to
obtain a clear solution. The dish containing the reaction mixture was calcined at
500°C for 2 hours to get the CZ and ECZ nanocomposite powders whose
compositions are listed in Table II.2.

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Table II.2 Composition of synthesized CZ and Er-doped CZ nanocomposites
Sample code Composition of nanocomposites Mole ratio of Ce : Zr : Er

CZ CeO2–ZrO2 1:1:0

ECZ–1 (CeO2)(ZrO2) 0.9(Er2O3)0.1O2 1 : 0.9 : 0.1

ECZ–2 (CeO2)(ZrO2) 0.7 (Er2O3)0.3O2 1 : 0.7 : 0.3

ECZ–3 (CeO2)(ZrO2) 0.5 (Er2O3)0.5O2 1 : 0.5 : 0.5

Cytotoxic analysis
The cellular cytotoxicity of the CZ and ECZ nanocomposites was investigated
using the MTT assay, a well-established method for evaluating enzyme activity
through a sensitive and quantitative colorimetric assessment. The MCF-7 cell line was
seeded in a 96-well plate at a density of 50,000 cells per well, containing 100 μL of
culture medium. Various concentrations of CZ and ECZ were administered to the
partial monolayer in microtiter plates. Subsequently, the plates were subjected to
incubation at a temperature of 37°C within an environment enriched with 5% carbon
dioxide for 24 hours. The test solutions were carefully extracted from the wells after
the successful incubation period, then, a precise quantity of 0.05mg MTT was
introduced into each well. Subsequently, the plates were subjected to the incubation
procedure, wherein they were placed in a controlled environment at a temperature of
37°C for 4 hours. The incubation environment was enriched with 5% carbon dioxide
to facilitate optimal growth conditions. The plates were carefully extracted from the
experimental setup, and the liquid portion of the sample, known as the supernatant,
was meticulously eliminated. To facilitate the dissolution of the formazan, which had
been generated during the experimental procedure, a volume of 100 millilitres of
dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was introduced into the plates. Finally, the plates were
subjected to gentle agitation until complete dissolution of the formazan was achieved,
and then the absorbance at a wavelength of 590 nm was measured using a microplate
reader.
II.2.3 Microwave synthesis of Ceria-Zirconia nanocomposites
The definite amounts of Cerium (III) nitrate [Ce(NO 3)3.6H2O] (Aldrich, AR
grade, 99%) and Zirconyl (IV) nitrate [ZrO(NO 3)2.2H2O] (Aldrich, AR grade, 99%)
were dissolved in double distilled water to get solution separately. Combine the

56
mixture in five Pyrex glass dishes with the molar ratios of 1:1, 0.8:0.2, 0.6:0.4,
0.4:0.6, and 0.2:0.8, respectively. The required stoichiometric mole ratio of ascorbic
acid (Fluka, AR grade) was introduced into the pre-existing solutions and
continuously stirred until thorough homogenization to achieve optimal clarity. Then,
cautiously transfer the homogeneous solution to the specially modified standard
microwave oven of the type, Samsung model MG23F301T, manufactured by
Samsung India Limited, India. The frequency of this microwave oven is 2.45 GHz
with a power output of 800W. In the initial stage of the experiment, the solution
temperature rapidly increased and reached its boiling point, and hence the dehydration
process commenced. During dehydration, the compound undergoes decomposition,
causing it to break down and release various gases such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
water vapour, and minor amounts of nitrogen dioxide. Consequently, pale yellow
residues were obtained, and the process took approximately 10 minutes from the
initial evaporation of the liquid to the final production of a significant amount of
Ceria-Zirconia nanocomposites. Repeating the procedure under identical conditions
confirmed the reproducibility of experiment, which led to attaining similar properties.
(a)In vitro antibacterial assay by agar diffusion method
The Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) used the standard
microdilution method to compute minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and
minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) [26]. Escherichia coli (E. coli)
MTCC443, Klebsiella pneumonia (K.pneumonia) MTCC530, Staphylococcus aureus
(S.aureus) MTCC96, and Enterococcus faecalis (E.facecalis) MTCC439 were selected
as indicator pathogen organisms. Bacteria were streaked from the glycerol-frozen
stock onto blood agar plates, allowing to grow overnight at 37°C. Cells from the fresh
plates were suspended at a concentration of 1x106 colony-forming units per millilitre
(CFU/mL) in Mueller-Hinton broth (M-H) and incubated at 37°C and 200 rpm in a
shaker incubator. Diluted the bacteria in broth to a concentration of 10 5 CFU per 100
mL and then added them to a duplicate containing 100 mL of diluted sample stock.
The stock solution of samples was made by dissolving 10 µg of samples in 1 mL of
DMF and diluting it to various concentrations. The plate was incubated at 37°C for 48
hours, and the MIC was determined as the lowest concentration with clear wells. The
MBC of the samples was measured by plating the wells with growth inhibition and
noting the lowest concentration at which no growth occurred.

