Buma 20053 Business Research

Republic of the Philippines
POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Management Technology Department
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
FOR
BUMA 20053
BUSINESS RESEARCH
COMPILED BY:
PROF. EDRIAN G. BLASQUINO
1|BUMA20053 / Business Research

INTRODUCTION
The Business Research introduces the Diploma in Office Management Technology-

Legal Office Management Technology students to the simplified and direct to the point
techniques in writing a thesis proposal, from Chapters 1 to 3, and designing the appropriate
survey instrument.
This instructional material aims to provide students with the necessary skills and
knowledge to determine the information necessary to address the identified basic or applied
research problem and using these skills and knowledge, develop an actionable research
proposal.
Students will develop core competence required to carry out a research enquiry,
including identifying and formulating research problems, setting appropriate research objectives,
selecting and applying appropriate research approaches, instruments, sampling and analysis
methods as well as the importance of ethical conduct in business research. At the end of the
semester, skills in writing a research proposal in business should be acquired.
Students are expected to answer all items under activities/assessment and should
submit a well-written thesis proposal in order to pass the course.
Course Outcomes
It is expected that after finishing the course, the students must:
✓ Explain how research contributes to business decisions and practices
✓ Discuss and apply an advanced understanding of business research process
✓ Demonstrate proficiency in identifying a good research topic and defining relevant

research problems
✓ Demonstrate proficiency in conducting a critical literature review that deals effectively

with relevant concepts/theories/models
✓ Compare and contrast qualitative and quantitative research methods and the suitability
of different methods of gathering data

Course Contents
The students who will take this course will have to deal with the following topics
Part 1: Introduction to Business Research…………………………………………………..
Part 2: The Research Proposal……………………………………………………………….
Part 3: Designing a Survey Instrument………………………………………………………
Course Requirement
✓ Determine a research topic worth investigating related to human resource management
✓ Write a thesis proposal comprising Chapters 1 to 3
✓ Design an appropriate survey instrument
✓ Demonstrate ability to defend research proposal in a professional manner
Grading System
Course Grading System
Class Standing: 70%
• Quizzes
• Activities
• Projects/Assessments
• Research Proposal
Midterm/ Final Examinations 30%
Midterm Grade + Final Term Grade = 100%
Consultation Hours
Time availability of the course facilitator for further discussions on the activities indicated
in this instructional material can be possible for those learners who can join scheduled online
classes throughout the course duration.

PART 1
INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS RESEARCH
OVERVIEW:
Business research can be described as a systematic and organized effort to investigate

a specific problem encountered in the work setting that needs a solution. It comprises a series
of steps designed and executed, with the goal of finding answers to the issues that
are of concern to the manager in the work environment. This means that the first step in the
research is to know where the problem areas exist in the organization, and to identify as
clearly and specifically as possible the problems that need to be studied and resolved. Once
the problem that needs attention is clearly defined, then steps can be taken to gather
information, analyze the data, and determine the factors that are associated with the problem
and solve it by taking the necessary corrective measures.
This entire process by which we attempt to solve problems is called research.

Thus, research involves a series of well-thought-out and carefully executed activities that will
enable the manager to know how organizational problems can be solved, or at least
considerably minimized. Research thus encompasses the processes of inquiry, investigation,
examination, and experimentation. These processes have to be carried out systematically,
diligently, critically, objectively, and logically. The end results would be the discovery that will
help the manager to deal with the problem situation.
The difference between the manager who uses common sense alone to analyze and
make a decision in a given situation, and the investigator who uses a scientific method is that
later does a systematic inquiry into the matter and proceeds to describe, explain, or predict
phenomena based on data carefully collected for the purpose.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this lesson, the student will be able to:

✓ Appreciate the importance of taking up the course
✓ Understand why managers should know about research
✓ Discuss the definition of research and the difference between applied and basic
Research
✓ Identify a research topic worth investigating in the field of Office Management.

COURSE MATERIALS:
WHAT IS RESEARCH?
Research is simply the process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough study
and analysis of the situational factors. Managers in organizations constantly engage themselves
in studying and analysing issues and hence are involved in some form of research activity as
they make decisions at the workplace. As is well known, sometimes managers make good
decisions and the problem gets solved, sometimes they make poor decisions and the problem
persists, and on occasions they make such colossal blunders that the organization gets stuck in
the mire. The difference between making good decisions and committing blunders lies in how
managers go about the decision-making process. In other words, good decision making fetches
a ―yes‖ answer to the following questions: Do managers identify where exactly the problem
lies, do they correctly recognize the relevant factors in the situation needing investigation, do
they know what types of information are to be gathered and how, do they know how to make
use of the information so collected and draw appropriate conclusions to make the right
decisions, and finally, do they know how to implement the results of this process to solve the
problem? This is the essence of research and to be a successful manager it is important for you
to know how to go about making the right decisions by being knowledgeable about the various
steps involved in finding solutions to problematic issues.
THE EXCITEMENT OF RESEARCH AND WHY MANAGERS SHOULD KNOW ABOUT

RESEARCH
Modern technology has made research an exciting and a relatively smooth process.
Knowledge of research not only helps one to look at the available information in sophisticated
and creative ways in the fast-paced global environment that businesses face, but this
knowledge also helps in other ways. For example, you can interact more effectively with
research consultants who work for you, you can discriminate between good and bad studies
published in professional journals, and if so desired, you yourself can undertake research to
solve problems. Moreover, knowledge in the business area is exploding and there is an
overwhelming maze of information available through the Internet, which has to be sifted through
to determine its reliability. Identifying the critical issues, gathering relevant information,
analyzing the data in ways that would help decision making, and implementing the right course
of action, are all facilitated by understanding business research. After all, decision making is
merely a process of choosing from among alternative solutions to resolve a problem and
research helps to generate viable alternatives for effective decision making.

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
Business research is as an organized, systematic, data-based, critical, objective,

scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding
answers or solutions to it. In essence, research provides the needed information that guides
managers to make informed decisions to successfully deal with problems. The information
provided could be the result of a careful analysis of data gathered firsthand or of data that are
already available (in the company, industry, archives, etc.). Data can be quantitative (as
generally gathered through structured questions) or qualitative (as generated from the broad
answers to specific questions in interviews, or from responses to open-ended questions in a
questionnaire, or through observation, or from already available information gathered from
various sources).
TYPES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH: APPLIED AND BASIC
Research can be undertaken for two different purposes. One is to solve a current
problem faced by the manager in the work setting, demanding a timely solution. For example, a
particular product may not be selling well and the manager might want to find the reasons for
this in order to take corrective action. Such research is called applied research. The other is to
generate a body of knowledge by trying to comprehend how certain problems that occur in
organizations can be solved. This is called basic research. It is quite possible that some
organizations may later on apply the knowledge gained by the findings of such basic research to
solve their own problems. For instance, a university professor may be interested in investigating
the factors that contribute to absenteeism as a matter of mere academic interest. After gathering
information on this topic from several institutions and analyzing the data, the professor may
identify factors such as inflexible work hours, inadequate training of employees, and low morale
as primarily influencing absenteeism. Later on, a manager who encounters absenteeism of
employees in his organization may use this information to determine if these factors are relevant
to that particular work setting. Thus, research done with the intention of applying the results of
the findings to solve specific problems currently being experienced in the organization is called
applied research. Research done chiefly to enhance the understanding of certain problems that
commonly occur in organizational settings, and seek methods of solving them, is called basic or
fundamental research. It is also known as pure research. The findings of such research
contribute to the building of knowledge in the various functional areas of business. Such
knowledge generated is usually later applied in organizational settings for problem solving.