57
(b) In vitro antifungal assay by plate dilution method
In vitro experiment was conducted to evaluate the antifungal properties of
Ceria-Zirconia nanocomposites by the procedure described [27, 28], with slight
modifications in dilution, and Petri plates were utilized. A standardized fungal spore
suspension consisting of approximately 1 µL (1x10 7 spores/mL), was subjected to a
meticulous liquidation process. This liquidated suspension was then combined with
CZ NPs at different concentrations and subsequently introduced into the media,
allowing it to diffuse. Positive and negative test controls were employed in this study,
utilizing the antifungal agent Fluconazole at a concentration of 1.5 µg/mL as the
positive control. Additionally, 2 mL of a 2% solution of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)
served as the negative control. Over 7 consecutive days, the Petri dishes containing
the samples were placed in a controlled environment with a temperature of 20±2°C.
This incubation aimed to facilitate the growth of fungi present in the samples.
Following the incubation period, the diameter of fungal growth (measured in
millimeters) on each Petri dish was recorded. These measurements were then
averaged to obtain a representative value for fungal growth across the plates. The
experimental procedure involved conducting the assay in triplicate, a common
practice to ensure robust statistical analysis. The fungal growth inhibition percentage
was then calculated concerning the negative control using a formula described [29].

Fungal growth Inhibition =

Growth∈negative control ( mm )−Growth∈treatment (mm)
Growth ∈negative control(mm)

After incubation time, the minimum inhibitory of CZ NCs inhibiting visible

fungal growth was recorded.
II.2.4 Green synthesis of Lanthanum co-doped Zirconium doped Ceria
nanocomposites
Lanthanum co-doped and Zirconium doped Ceria nanocomposites (CZL NCs)
were synthesized via a facile hydrothermal method at the molar ratio of Ce:Zr:La are
1:0.8:0.2, 1:0.6:0.4, 1:0.5:0.5, 1:0.4:0.6 and1:0.2:0.8 respectively. Cerium nitrate
[Ce(NO3)3.6H2O], Zirconyl (IV) nitrate [ZrO(NO3)2.2H2O] and Lanthanum (III)
nitrate [La (NO3)3.6H2O] were dissolved separately in double distilled water and
mixed together in a Pyrex glass dish. 20 mL of Annonamuricata leaf extract was
58
added to the above mixture and stirred vigorously in a magnetic stirrer at about 500
rpm to obtain a clear solution. The dish containing the reaction mixture was
calcinedin a muffle furnace at 500 oC for 2 hours to get pale yellow Lanthanum co-
doped and Zirconium doped Ceria nanocompositesand their compositions are given in
Table II.3.

TableII.3 Composition of synthesized CZL nanocomposites:

Name of the
Composition Mole ratio ofCe:Zr: La
Sample

CZL-1 CeZr0.8 La 0.2O3 1:0.8: 0.2

CZL-2 CeZr0.6 La 0.4O3 1:0.6: 0.4

CZL-3 CeZr0.5 La 0.5O3 1:0.5: 0.5

CZL-4 CeZr0.4 La 0.6O3 1:0.4: 0.6

CZL-5 CeZr0.2 La 0.8O3 1:0.2: 0.8

(a) In vitro antibacterial assay by Agar diffusion method

Antibacterial activities of Lanthanum co-doped and Zirconium doped Ceria
nanocomposites (CZL NCs) was studied against standard and clinical strains of Gram
positive and Gram negative pathogens of Escherichia coli (E. coli) MTCC443,
Klebsiella pneumonia (K.pneumonia) MTCC530, Staphylococcus aureus (S.aureus)
MTCC96 and Enterococcus faecalis (E.facecalis) MTCC439 by agar well diffusion
method. Bacteria were streaked from the glycerol-frozen stock onto blood agar plates,
allowing to grow overnight at 37°C. Cells from the fresh plates were suspended at a
concentration of 1x106 colony-forming units per millilitre (CFU/mL) in Mueller-
Hinton broth (M-H) and incubated at 37°C and 200 rpm in a shaker incubator. Diluted
the bacteria in broth to a concentration of 10 5 CFU per 100 mL and then added them
to a duplicate containing 100 mL of diluted sample stock. The stock solution of
samples was made by dissolving 10 µg of samples in 1 mL of DMF and diluting it to
various concentrations. The plate was incubated at 37°C for 48 hoursand the MIC was
determined as the lowest concentration with clear wells. The MBC of the samples was

59
measured by plating the wells with growth inhibition and noting the lowermost
concentration at which no growth occurred.
(b) In vitro antifungal assay by plate dilution method
In vitro experiment was conducted to evaluate the antifungal properties
ofLanthanum co-doped andZirconium doped Ceria nanocomposites (CZL NCs) by
the procedure described [27,28] with slight modifications in dilution and Petri plates
were utilized. A standardized fungal spore suspension consisting of approximately 1
µL (1x107 spores/mL) was subjected to a meticulous liquidation process. This
liquidated suspension was then combined with CZL NCs at different concentrations
and subsequently introduced into the media, allowing it to diffuse. Positive and
negative test controls were employed in this study, utilizing the antifungal agent
Fluconazole at a concentration of 1.5 µg/mL as the positive control. Additionally, 2
mL of a 2% solution of dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO) served as the negative control.
Over 7 consecutive days, the Petri dishes containing the samples were placed in a
controlled environment with a temperature of 20±2°C. This incubation aimed to
facilitate the growth of fungi present in the samples. Following the incubation period,
the diameter of fungal growth on each Petri dish was noted. These measurements
were then averaged to obtain a representative value for fungal growth across the
plates. The experimental technique involved in conducting the assay in triplicate, a
common practice to ensure robust statistical analysis. The minimum inhibitory of
CZL NCs inhibiting visible fungal growth was noted after incubation time.The fungal
growth inhibition percentage was then calculated concerning the negative control
using the formula described in the literature [29].
II.3 INSTRUMENTAL ANALYSIS
II.3.1 X-ray diffractometer
The X-ray diffractometer's set-up consists of several crucial components that
work together to generate and analyse X-ray diffraction patterns. The fundamental
components comprise the subsequent components:
X-ray generator: The X-ray tube is the customary source of X-rays in a
diffractometer. The system consists of two distinct electrodes: a cathode and an
anode. The cathode exhibits electron emission upon applying a high electric field, and
these electrons are subsequently accelerated towards the anode. X-ray generation
results from the interaction between the anode and electrons.