Applied Research
Consider the following two situations cited in Business Week.
It is obvious that Oxford has a multitude of problems and an outside consultant–

researcher would perhaps be able to design a scientific study that would look into them.
Presumably, this would be a lengthy investigation that could result in several different
recommended solutions. The company manager could then consider them, make the right
decision, and thereby solve Oxford’s problems. In the second situation, Xerox also needs to
look into the efficacy of the analog technology used in copiers and examine what should be
done to increase efficiency and promote its sales. The two preceding examples illustrate the
need for applied research, whereby existing problems can be solved through investigation and
good managerial decision making.
Basic Research
The above is an instance of basic research, where knowledge was generated to

understand a phenomenon of interest to the researcher. Most research and development
departments in various industries, as well as many professors in colleges and universities, do
basic or fundamental research, so that more knowledge is generated in particular areas of
interest to industries, organizations, and researchers. Though the objective of engaging in basic
research is primarily to equip oneself with additional knowledge of certain phenomena and
problems that occur in several organizations and industries with a view to finding solutions, the
knowledge generated from such research is often applied later for solving organizational
problems.

As stated, the primary purpose of conducting basic research is to generate more
knowledge and understanding of the phenomena of interest and to build theories based on the
research results. Such theories subsequently form the foundation of further studies of many
aspects of the phenomena. This process of building on existing knowledge is the genesis for
theory building, particularly in the management area.
Several examples of basic research can be provided. For instance, research into the
causes and consequences of global warming will offer many solutions to minimize the
phenomenon, and lead to further research concerning if and how global warming can be
averted. Although research on global warming might primarily be for the purpose of
understanding the nuances of the phenomenon, the findings will ultimately be applied and
useful to, among others, the agricultural and building industries.
Many large companies also engage in basic research. For instance, General Electric
Company generates knowledge concerning the different applications of electrical energy, their
motto being ―We bring good things to life.‖ Computer companies in the Silicon Valley are
constantly engaged in generating the know-how to increase the usefulness of microcomputers
in industry, which benefits managers and technicians in all organizations. This, ultimately,
results in increased sales of computers for them.
University professors engage in basic research in an effort to understand and generate

more knowledge about various aspects of businesses, such as how to improve the
effectiveness of information systems, integrate technology into the overall strategic objectives of

an organization, assess the impact of logos, increase the productivity of employees in service
industries, monitor sexual harassment incidents at the workplace, increase the effectiveness of
small businesses, evaluate alternative inventory valuation methods, change the institutional
structure of the financial and capital markets, and the like. These findings later become useful
for application in business situations.
As illustrated, the main distinction between applied and basic business research is that
the former is specifically aimed at solving a currently experienced problem, whereas the latter
has the broader objective of generating knowledge and understanding of phenomena and
problems that occur in various organizational settings. Despite this distinction, both types of
research follow the same steps of systematic inquiry to arrive at solutions to problems. As
current or prospective practicing managers in organizations, you would be directly or indirectly
engaged in applied research. You would also be keeping abreast of new basic knowledge
generated by being in regular touch with the published research in the business journals related
to your sphere of work, some of which could very well be relevant and applicable to your own
business organization.
In sum, both applied and basic business research are scientific in nature, the main
difference being that the former is undertaken specifically to solve a current business problem
whereas the latter is primarily resorted to because of the importance of the subject to the
researchers.
Being knowledgeable about research and research methods helps professional managers to:
1. Identify and effectively solve minor problems in the work setting.
2. Know how to discriminate good from bad research.
3. Appreciate and be constantly aware of the multiple influences and multiple effects of
factors impinging on a situation.
4. Take calculated risks in decision making, knowing full well the probabilities associated
with the different possible outcomes.
5. Prevent possible vested interests from exercising their influence in a situation.
6. Relate to hired researchers and consultants more effectively.
7. Combine experience with scientific knowledge while making decisions.

In selecting a topic in conducting a research, a student should be able to focus on
his/her field of specialization. An investigation of business processes that leads to improving
business practices in a specific area of discipline, thus a great contributory to the body of
knowledge.
A common experience of all organizations is that the managers thereof encounter

problems big and small on a daily basis, which they have to solve by making the right decisions.
In business, research is usually primarily conducted to resolve problematic issues in, or
interrelated among, the areas of accounting, finance, management, and marketing. In
Accounting, budget control systems, practices, and procedures are frequently examined.
Inventory costing methods, accelerated depreciation, time-series behaviour of quarterly
earnings, transfer pricing, cash recovery rates, and taxation methods are some of the other
areas that are researched. In Finance, the operations of financial institutions, optimum financial
ratios, mergers and acquisitions, leveraged buyouts, inter-corporate financing, yields on
mortgages, the behaviour of the stock exchange, and the like, become the focus of
investigation. Management research could encompass the study of employee attitudes and
behaviours, human resources management, the impact of changing demographics on
management practices, production operations management, strategy formulation, information
systems, and the like. Marketing research could address issues pertaining to product image,
advertising, sales promotion, distribution, packaging, pricing, after-sales service, consumer
preferences, new product development, and other marketing aspects.
SOME COMMONLY RESEARCH AREAS IN BUSINESS
1. Employee behaviours such as performance, absenteeism, and turnover.

2. Employee attitudes such as job satisfaction, loyalty, and organizational commitment.
3. Supervisory performance, managerial leadership style, and performance appraisal systems.
4. Employee selection, recruitment, training, and retention.
5. Validation of performance appraisal systems.
6. Human resource management choices and organizational strategy.
7. Evaluation of assessment canters.
8. The dynamics of rating and rating errors in the judgment of human performance.
9. Strategy formulation and implementation.
10. Just-in-time systems, continuous-improvement strategies, and production efficiencies.
11. Updating policies and procedures in keeping with latest government regulations and
organizational changes.
10 | B U M A 2 0 0 5 3 / B u s i n e s s R e s e a r c h
12. Organizational outcomes such as increased sales, market share, profits, growth,
and effectiveness. 13. Brand loyalty, product life cycle, and product innovation.
14. Consumer complaints.
15. Impression management, logos, and image building.
16. Product positioning, product modification, and new product development.
17. Cost of capital, valuation of firms, dividend policies, and investment decisions.
18. Risk assessment, exchange rate fluctuations, and foreign investment.
19. Tax implications of reorganization of firms or acquisition of companies.
20. Collection of accounts receivable.
21. Development of effective cost accounting procedures.
22. Qualified pension plans and cafeteria type of benefits for employees.
23. Deferred compensation plans.
24. Installation of effective management information systems.
25. Advanced manufacturing technologies and information systems. 26. Design of career
paths for spouses in dual-career families.
27. Creative management of a diverse workforce.

28. Cultural differences and the dynamics of managing a multinational firm.
29. Alternative work patterns: job sharing, flexitime, flexiplace, and parttime work.
30. Downsizing.
31. Participative management and performance effectiveness.
32. Differences in leadership positions, salaries, and leadership styles.
33. Instrument development for assessing ―true‖ gender differences.
34. Installation, adaptation, and updating of computer networks and software suitable
for creating effective information systems for organizations.
35. Installation of an effective Data Warehouse and Data Mining system for the organization.
36. Keeping ahead of the competition in the new millennium.
Not only are the issues within any subarea related to many factors within that particular
system, but they must also be investigated in the context of the external environment facing the
business. For example, economic, political, demographic, technological, competitive, and other
relevant global factors could impinge on some of the dynamics related to the firm. These have
to be scrutinized as well to assess their impact, if any, on the problem researched.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH TOPICS WORTH INVESTIGATING
1. The research topic should be aligned with the student’s field of specialization.
2. The topic that will be selected for an investigation should be specific, not broad, and should
be relevant.
3. The research title should stand as the “main problem” and the “main objective” of the study
and should be supported with the sub-problems- the specific objectives.
4. The researcher should take note that when sub-problems were answered, the answers to the
main problem will be gained too.
ACTIVITIES/ ASSESSMENTS:
ESSAY: 10 points each
1. What is the importance of acquiring skills in business research to your future career?
2. Explain in your own understanding the meaning of research and how it improves managerial
decisions?
3. Differentiate basic research from applied research. Provide an example for each type of
research.
4. Give at least 3 examples of research topic worth investigating in the field of office
management.
PART 2
QUALITATIVE - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
OVERVIEW:
Once you get started with doing your research, you will soon find yourself running into
the question of whether your research proposal is a Qualitative or Quantitative Research in
Nature. There are inherent differences between qualitative and quantitative research methods,
although their objectives and applications overlap in many ways. In a nutshell, qualitative
research generates “textual data” (non-numerical). Quantitative research, on the contrary,
produces “numerical data” or information that can be converted into numbers.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
✓ Discuss the difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Research