60
Monochromator: Themonochromator plays a crucial role in the X-ray setup by
selectively filtering the broad spectrum of wavelengths emanating from the X-ray
source. A monochromator is utilized in the experimental setup to attain a
monochromatic X-ray beam. The material being analyzed possesses a crystalline
structure, typically graphite or quartz, demonstrating a selective capacity to diffract
X-rays of specific wavelengths. The monochromatization process entails the
discriminating filtration of undesirable X-ray wavelengths, thereby facilitating the
transmission of the intended wavelength.
Goniometer: The goniometer is an essential apparatus that securely grasps and
accurately orients the specimen. The apparatus facilitates accurate manipulation of the
specimen, enabling regulation of the X-ray beam angle of incidence through rotation
and tilting. The experimental setup involves the manipulation of the goniometer stage
to achieve precise alignment of the crystal concerning the incident X-ray beam.
Sample holder: The sample holder has been engineered to affix the crystal sample
onto the goniometer stage firmly. Implementing a stabilization and alignment
mechanism is imperative for ensuring the accuracy and precision of measurements
obtained from the sample.
Detector:The detection of diffracted X-rays is accomplished by using an appropriate
detector. Various detector technologies are utilized in X-ray diffractometers, such as
scintillation and solid-state detectors. Scintillation detectors rely on the luminescent
properties of scintillating crystals to produce light emission upon interaction with X-
rays. The incident light is transduced into an electrical signal for detection. In contrast
to other types of detectors, solid-state detectors employ semiconductor materials to
convert X-rays into electrical signals. The measurement of diffracted X-ray intensity
as a function of diffraction angle is conducted using sensors.
The signals emanating from the detector are acquired and subjected to
processing by a system designed for data acquisition. The standard methodology
entails the utilization of electronic materials and computational algorithms to convert
the electrical signals detected by the sensor into a binary code. The data acquisition
system is tasked with capturing the positional and intensity information of X-rays that
have undergone diffraction. The utilization of control software enables the
functionality of X-ray diffractometers.The software implementation allows the
operator to control the instrumental variables, such as the X-ray tube voltage, the
monochromator selection, the sample alignment, and the data acquisition parameters.
61
The diffraction data obtained can be analyzed and interpreted using various
visualization and analysis techniques.
Incorporating appropriate safety protocols is crucial to guarantee the well-
being of operators during the operation of X-ray diffractometers, owing to the
emission of ionizing radiation by these devices. Incorporating radiation attenuation
measures and interlocking mechanisms to prevent the release of X-rays in the absence
of adequate containment is a critical aspect of ensuring the secure functioning of the
instrument.The synergistic functioning of diverse constituents allows for the
generation of X-rays, permits the choice of a singularly coloured beam, guarantees the
precise positioning of the specimen, streamlines the identification and registration of
dispersed X-rays, and ultimately empowers the procurement and evaluation of data
essential for the ascertainment of crystal architecture. The accurate and reliable results
obtained from X-ray diffractometers require careful calibration and operation. The
operation of these instruments requires a specific level of expertise due to their high
level of advancement.
II.3.2 Scanning Electron Microscope
The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) is widely used in scientific research
and industry for high-resolution surface visualization of materials. The specimen's
topography, morphology, and composition are thoroughly documented using this
method. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) operates based on fundamental
principles and utilizes specific instrumentation. The process of electron beam
generation in scanning electron microscopes involves using an electron gun to
generate a concentrated stream of electrons. The prevalent electron source used in
diverse applications is generally a heated filament, similar to those employed in
conventional television sets. Upon subjecting the filament to thermal energy,
thermionic emission ensues, leading to the liberation of electrons. Achieving electron
beam focus entails utilizing a series of electromagnetic lenses to accelerate and
concentrate the emitted electrons. The investigated lenses use magnetic fields to
control the path of electrons, guiding them towards a restricted area on the specimen's
surface to achieve the desired focus.
The specimen under investigation is contained within the specimen chamber,
maintaining a vacuum environment, which is crucial in minimizing electron scattering
and promoting unimpeded electron travel to the surface of the specimen.
Implementing a vacuum is imperative to mitigate any potential harmful effects on the
62
sample due to the presence of air molecules. The pre-imaging processing of
specimens is a crucial pre-requisite that must be carried out before SEM analysis. In
electron microscopy, the conventional sample preparation involves depositing a
conductive substance, such as gold or carbon, in a thin film. Implementing this
precautionary measure aims to reduce the likelihood of specimen charging caused by
electron beam irradiation. Scanning coils are of utmost importance in electron
microscopy, as they enable precise manipulation of the electron beam to navigate the
surface of the specimen. The procedure uses a systematic approach to guarantee
systematic and accurate imaging. The specimen undergoes a faster scanning process
utilizing a beam, similar to the methodology used in image scanning.
Additionally, excess signals are generated after exposing the sample to
electron beam irradiation, comprising secondary electrons. The scanning electron
microscope (SEM) primarily identifies and measures the secondary electron signal.
The phenomenon of low-energy electron emission is a consequence of the intricate
interaction between the electron beam and the surface of the specimen. The SEM
image is obtained by detecting emitted electrons utilizing secondary electron
detectors, producing a corresponding signal. Using a scanning electron microscope
(SEM) enables the observation of a supplementary movement, namely the detection
of backscattered electrons. The observed phenomenon displays the retrograde
scattering of high-energy electrons, ascribed to their interactions with the constituent
atoms of the sample. Backscattered electron detectors are utilized to detect electrons
that experience scattering in the opposite direction. The acquired signal intensity from
the detectors is a crucial parameter that provides valuable insights into the sample
composition. The imaging and image formation process involves converting signals
detected from secondary or backscattered electrons into electrical signals. As
mentioned earlier, the signs are amplified and utilized to generate a visual
representation. The imaging process is achieved by systematically scanning a
specimen's surface using an electron beam. The signals identified at each scanning
location are subsequently recorded for analytical purposes. The conversion of signal
intensity to brightness or grayscale values generates a two-dimensional depiction of
the specimen.
In summary, utilizing electron beams with high focusing capabilities, vacuum
conditions, and precise detectors enables scanning electron microscopes to produce
high-resolution images of specimen surfaces. The multifaceted capabilities of
63
scanning electron microscopes render them a valuable instrument in various scientific
and industrial domains, encompassing materials science, nanotechnology, biology,
geology, and forensic studies.
II.3.3 Energydispersive X-ray analysis
Energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) is applied along with SEM to analyze
the types and quantity of elements at the nanomaterials surface or in the vicinity of the
surface to provide a specimen map. An electron beam with energy of 10–20 KeV
strikes the conducting sample surface, causing X-rays to emit from the material, and
the energy of the emitted X-rays depends on the material under examination. Moving
the electron beam across the material can obtain an image of each element in the
sample. Acquiring the images generally takes more duration, as the X-ray intensity is
low. Since X-rays are formed in 2-µm deep area, EDX is not an accurate technique
for surface characterization. In the EDX, the composition and the quantity of the
heavy metal ions of the nanoparticles, which are placed near/or at the surface of a
sample, can be measured. At the same time, elements with atomic number below 11
are hard to be detected by EDX.
II.3.3 UV-Visible spectroscopy