✓ Identify and explain briefly the parts of Qualitative and Quantitative Research
COURSE MATERIALS:
WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT
Qualitative Research is considered to be particularly suitable for exploratory research. It is

primarily used to discover and gain an in-depth understanding of individual experiences,
thoughts, opinions, and trends, and to dig deeper into the problem at hand.
The data collection toolkit of a qualitative researcher is quite versatile, ranging from completely
unstructured to semi-structured techniques.
Most common applied Qualitative Methods:

✓ Individual Interviews
✓ Group Discussions
✓ Focus Groups
✓ Behavioral Observations
WHAT IS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH AND HOW TO MEASURE IT
Quantitative Research is all about numbers and figures. It is used to quantify opinions,
attitudes, behaviors, and other defined variables with the goal to support or refute hypotheses
about a specific phenomenon, and potentially contextualize the results from the study sample in
a wider population (or specific groups).
As quantitative research explicitly specifies what is measured and how it is measured in order to
uncover patterns in – for example – behavior, motivation, emotion, and cognition, quantitative
data collection is considered to be much more structured than qualitative methods.
Quantitative Research Techniques:
Quantitative techniques typically comprise various forms of questionnaires, and surveys

structured interviews as well as a behavioral observation based on explicit coding and
categorization schemes.
After data collection, quantitative analysis techniques and statistics can be applied, such as t-
tests and ANOVAs, to non-parametric methods. This often necessitates much bigger sample
sizes compared to qualitative research but allows you to make more solid conclusions, that are
backed up with data.
QUALITATIVE OR QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH STUDY DESIGN
Ultimately, whether to pursue a qualitative or a quantitative study approach is up to you –

however, be sure to base your decision on the nature of your project and the kind of information
you seek in the context of your study and the resources available to you. Qualitative will offer
you an in-depth understanding of your research problem and hopefully help answer your
hypothesis. Quantitative will allow you to scale your research to provide larger sets of data for
reliability and validity. A combination of the two provides you with objectivity.
Measurement to Avoid Bias: This is generally described with respect to the following criteria:
1. OBJECTIVITY
Objectivity is the most general requirement and reflects the fact that measures should
come to the same result no matter who is using them. Also, they should generate the
same outcomes independent of the outside influences. For example, a multiple-choice
personality questionnaire or survey is objective if it returns the same score irrelevant of
whether the participant responds verbally or in written form. Further, the result should be
independent of the knowledge or attitude of the experimenter, so that the results are
purely driven by the performance of the respondent.
2. RELIABILITY
A measure is said to have a high reliability if it returns the same value under consistent
conditions. There are several sub-categories of reliability. For example, “retest reliability”
describes the stability of a measure over time, “inter-rater reliability” reflects the amount
to which different experimenters give consistent estimates of the same behavior, while
“split-half reliability” breaks a test into two and examines to what extent the two halves
generate identical results.
3. VALIDITY
This is the final and most crucial criterion. It reflects the extent to which a measure
collects what it is supposed to collect. Imagine an experiment where body size is
collected to measure its relationship with happiness. Obviously, the measure is both
objective and reliable (body size measures are quite consistent irrespective of the
person taking the measurement) but it is truly a poor measure with respect to its
construct validity (i.e., its capability to truly capture the underlying variable) for
happiness.
PARTS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Chapter 1 – THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING
✓ Introduction
✓ Statement of the Problem
✓ Theoretical Framework
✓ Conceptual Framework
✓ Scope and Limitations of the Study
✓ Significance of the Study
Chapter 2 – REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
✓ Thematic arrangement of literature and studies shall be followed

✓ Synthesis of the Reviewed Literature and Studies
Chapter 3 – METHODOLOGY
✓ Research Design
✓ Tradition of Inquiry and Data-Generation
✓ Method
✓ Sources of Data
✓ Instrumentation
✓ Ethical Considerations
QUESTIONNAIRE
REFERENCES (APA latest edition)
RESEARCHER’S CURRICULUM VITAE
PARTS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Chapter 1 – THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING
✓ Introduction
✓ Theoretical Framework
✓ Conceptual Framework
✓ Statement of the Problem
✓ Scope and Limitations of the Study
✓ Significance of the Study
✓ Definition of Terms (for technical programs only)
Chapter 2 – REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
✓ Thematic arrangement of literature and studies shall be followed

✓ Synthesis of the Reviewed Literature and Studies
Chapter 3 – METHODOLOGY
✓ Method of Research
✓ Population, Sample Size, and Sampling Technique
✓ Description
✓ Sources of Data
✓ Instrumentation
✓ Ethical Considerations
QUESTIONNAIRE
REFERENCES (APA latest edition)
RESEARCHER’S CURRICULUM VITAE
PART 3
THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
OVERVIEW:
The research proposal composes the Chapters 1 to 3 of the study and the Survey
Questionnaire aligned with the statement of the problem.
To further understand research proposal, the researchers should know and understand
the parts of Chapters 1 to 3.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

✓ Discuss what is included in the research proposal
✓ Identify and explain briefly the parts of research proposal
COURSE MATERIALS:
WRITING THE CHAPTER 1:

THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING
Introduction –
The rationale of the study and what made the researcher conduct the study is presented
in the introduction part. A well-written introduction sets the tone of the reader and should catch
the reader’s interest.
Introduction provides the rationale or justification of the paper taking into account the
perspective of global down, national to local arena or the so called Global issues, practices,
perspectives and/or concepts that may be of great concern in the chosen topic for research.
Considers the discussion of pertinent laws, executive orders, republic acts and etc.
coming from the different perspectives of individuals (UNESCO, CHED, TESDA, DepED)
deemed to be importantly influenced the topic for research.
Describes the current situation where the researcher will be able to address the
justification of the research paper. Consists of more or less 2 pages.
Theoretical Framework –
In this part, the researcher will present the theory or framework which provides direction
to the study. For instance, the researcher would like to investigate on the effectiveness of the
training program of a particular company he/she may use the training design framework of
Richard Noe in his book Employee Training and Development (2008). Proper citation of the
source should be observed.
EXAMPLE:
Conceptual Framework –
Discuss the framework of the concepts through the variables or indicator base from the
researcher’s point of view. The common concept framework used in some of the researches
where other concepts may be derived from.
The conceptual framework serves as the blueprint of the study. Using the Input-Process-
Output (IPO) Model, the researcher will be able to illustrate how he/she want the study to be
conducted. The input contains the statement of the problem. The process includes the activities
involved for the researcher to conduct the entire investigation, and the output contains the
expected outcomes of the entire research.
EXAMPLE:
After the sub-title “conceptual framework” the research introduces the IPO Model,
followed by the explanation on what contains input, process and output portions. After which,
Research Paradigm should be presented as illustrated above.
Statement of the Problem -
This is the outlined and detailed problems or important questions to be answered in the
study to provide more relevant meanings. Must be arranged accordingly on what title is
expected to come up with.
This pertains to the identification of the sub-problems that should be answered leading
towards answering the main problem.
EXAMPLE:
Statement of the Problem
This study aims to determine the Office Management Practices of the ABC Company.
Specifically, the study seeks answers to the following:
1. What is the profile of the respondents in terms of the following aspects?