UV-Visible spectroscopy is the scientific method of analyzing the interaction

between molecules and UV–Visible light. The phenomenon under consideration
furnishes data regarding the electronic transitions within a given specimen. This data
can be utilized to ascertain the chemical composition and concentrations of samples.
A typical UV-Visible spectrophotometer is depicted in Figure II.10. The implemented
light source in the system consists of either a UV lamp or a tungsten-halogen lamp.
The illumination source emits a broad spectrum of ultraviolet and visible
wavelengths. A monochromator is a vital tool for researchers to select a specific
wavelength of light from the broad spectrum generated by the light source. The
optical apparatus consists of a prism or diffraction grating that disperses light into its
constituent wavelengths, allowing the user to isolate the desired wavelength
selectively.

The fundamental principles and operational mechanisms of UV-Visible

spectroscopy are outlined. The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuum of
electromagnetic radiation characterized by various wavelengths or frequencies. UV-
Visible spectroscopy is an analytical technique that pertains to the spectral regions
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characterized by wavelengths that fall within the range of 200 to 400 nanometres
(nm). In contrast, the visible region encompasses wavelengths spanning 400 to 800
nm. Light absorption involves electronic transitions in molecules within the UV-
Visible range. The transitions of electron promotion from electronic states of lower
energy (ground) to those of higher energy (excited) and the energy that has been
assimilated corresponds to a particular wavelength of electromagnetic radiation. UV-
Visible spectroscopy is based on the fundamental principle of Beer-Lambert law. The
observed data indicates that the degree to which a sample absorbs light (A) is directly
proportional to both the concentration (c) of the absorbing species and the distance (l)
that the light must travel through the sample.
A = εcl
Where ε = Molar absorptivity or extinction coefficient, a fixed value for a particular
substance at a designated wavelength.
II.3.4 FT–IR Spectroscopy
FT–IR spectroscopy is a powerful analytical technique to examine molecular
vibrational modes. The results provide valuable information on the analyzed
specimen's chemical bonding and functional moieties. The Fourier Transform Infrared
(FT–IR) spectroscopy is a widely employed analytical methodology in various
domains, including chemistry, materials science, pharmaceuticals, forensic analysis,
and environmental monitoring. The fundamental principles of Fourier Transform
Infrared (FT–IR) Spectroscopy are of great importance in materials science. The
underlying principle of FT–IR spectroscopy is based on molecules displaying
absorption of infrared radiation at specific frequencies that correspond to their
characteristic vibrational modes. The specimen intended for FT–IR spectroscopy is
typically processed into a thin film or situated within an appropriate holder. Solid
materials can undergo comminution with a proper matrix or compaction into pellets.
Direct analysis or interposing between two transparent windows is a viable liquid
characterization method.
The instrumentation of the Fourier Transform Infrared spectrophotometer is
shown in Figure II.11. The infrared source used in the FT–IR spectrophotometer is a
broadband emitter that releases radiation encompassing a broad spectrum of
frequencies within the IR region. Typical sources of interest include Globar, a silicon
carbide rod, a Nernst glower, or a heated filament. The interferometer is crucial in the
FT–IR spectrometer as it bifurcates the infrared beam into two distinct arms. The
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optical setup comprises a beam splitter that bifurcates the incident beam into two
trajectories: the incident beam and the reference beam.
The sample compartment is designed to accommodate the sample and
facilitate the transmission of infrared radiation through it. The assemblage may
comprise diverse add-ons such as sample holders, ATR (Attenuated Total
Reflectance) cells, and transmission cells, contingent on the nature of the sample. The
interferometer facilitates the creation of an interference pattern, commonly referred to
as an interferogram, upon recombining two beams that have traversed distinct paths.
The interferogram provides insights into the absorption properties of the specimen.
The acquired electrical signal is subjected to Fourier transform, a mathematical
technique employed for data processing in materials science. The interferogram is
transformed into the infrared absorption spectrum by applying the Fourier transform.
The obtained spectrum is analyzed spectrally to identify the functional groups
and chemical bonds of specimen. In materials science, it is noteworthy that FT-IR
spectrometers are commonly outfitted with software that streamlines data gathering,
manipulation, and interpretation. The software enables the manipulation of spectra,
fitting of peaks, and implementation of diverse data processing methodologies.
Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy facilitates gathering valuable
knowledge regarding various samples molecular structure, functional groups, and
chemical composition. It is a versatile analytical technique in multiple scientific and
industrial fields.
II.3.5 Photocatalytic test chamber
The photocatalytic chamber is a device employed for the examination of
photocatalytic processes. The photochemical reactions are triggered by photon
absorption and a catalyst, leading to chemical transformations. The experimental
chambers are engineered to establish controlled settings to investigate the efficacy of
photocatalysts under pre-defined circumstances. The photocatalytic reactor used is
given in Figure II.12 with its essential constituents.