1.1 age
1.2 sex
1.3 civil status
1.4 highest educational attainment
1.5 length of service in the company
2. How do respondents assess the Office Management Practices of ABC Company in

terms of the following aspects?
2.1 analysis and design of work
2.2 Planning
2.3 Recruiting
2.4 Selection
2.5 Training and Development
2.6 Compensation
2.7 Performance Management
2.8 Employee Relations
3. Is there any significant difference in the respondents’ assessment on the ABC

Company’s Office Management Practices when grouped according to profile variables?
The researcher may add more items in profile variables.
Hypothesis –
Hypothesis is the tentative guess of a phenomenon. This may be added depending on

the nature of the statement of the problem.
Scope and Limitation –
Scope discusses the parameters of the study such as the title, the place to undergo the
study, the date as to when the study to undergo, and the respondents of the study. Limitations
on the other hand, are the possible shortcomings of the study.
This portion explains the restrictions and range of the study. In the given example, the
researcher could make a limit to have Manila Branch only as the focus of its investigation. The
scope and limitations of the study should be properly mentioned in this portion so as not to
avoid confusion on the part of the readers.
For scope, this answers 4Ws. What, Where, When, Whom

What? – What is the title? What is it all about?
Where? – Where it will happen?
When? – When it will happen?
Whom? – who will be the subject of the study?
Significance of the Study –
In this portion, the researcher will delineate the individuals, group of people or
organization who will benefit from the study.
This pertains to different stakeholders to benefit the result of the study with the
discussion on what benefit it may be provided for them arranged in order of their importance or
in hierarchical manner.
EXAMPLE:
Significance of the Study

The conduct of this study will be beneficial to the following:
Definition of Terms –
This pertains to the different terminologies/variables used in the study that needs to be
operationally defined or provide definitions according to how it was used in the present study.
The researcher should define the important terminologies in his/her study to help the
readers easily understand the study. Operational definition, or how the terminologies were used
in the study should be provided.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
Chapter 2 contains the compilation of the literature and studies that supports the research
being conducted. There are plenty books, journals, theses and dissertations to gather with but
the researcher should ensure that the information he/she will be greeting from them should
really support the research being conducted. Such compilations should also be helpful in
guiding the researchers to come up with a detailed and simplified questionnaire. During the
proposal, the researcher may gather lots of related literature and studies, but at towards the end
of the study, when results and findings were revealed, the literature and studies which supports
the results should be included in this chapter, as others may be although related, but irrelevant.
Figure 2 presents Parts of Chapter 2.
✓ These are the significant literature and or studies that provide significant/important
aspects of discussion for the development of the present study arranged in a
thematic/topical manner.
✓ A maximum of forty (40) literature and studies of both foreign and local form.
✓ With 10 years and below publication years
✓ Synthesis of the Reviewed Literature and Studies should be provided by grouping
using the similar ideas/concepts/themes underscoring the authors used in the body
of the paper. Comparing and contrasting these ideas together with the present
study.
Thematic reviews of literature are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the
progression of time. However, progression of time may still be an important factor in a thematic
review. For example, a review of the Internet‟s impact on American presidential politics could
focus on the development of online political satire. While the study focuses on one topic, the
Internet‟s impact on American presidential politics, it will still be organized chronologically
reflecting technological developments in media. The only difference here between a
"chronological" and a "thematic" approach is what is emphasized the most: the role of the
Internet in presidential politics. Note however that more authentic thematic reviews tend to
break away from chronological order. A review organized in this manner would shift between
time periods within each section according to the point made. Example:
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter pertains to the research methodology used or to be used by the researcher
that will be considered as the backbone of the research problems. Particularly, it consists of the
following parts.
PARTS OF CHAPTER 3
1. Methods of Research
2. Population, Sample Size, and Sampling Technique
3. Description of Respondents
4. Research Instrument
5. Data-Gathering Procedure
6. Statistical Treatment of Data
In this portion, the researcher explains the research design used.
The research design refers to the overall strategy that researchers choose to integrate
the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring that the
researcher will effectively address the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the
collection, measurement, and analysis of data. Note that your research problem determines the
type of design you can use, not the other way around.
✓ Action Research Design
✓ Case Study Design
✓ Casual Design
✓ Cohort Design
✓ Cross-Sectional Design
✓ Descriptive Design
✓ Experimental Design
✓ Exploratory Design
✓ Historical Design
✓ Longitudinal Design
✓ Observational Design
✓ Philosophical Design
✓ Sequential Design
The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables you to
effectively address the research problem as unambiguously as possible. In social sciences
research, obtaining evidence relevant to the research problem generally entails specifying the
type of evidence needed to test a theory, to evaluate a program, or to accurately describe a
phenomenon. However, researchers can often begin their investigations far too early, before
they have thought critically about what information is required to answer the study's research
questions. Without attending to these design issues beforehand, the conclusions drawn risk
being weak and unconvincing and, consequently, will fail to adequate address the overall
research problem.
Given this, the length and complexity of research designs can vary considerably, but any
sound design will do the following things:
1. Identify the research problem clearly and justify its selection
2. Review previously published literature associated with the problem area.
3. Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses (research questions) central to the problem
selected.
4. Effectively describe the data which will be necessary for an adequate test of the
hypotheses and explain how such data will be obtained and
5. Describe the methods of analysis which will be applied to the data in determining
whether or not the hypotheses are true or false.
ACTION RESEARCH DESIGN
The essentials of action research design follow a characteristic cycle whereby

initially an exploratory stance is adopted, where an understanding of a problem is developed
and plans are made for some form of interventionary strategy. Then the intervention is carried
out (the action in Action Research) during which time, pertinent observations are collected
in various forms.
The new interventional strategies are carried out, and the cyclic process repeats,
continuing until a sufficient understanding of (or implement able solution for) the problem is
achieved. The protocol is iterative or cyclical in nature and is intended to foster deeper
understanding of a given situation, starting with conceptualizing and particularizing the problem
and moving through several interventions and evaluations.
What do these studies tell you?
1. A collaborative and adaptive research design that lends itself to use in work or
community situations.
2. Design focuses on pragmatic and solution-driven research rather than testing theories.
3. When practitioners use action research it has the potential to increase the amount they learn
consciously from their experience. The action research cycle can also be regarded as a learning
cycle.
4. Action search studies often have direct and obvious relevance to practice.
5. There are no hidden controls or pre-emption of direction by the researcher.
What these studies don't tell you?
1. It is harder to do than conducting conventional studies because the researcher takes on

responsibilities for encouraging change as well as for research.
2. Action research is much harder to write up because you probably can’t use a standard
format to report your findings effectively.
3. Personal over-involvement of the researcher may bias research results.
4. The cyclic nature of action research to achieve its twin outcomes of action (e.g. change) and
research (e.g. understanding) is time-consuming and complex to conduct.
CASE STUDY DESIGN
A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather than a

sweeping statistical survey. It is often used to narrow down a very broad field of research into
one or a few easily researchable examples. The case study research design is also useful for
testing whether a specific theory and model actually applies to phenomena in the real world. It is
a useful design when not much is known about a phenomenon.
1. Approach excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue through detailed

contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships.
2. A researcher using a case study design can apply a variety of methodologies and rely on a
variety of sources to investigate a research problem.
3. Design can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through
previous research.
4. Social scientists, in particular, make wide use of this research design to examine
contemporary real-life situations and provide the basis for the application of concepts and
theories and extension of methods.
5. The design can provide detailed descriptions of specific and rare cases.
1. A single or small number of cases offers little basis for establishing reliability or to
generalize the findings to a wider population of people, places or things.
2. The intense exposure to study of the case may bias a researcher's interpretation of the
findings.
3. Design does not facilitate assessment of cause and effect relationships.
4. Vital information may be missing, making the case hard to interpret.
5. The case may not be representative or typical of the larger problem being investigated.
6. If the criteria for selecting a case is because it represents a very unusual or unique
phenomenon or problem for study, then your interpretation of the findings can only apply to that
particular case.
COHORT DESIGN
Often used in the medical sciences, but also found in the applied social sciences, a
cohort study generally refers to a study conducted over a period of time involving members of a
population which the subject or representative member comes from, and who are united
by some commonality or similarity. Using a quantitative framework, a cohort study makes
note of statistical occurrence within a specialized subgroup, united by same or similar
characteristics that are relevant to the research problem being investigated, rather than
studying statistical occurrence within the general population. Using a qualitative
framework, cohort studies generally gather data using methods of observation. Cohorts can be
either "open" or "closed."
✓ Open Cohort Studies [dynamic populations, such as the population of Los

Angeles] involve a population that is defined just by the state of being a part of
the study in question (and being monitored for the outcome). Date of entry and exit
from the study is individually defined, therefore, the size of the study population is not
constant. In open cohort studies, researchers can only calculate rate based data, such
as, incidence rates and variants thereof.
✓ Closed Cohort Studies [static populations, such as patients entered into a clinical trial]
involve participants who enter into the study at one defining point in time and where it is
presumed that no new participants can enter the cohort. Given this, the number of study
participants remains constant (or can only decrease).
1. The use of cohorts is often mandatory because a randomized control study may
be unethical. For example, you cannot deliberately expose people to asbestos,
you can only study its effects on those who have already been exposed. Research that
measures factors often relies on cohort designs.
2. Because cohort studies measure potential causes before the outcome has
occurred, they can demonstrate that these “causes” preceded the outcome, thereby
avoiding the debate as to which is the cause and which is the effect.
3. Cohort analysis is highly flexible and can provide insight into effects over time
and related to a variety of different types of changes [e.g., social, cultural, political,
economic, etc.].
4. Either original data or secondary data can be used in this design.
1. In cases where a comparative analysis of two cohorts is made [e.g., studying the
effects of one group exposed to asbestos and one that has not], a re searcher
cannot control for all other factors that might differ between the two groups. These
factors are known as confounding variables.
2. Cohort studies can end up taking a long time to complete if the researcher must wait
for the conditions of interest to develop within the group. This also increases the
chance that key variables change during the course of the study, potentially
impacting the validity of the findings.
3. Because of the lack of randominization in the cohort design, its external validity is
lower than that of study designs where the researcher randomly assigns participants.
CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGN
Cross-sectional research designs have three distinctive features: no time dimension, a reliance
on existing differences rather than change following intervention; and, groups are
selected based on existing differences rather than random allocation. The cross -sectional
design can only measure differences between or from among a variety of people, subjects, or
phenomena rather than change. As such, researchers using this design can only employ a
relative passive approach to making causal inferences based on findings.

1. Cross-sectional studies provide a 'snapshot' of the outcome and the
characteristics associated with it, at a specific point in time.
2. Unlike the experimental design where there is an active intervention by the
researcher to produce and measure change or to create differences, cross-sectional
designs focus on studying and drawing inferences from existing differences between
people, subjects, or phenomena.
3. Entails collecting data at and concerning one point in time. While longitudinal
studies involve taking multiple measures over an extended period of time,
cross -sectional research is focused on finding relationships between variables at
one moment in time.
4. Groups identified for study are purposely selected based upon existing differences in
the sample rather than seeking random sampling.
5. Cross-section studies are capable of using data from a large number of subjects and,
unlike observational studies, is not geographically bound.
6. Can estimate prevalence of an outcome of interest because the sample is usually
taken from the whole population.
7. Because cross-sectional designs generally use survey techniques to gather data,
they are relatively inexpensive and take up little time to conduct.
DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions of who, what, when, where,
and how associated with a particular research problem; a descriptive study cannot conclusively
ascertain answers to why. Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning
the current status of the phenomena and to describe "what exists" with respect to
variables or conditions in a situation.
1. The subject is being observed in a completely natural and unchanged natural
environment. True experiments, whilst giving analyzable data, often adversely
influence the normal behavior of the subject.
2. Descriptive research is often used as a pre-cursor to more quantitatively

Research designs, the general overview giving some valuable pointers as to what
variables are worth testing quantitatively.
3. If the limitations are understood, they can be a useful too l in developing a more
focused study.
4. Descriptive studies can yield rich data that lead to important recommendations.
5. Approach collects a large amount of data for detailed analysis.
1. The results from a descriptive research cannot be used to discover a definitive

answer or to disprove a hypothesis.
2. Because descriptive designs often utilize observational methods [as opposed

to quantitative methods], the results cannot be replicated.
3. The descriptive function of research is heavily dependent on instrumentation

for measurement and observation.
Experimental Design
A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to maintain control over all factors that
may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or
predict what may occur. Experimental Research is often used where there is time priority in a
causal relationship (cause precedes effect), there is consistency in a causal relationship (a
cause will always lead to the same effect), and the magnitude of the correlation is great. The
classic experimental design specifies an experimental group and a control group. The
independent variable is administered to the experimental group and not to the control group,
28
and both groups are measured on the same dependent variable. Subsequent experimental
designs have used more groups and more measurements over longer periods. True
experiments must have control, randomization, and manipulation.
1. Experimental research allows the researcher to control the situation. In so doing, it

allows researchers to answer the question, “what causes something to occur?”
2. Permits the researcher to identify cause and effect relationships between variables and
to distinguish placebo effects from treatment effects.
3. Experimental research designs support the ability to limit alternative explanations and to
infer direct causal relationships in the study.
4. Approach provides the highest level of evidence for single studies.
1. The design is artificial, and results may not generalize well to the real world.
2. The artificial settings of experiments may alter subject behaviors or responses.
3. Experimental designs can be costly if special equipment or facilities are needed.
4. Some research problems cannot be studied using an experiment because of ethical or

technical reasons.
5. Difficult to apply ethnographic and other qualitative methods to experimental designed

research studies.
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to maintain control over all
factors that may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts to
determine or predict what may occur. Experimental Research is often used where there is time
priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect), there is consistency in a causal
relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect), and the magnitude of the correlation is
great. The classic experimental design specifies an experimental group and a control group.
The independent variable is administered to the experimental group and not to the control
group,
and both groups are measured on the same dependent variable. Subsequent experimental
designs have used more groups and more measurements over longer periods. True
experiments must have control, randomization, and manipulation.
1. Experimental research allows the researcher to control the situation. In so doing, it

allows researchers to answer the question, “what causes something to occur?”
2. Permits the researcher to identify cause and effect relationships between variables and
to distinguish placebo effects from treatment effects.
3. Experimental research designs support the ability to limit alternative explanations and to
infer direct causal relationships in the study.
4. Approach provides the highest level of evidence for single studies.
1. The design is artificial, and results may not generalize well to the real world.
2. The artificial settings of experiments may alter subject behaviors or responses.
3. Experimental designs can be costly if special equipment or facilities are needed.
4. Some research problems cannot be studied using an experiment because of ethical or

technical reasons.
5. Difficult to apply ethnographic and other qualitative methods to experimental designed

research studies.
EXPLORATORY DESIGN
An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem when there are few or no
earlier studies to refer to. The focus is on gaining insights and familiarity for later investigation or
undertaken when problems are in a preliminary stage of investigation.
The goals of exploratory research are intended to produce the following possible insights:
• Familiarity with basic details, settings and concerns.