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 Fig II.12Photocatalytic test chamber

The photocatalytic chamber is essential to understanding the photocatalytic

degradation reactions and their mechanism. In the realm of photocatalysis, it is
customary to construct a hermetically sealed chamber to control the reaction
variables. The system comprises a reaction chamber or cell that enables the
photocatalytic reaction. It also includes supplementary components for sample
preparation, illumination, and monitoring functions. The primary part of the
photocatalytic chamber is the reaction chamber. The objective of the container is to
confine both the photocatalyst and the reactants within a defined space. In general, the
construction of this object involves using glass or quartz materials, which aid in
transmitting light within a particular range of wavelengths. The configuration of the
chamber can be customized to fulfil specific experimental requirements. The available
structures comprise a planar surface, a setup with a thin film layer, or a reactor with a
flow-through design.
The illumination system supplies light energy that triggers the photocatalytic
activation. A standard configuration of this equipment comprises a light source, filters

67
for regulating the light wavelength, and optical components for uniform light
distribution across the reaction area. Typical light sources include UV lamps, LEDs,
or lasers, based on the preferred wavelength and light intensity. Temperature control
is crucial in many photocatalytic reactions as they depend highly on temperature.
Therefore, precise temperature control is necessary for optimal results. The chamber
can have a temperature control mechanism, such as a heating or cooling component,
to sustain the desired temperature throughout the reaction.
II.3.6 Antimicrobial tests
The assessment of antimicrobial efficiency is a vital procedure employed in
materials to measure the performance of antimicrobial agents or materials against
microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. It aids in assessing the
efficacy of said agents in suppressing or eradicating microbial proliferation. The
salient features of antimicrobial evaluation are: The judicious selection of suitable test
organisms is imperative for assessing antimicrobial efficacy. Frequently employed
microorganisms encompass bacterial strains such as Escherichia coli, Klebsiella
pneumonia,Staphylococcus aureus, and Enterococcus faecalisalongside fungal species
likeAspergillusniger,Penicillium,and Candida albicans.Viruses pertinent to particular
applications, such as bacteriophages or specific strains of influenza, can also be
employed.
The disc diffusion method requires depositing antimicrobial agents in paper
discs or wells onto an agar plate inoculated with the test microorganism. The observed
zone of inhibition, the transparent region surrounding the disc, measures the agent
efficacy in impeding the proliferation of microorganisms. The agar dilution method
integrates the antimicrobial agent into the agar matrix at varying concentrations. The
organisms are then streaked or spotted onto the agar plates for analysis. The minimum
inhibitory concentration of the antimicrobial agent is ascertained. The broth dilution
method determines the antimicrobial agent's minimum inhibitory concentration
(MIC). The agent is subjected to serial dilutions in liquid media, followed by injection
of the test microorganism into the wells. The minimum inhibitory concentration
(MIC) is defined as the lowest concentration of the agent that effectively inhibits
visible growth.
II.3.7 Debye-Scherrerequation
The Debye-Scherrer formula is a decisive equation in the field of X-ray
crystallography. It is a fundamental tool used to understand the crystalline nature of
68
the materials. X-ray diffraction is a highly advantageous technique for ascertaining
the dimensions of nano crystallites within bulk materials of a nano-crystalline nature.
Using the formula, researchers can unprecedentedly enhance the
understanding of various natural and synthetic substances.

kλ
d=
β cos θ

Whereλ is the X-ray wavelength in nanometer, β is the peak width of the diffraction
peak profile at half maximum height resulting from small crystallite size in radians
and K is a constant related to crystallite shape, normally taken as 0.9. The value of β
in 2θ axis of diffraction profile must be in radians. The θ can be in degrees or radians,
since the cosθcorresponds to the same number [30].
II.3.8 Percentage of degradation of dyes
The measurement of absorption spectra for dyes necessitates recording shifts
in intensity, particularly at the wavelength corresponding to the maximum absorption
of dye (λmax). The dye absorption spectra are recorded in terms of change in intensity
at λmax of a dye. The percentage degradation of dye is calculated using the formula
[31].
Percentage of Degradation = (C0 – Ct / C0) x100
Where C0 = Initial concentration of the dye solution.
Ct = Concentration of the dye solution after irradiation in time‘t’ minutes.

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