• Well=grounded picture of the situation being developed.
• Generation of new ideas and assumption, development of tentative theories or
hypotheses.
• Determination about whether a study is feasible in the future.
• Issues get refined for more systematic investigation and formulation of new research
questions.
• Direction for future research and techniques get developed.
1. Design is a useful approach for gaining background information on a particular topic.
2. Exploratory research is flexible and can address research questions of all types (what,
why, how).
3. Provides an opportunity to define new terms and clarify existing concepts.
4. Exploratory research is often used to generate formal hypotheses and develop more
precise research problems.
5. Exploratory studies help establish research priorities.
1. Exploratory research generally utilizes small sample sizes and, thus, findings are
typically not generalizable to the population at large.
2. The exploratory nature of the research inhibits an ability to make definitive conclusions
about the findings.
3. The research process underpinning exploratory studies is flexible but often unstructured,
leading to only tentative results that have limited value in decision-making.
4. Design lacks rigorous standards applied to methods of data gathering and analysis
because one of the areas for exploration could be to determine what method or
methodologies could best fit the research problem.
HISTORICAL DESIGN
The purpose of a historical research design is to collect, verify, and synthesize evidence
from the past to establish facts that defend or refute your hypothesis. It uses secondary sources
and a variety of primary documentary evidence, such as, logs, diaries, official records, reports,
archives, and non-textual information [maps, pictures, audio and visual recordings]. The
limitation is that the sources must be both authentic and valid.
1. The historical research design is unobtrusive; the act of research does not affect the
results of the study.
2. The historical approach is well suited for trend analysis.
3. Historical records can add important contextual background required to more fully
understand and interpret a research problem.
4. There is no possibility of researcher-subject interaction that could affect the findings.
5. Historical sources can be used over and over to study different research problems or to
replicate a previous study.
1. The historical research design is unobtrusive; the act of research does not affect the
results of the study.
2. The historical approach is well suited for trend analysis.
3. Historical records can add important contextual background required to more fully
understand and interpret a research problem.
4. There is no possibility of researcher-subject interaction that could affect the findings.
5. Historical sources can be used over and over to study different research problems or to
replicate a previous study.
LONGITUDINAL DESIGN
A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time and makes repeated
observations. With longitudinal surveys, for example, the same group of people is interviewed at
regular intervals, enabling researchers to track changes over time and to relate them to
variables that might explain why the changes occur. Longitudinal research designs describe
patterns of change and help establish the direction and magnitude of causal relationships.
Measurements are taken on each variable over two or more distinct time periods. This allows
the researcher to measure change in variables over time. It is a type of observational study and
is sometimes referred to as a panel study.
1. Longitudinal data allow the analysis of duration of a particular phenomenon.
2. Enables survey researchers to get close to the kinds of causal explanations usually
attainable only with experiments.
3. The design permits the measurement of differences or change in a variable from one
period to another [i.e., the description of patterns of change over time].
4. Longitudinal studies facilitate the prediction of future outcomes based upon earlier
factors.
1. The data collection method may change over time.
2. Maintaining the integrity of the original sample can be difficult over an extended period
of time.
3. It can be difficult to show more than one variable at a time.

4. This design often needs qualitative research to explain fluctuations in the data.
5. A longitudinal research design assumes present trends will continue unchanged.
6. It can take a long period of time to gather results.
7. There is a need to have a large sample size and accurate sampling to reach
representativeness.
OBSERVATIONAL DESIGN
This type of research design draws a conclusion by comparing subjects against a control
group, in cases where the researcher has no control over the experiment. There are two general
types of observational designs. In direct observations, people know that you are watching them.
Unobtrusive measures involve any method for studying behavior where individuals do not know
they are being observed. An observational study allows a useful insight into a phenomenon and
avoids the ethical and practical difficulties of setting up a large and cumbersome research
project.
1. Observational studies are usually flexible and do not necessarily need to be structured
around a hypothesis about what you expect to observe (data is emergent rather than
pre-existing).
2. The researcher is able to collect a depth of information about a particular behavior.
3. Can reveal interrelationships among multifaceted dimensions of group interactions.
4. You can generalize your results to real life situations.
5. Observational research is useful for discovering what variables may be important before
applying other methods like experiments.
6. Observation research designs account for the complexity of group behaviours.
1. Reliability of data is low because seeing behaviours occur over and over again may be a
time consuming task and difficult to replicate.
2. In observational research, findings may only reflect a unique sample population and,
thus, cannot be generalized to other groups.
3. There can be problems with bias as the researcher may only "see what they want to
see."
4. There is no possibility to determine "cause and effect" relationships since nothing is

manipulated.
5. Sources or subjects may not all be equally credible.
6. Any group that is studied is altered to some degree by the very presence of the
researcher, therefore, skewing to some degree any data collected (the Heisenburg
Uncertainty Principle).
Philosophical Design
Understood more as an broad approach to examining a research problem than a

methodological design, philosophical analysis and argumentation is intended to challenge
deeply embedded, often intractable, assumptions underpinning an area of study. This approach
uses the tools of argumentation derived from philosophical traditions, concepts, models, and
theories to critically explore and challenge, for example, the relevance of logic and evidence in
academic debates, to analyze arguments about fundamental issues, or to discuss the root of
existing discourse about a research problem. These overarching tools of analysis can be framed
in three ways:
• Ontology -- the study that describes the nature of reality; for example, what is real and
what is not, what is fundamental and what is derivative?
• Epistemology -- the study that explores the nature of knowledge; for example, on what
does knowledge and understanding depend upon and how can we be certain of what we
know?
• Axiology -- the study of values; for example, what values does an individual or group
hold and why? How are values related to interest, desire, will, experience, and means-
to-end? And, what is the difference between a matter of fact and a matter of value?
1. Can provide a basis for applying ethical decision-making to practice.
2. Functions as a means of gaining greater self-understanding and self-knowledge about

the purposes of research.
3. Brings clarity to general guiding practices and principles of an individual or group.

4. Philosophy informs methodology.
5. Refine concepts and theories that are invoked in relatively unreflective modes of thought
and discourse.
6. Beyond methodology, philosophy also informs critical thinking about epistemology and
the structure of reality (metaphysics).
7. Offers clarity and definition to the practical and theoretical uses of terms, concepts, and
ideas.
1. Limited application to specific research problems [answering the "So What?" question in
social science research].
2. Analysis can be abstract, argumentative, and limited in its practical application to real-life
issues.
3. While a philosophical analysis may render problematic that which was once simple or
taken-for-granted, the writing can be dense and subject to unnecessary jargon,
overstatement, and/or excessive quotation and documentation.
4. There are limitations in the use of metaphor as a vehicle of philosophical analysis.
5. There can be analytical difficulties in moving from philosophy to advocacy and between
abstract thought and application to the phenomenal world.
SEQUENTIAL DESIGN
Sequential research is that which is carried out in a deliberate, staged approach [i.e.
serially] where one stage will be completed, followed by another, then another, and so on, with
the aim that each stage will build upon the previous one until enough data is gathered over an
interval of time to test your hypothesis. The sample size is not predetermined. After each
sample is analyzed, the researcher can accept the null hypothesis, accept the alternative
hypothesis, or select another pool of subjects and conduct the study once again. This means
the researcher can obtain a limitless number of subjects before finally making a decision
whether to accept the null or alternative hypothesis. Using a quantitative framework, a
sequential study generally utilizes sampling techniques to gather data and applying statistical
methods to analze the data. Using a qualitative framework, sequential studies generally utilize
samples of individuals or groups of individuals [cohorts] and use qualitative methods, such as
interviews or observations, to gather information from each sample.
1. The researcher has a limitless option when it comes to sample size and the sampling
schedule.
2. Due to the repetitive nature of this research design, minor changes and adjustments can
be done during the initial parts of the study to correct and hone the research method.
Useful design for exploratory studies.
3. There is very little effort on the part of the researcher when performing this technique. It
is generally not expensive, time consuming, or workforce extensive.
4. Because the study is conducted serially, the results of one sample are known before the
next sample is taken and analyse.
1. The sampling method is not representative of the entire population. The only possibility
of approaching representativeness is when the researcher chooses to use a very large
sample size significant enough to represent a significant portion of the entire population.
In this case, moving on to study a second or more sample can be difficult.
2. Because the sampling technique is not randomized, the design cannot be used to create
conclusions and interpretations that pertain to an entire population. Generalizability from
findings is limited.
3. Difficult to account for and interpret variation from one sample to another over time,
particularly when using qualitative methods of data collection.
In our given example, descriptive research design is applicable where the current
human resource management practices of ABC Company will be investigated.
Population
Population is a complete set of elements (persons or objects) that possess some

common characteristic defined by the sampling criteria established by the researcher. The
entire group of people or objects to which the researcher wishes to generalize the study
findings. In our given example the main topic is HRM practices of ABC Company, and the
respondents are all managerial employees in the main branch. If that‟s the case, the total
population will be the total number of the managerial employees assigned in the main branch.
Sample Size
Sample size is the sub-set of the population. It is the selected elements (people or
objects) chosen for participation in a study; people are referred to as subjects or participants. It
will be very costly and time consuming on the part of the researcher to gather data from all units
of the populations. Determining the sample size to represent the entire population could make
the researcher generalize findings and results without spending too much resources given a
systematic sampling technique.
Sampling Techniques
When we are interested in a population, we typically study a sample of that population

rather than attempt to study the whole population The purpose of sampling techniques is to help
you select units to be included in your sample.
Broadly speaking, there are two groups of sampling technique: probability sampling techniques
and non-probability sampling techniques.
Probability sampling techniques
Probability sampling techniques use random selection to help you select units from your
sampling frame to be included in your sample. These procedures are very clearly defined,
making it easy to follow them.
In probability Samples, each member of the population has a known non-zero probability
of being selected. Probability methods include random sampling, systematic sampling, and
stratified sampling. Probability sampling includes simple random sampling, systematic sampling,
stratified sampling, cluster sampling and disproportional sampling The advantage of probability
sampling is that sampling error can be calculated.
In probability sampling, every individual in the population have equal chance of being
selected as a subject for the research.
This method guarantees that the selection process is completely randomized and without bias.
The most basic example of probability sampling is listing all the names of the individuals
in the population in separate pieces of paper, and then drawing a number of papers one by one
from the complete collection of names.
The advantage of using probability sampling is the accuracy of the statistical methods
after the experiment. It can also be used to estimate the population parameters since it is
representative of the entire population. It is also a reliable method to eliminate sampling bias.
These types of probability sampling technique include simple random sampling,

systematic random sampling, stratified random sampling and cluster sampling.
Random sampling
-The random sample is the purest form of probability sampling. Each member of the
population has an equal and known chance of being selected. When there are very large
populations, it is often difficult or impossible to identify every member of the population, so the
pool of available subjects becomes biased.
This may be the most important type of sample. A random sample allows a known
probability that each elementary unit will be chosen. This is the type of sampling that is used in
lotteries and raffles.
Types of random Samples
A Simple Random Sample-A simple random sample is obtained by choosing elementary units
in search a way that each unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected. A
simple random sample is free from sampling bias. However, using a random number table to
choose the elementary units can be cumbersome. If the sample is to be collected by a person
untrained in statistics, then instructions may be misinterpreted and selections may be made
improperly.
A systematic random sample-Systematic sampling is often used instead of random sampling.

It is also called an Nth name selection technique. After the required sample size has been
calculated, every Nth record is selected from a list of population members. As long as the list
does not contain any hidden order, this sampling method is as good as for us. the random
sampling method. Its only advantage over the random sampling technique is simplicity.
Systematic sampling is frequently used to select a specified number of records from a computer
file.
A systematic random sample is obtained by selecting one unit on a random basis and choosing
additional elementary units at evenly spaced intervals until the desired number of units is
obtained.
Concept of Randomization
Contrary to popular opinion, samples are not selected haphazardly. Rather they are chosen in a
systematically random way so that chance or the operation of probability is utilized. Where
random selection is not possible, other systematic means are used.
Randomization is a sampling method used in scientific experiments. It is commonly used in

randomized controlled trials in experimental research.
The concept of randomness has been basic to scientific observation and research. It is based
on the assumption that while individual events cannot be predicted with accuracy, aggregate
events can. For instance, although it may not predict with great accuracy an individual‟s
academic achievement, it will predict accurately the average academic performance of a group.
In randomized controlled trials, the research participants are assigned by chance, rather than by
choice, to either the experimental group or the control group.
Randomization reduces bias as much as possible. Randomization is designed to “control”

(reduce or eliminate if possible) bias by all means.
The fundamental goal of randomization is to certain that each treatment is equally likely to be
assigned to any given experimental unit.
Randomization has two important applications in research:
1. Selecting a group of individuals for observation who are representative of the population
about which the researcher wishes to generalize, or
2. Equating experimental and control groups in an experiment. Assigning individuals by random
assignment (each individual in the sample has an equal and independent chance of being
assigned to each of the groups) is the best method of providing for their equivalence.
Randomization- Actually Working
Well, there are different options used by researchers to perform randomization. It can be
achieved by use of random number tables given in most statistical textbooks or computers can
also be used to generate random numbers
If neither of these available, you can devise your own plan to perform randomization. For
example, you can select the last digit of phone numbers given in a telephone directory. For
example you have different varieties of rice grown in10 total small plots in a greenhouse and
you want to evaluate certain fertilizer on 9 varieties of rice plants keeping one plot as a control.
You can number each of the small plots up to 9 and then you can use series of numbers like 8 6
3 1 6 2 9 3 5 6 7 5 5 3 1 and so on.
You can then allocate each of three doses of fertilizer treatment (call them doses A, B, C). Now
you can apply dose A to plot number 8, B to 6, and C to 3. Then you apply dose A to 1, B to 2
because dose B is already used on plot 6 and so on.
A Stratified Sample-Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is superior to

random sampling because it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset of the population that
share at least one common characteristic. . The researcher first identifies the relevant stratums
and their actual representation in the population. Random sampling is then used to select a
sufficient number of subjects from each stratum. “Sufficient” refers to a sample size large
enough for us to be reasonably confident that the stratum represents the population. Stratified
sampling is often used when one or more of the stratums in the population have a low incidence
relative to the other stratums.
A stratified sample is obtained by independently selecting a separate simple random sample
from each population stratum. A population can be divided into different groups may be based
on some characteristic or variable .
Stratified sampling is a probability sampling technique wherein the researcher divides the entire
population into different subgroups or strata, then randomly selects the final subjects
proportionally from the different strata.
Stratified random sampling is a method of sampling that involves the division of a population
into smaller groups known as strata. In stratified random sampling, the strata are formed based
on members‟ shared attributes or characteristics. A random sample from each stratum is taken
in a number proportional to the stratum‟s size when compared to the population. These subsets
of the strata are then pooled to form a random sample.
The main advantage with stratified sampling is how it captures key population characteristics in
the sample. Similar to a weighted average, this method of sampling produces characteristics in
the sample that are proportional to the overall population. Stratified sampling works well for
populations with a variety of attributes, but is otherwise ineffective, as subgroups cannot be
formed.
It is important to note that a random sample is not necessarily an identical representation of the
population. Characteristics of successive random samples drawn from the same population may
differ to some degree, but it is possible to estimate their variation from the population
characteristics and from each other. The variation, known as sampling error, does not suggest
that a mistake has been made in the sampling process. Rather, sampling error refers to the
chance variations that occur in sampling; with randomization these variations are predictable
and taken into account in data-analysis techniques.
It is important to note that the strata must be non-overlapping. Having overlapping subgroups
will grant some individuals higher chances of being selected as subject. This completely
negates the concept of stratified sampling as a type of probability sampling.
Equally important is the fact that the researcher must use simple probability sampling within the
different strata.
The most common strata used in stratified random sampling are age, gender, socioeconomic
status, religion, nationality and educational attainment.
Stratified random sampling is used when the researcher wants to highlight a specific subgroup
within the population. This technique is useful in such researches because it ensures the
presence of the key subgroup within the sample.
Researchers also employ stratified random sampling when they want to observe existing
relationships between two or more subgroups. With a simple random sampling technique, the
researcher is not sure whether the subgroups that he wants to observe are represented equally
or proportionately within the sample.
With stratified sampling, the researcher can representatively sample even the smallest and most
inaccessible subgroups in the population. This allows the researcher to sample the rare
extremes of the given population.
With this technique, you have a higher statistical precision compared to simple random
sampling. This is because the variability within the subgroups is lower compared to the
variations when dealing with the entire population.
Because this technique has high statistical precision, it also means that it requires a small
sample size which can save a lot of time, money and effort of the researchers.
Types of Stratified Sampling
A-Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling
The sample size of each stratum in this technique is proportionate to the population size of the
stratum when viewed against the entire population. This means that the each stratum has the
same sampling fraction.
For example, you have 3 strata with 100, 200 and 300 population sizes respectively. And the
researcher chose a sampling fraction of ½. Then, the researcher must randomly sample 50, 100
and 150 subjects from each stratum respectively.
Stratum A B C
Population Size 100 200 300
Sampling Fraction ½ ½ ½
Final Sample Size 50 100 150
The important thing to remember in this technique is to use the same sampling fraction
for each stratum regardless of the differences in population size of the strata. It is much like
assembling a smaller population that is specific to the relative proportions of the subgroups
within the population.
B- Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling
The only difference between proportionate and disproportionate stratified random

sampling is their sampling fractions. With disproportionate sampling, the different strata have
different sampling fractions. Precision of this design is highly dependent on the sampling
fraction allocation of the researcher. If the researcher commits mistakes in allotting sampling
fractions, a stratum may either be overrepresented or underrepresented which will result in
skewed results.
A Cluster Sample
-A cluster sample is obtained by selecting clusters from the population on the basis of
simple random sampling. The sample comprises a census of each random cluster selected.
Cluster sampling is a method used to enable random sampling to occur while limiting the time
and costs that would otherwise be required to sample from either a very large population or one
that is geographically diverse. Using this method, a one- or two-level randomization process is
used the important element in this process is that each one of the criteria have an equal
opportunity to be chosen, with no researcher or facility bias.
The area or cluster sample is a variation of the simple random sample that is particularly
appropriate when the population of interest is infinite, when a list of the members of the
population does not exist, or when the geographic distribution of the individuals is widely
scattered.
Non-probability sampling techniques
In this type of population sampling, members of the population do not have equal
chance of being selected. Due to this, it is not safe to assume that the sample fully represents
the target population. It is also possible that the researcher deliberately chose the individuals
that will participate in the study.
Non-probability sampling techniques refer on the subjective judgement of the researcher

when selecting units from the population to be included in the sample. For some of the different
types of non-probability sampling technique, the procedures for selecting units to be included in
the sample are very clearly defined, just like probability sampling techniques. However, in
others (e.g., purposive sampling), the subjective judgement required to select units from the
population, which involves a combination of theory, experience and insight from the research
process, makes selecting units more complicated. Overall, the types of non-probability sampling
technique include quota sampling, purposive sampling, convenience sampling, snowball
sampling and self-section sampling.
Non-probability population sampling method is useful for pilot studies, case studies,
qualitative research, and for hypothesis development.
Non-Probability Sampling, members are selected from the population in some

nonrandom manner. Non-probability sampling includes convenience sampling, consecutive
sampling, judgmental sampling, quota sampling and snowball sampling. In non-probability
sampling, the degree to which the sample differs from the population remains unknown.
Convenience Sampling
In all forms of research, it would be ideal to test the entire population, but in most cases,
the population is just too large that it is impossible to include every individual. This is the reason
why most researchers rely on sampling techniques like convenience sampling, the most
common of all sampling techniques. Many researchers prefer this sampling technique because
it is fast, inexpensive, easy and the subjects are readily available.
Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where subjects are

selected because of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher.
The subjects are selected just because they are easiest to recruit for the study and the
researcher did not consider selecting subjects that are representative of the entire population.
-Convenience sampling is probably the most commonly used technique in research
today . With convenience sampling, subjects are selected because of their convenient
accessibility to the researcher. These subjects are chosen simply because they are the easiest
to obtain for the study. This technique is easy, fast and usually the least expensive and
troublesome convenience sample results when the more convenient elementary units are
chosen from a population for observation. Convenience sampling is used in exploratory
research where the researcher is interested in getting an inexpensive approximation of the truth.
As the name implies, the sample is selected because they are convenient. This Non-probability
method is often used during preliminary research efforts to get a gross estimate of the results,
without incurring the cost or time required to select a random sample.
Researchers use convenience sampling not just because it is easy to use, but because it
also has other research advantages.
In pilot studies, convenience sample is usually used because it allows the researcher to
obtain basic data and trends regarding his study without the complications of using a
randomized sample.
This sampling technique is also useful in documenting that a particular quality of a

substance or phenomenon occurs within a given sample. Such studies are also very useful for
detecting relationships among different phenomena.
The most obvious criticism about convenience sampling is sampling bias and that the
sample is not representative of the entire population. This may be the biggest disadvantage
when using a convenience sample because it leads to more problems and criticisms.
Systematic bias stems from sampling bias. This refers to a constant difference between
the results from the sample and the theoretical results from the entire population. It is not rare
that the results from a study that uses a convenience sample differ significantly with the results
from the entire population. A consequence of having systematic bias is obtaining skewed
results.
Another significant criticism about using a convenience sample is the limitation in

generalization and inference making about the entire population. Since the sample is not
representative of the population, the results of the study cannot speak for the entire population.
This results to a low external validity of the study.
When using convenience sampling, it is necessary to describe how your sample would
differ from an ideal sample that was randomly selected. It is also necessary to describe the
individuals who might be left out during the selection process or the individuals who are
overrepresented in the sample.
Consecutive Sampling
Consecutive Sampling is a strict version of convenience sampling where every available

subject is selected, i.e., the complete accessible population is studied. This is the best choice of
the Non-probability sampling techniques since by studying everybody available, a good
representation of the overall population is possible in a reasonable period of time.
Consecutive Sampling is very similar to convenience sampling except that it seeks to

include ALL accessible subjects as part of the sample. This non-probability sampling technique
can be considered as the best of all non-probability samples because it includes all subjects that
are available that makes the sample a better representation of the entire population.
Consecutive sampling is a sampling technique in which every subject meeting the

criteria of inclusion is selected until the required sample size is achieved. Consecutive sampling
technique involves selecting all individuals who agree to participate, provided they meet pre-
established criteria, until the number of subjects desired has been recruited. For example, the
author of this text once conducted a study of the verbal memory of adult dyslexics who were
recruited by means of several techniques including appeals through newspaper and radio
advertising. In order to qualify as subjects, several criteria had to be satisfied with respect to
age, IQ level, educational achievement, history of remediation, mental and physical status, and
scores on standardized tests of reading ability, among other factors. Consecutive sampling can
be highly useful when the available subject pool is limited or when using selection criteria so
stringent as to reduce the number of subjects to a point that threatens the generality of findings.
Although consecutive sampling methods are typically stronger than other nonprobability
methods in controlling sampling bias, such confounding influence cannot be ruled out.
Response rate, the proportion of the subjects willing to participate of those selected, may also
influence the validity of inferences. For instance, subjects who agree to participate may have
different motivations or life circumstances than those who do not.
Judgmental sampling
Judgmental sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where the researcher

selects units to be sampled based on their knowledge and professional judgment.
The Judgment Sample-Judgmental sampling, also called Purposive Sampling or
authoritative sampling, is another form of convenience sampling where subjects are
handpicked from the accessible population Subjects usually are selected using judgmental
sampling because the researcher believes that certain subjects are likely to benefit or be more
compliant A judgement sample is obtained according to the discretion of someone who is
familiar with the relevant characteristics of the population. It is a common non-probability
method. The researcher selects the sample based on judgment.
The judgemental sampling is used in cases where the specialty of an authority can
select a more representative sample that can bring more accurate results than by using other
probability sampling techniques. The process involves nothing but purposely handpicking
individuals from the population based on the authority’s or the researcher’s knowledge and
judgment.
Judgmental sampling design is usually used when a limited number of individuals

possess the trait of interest. It is the only viable sampling technique in obtaining information from
a very specific group of people. It is also possible to use judgmental sampling if the researcher
knows a reliable professional or authority that he thinks is capable of assembling a
representative sample.
The two main weaknesses of authoritative sampling are with the authority and in the
sampling process; both of which pertains to the reliability and the bias that accompanies the
sampling technique.
Unfortunately, there is usually no way to evaluate the reliability of the expert or the
authority. The best way to avoid sampling error brought by the expert is to choose the best and
most experienced authority in the field of interest.
When it comes to the sampling process, it is usually biased since no randomization was
used in obtaining the sample. It is also worth noting that the members of the population did not
have equal chances of being selected. The consequence of this is the misrepresentation of the
entire population which will then limit generalizations of the results of the study. Purposeful
sampling is often used in qualitative research studies.
Quota Sampling-
Quota sampling is the Non-probability equivalent of stratified sampling. Like stratified

sampling, the researcher first identifies the stratums and their proportions as they are
represented in the population. Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the
required number of subjects from each stratum. This differs from stratified sampling, where the
stratums are filled by random sampling Quota sampling is a non-probability technique used to
ensure equal representation of subjects in each layer of a stratified sample grouping.
It is a technique wherein the assembled sample has the same proportions of individuals
as the entire population with respect to known characteristics, traits or focused phenomenon.
In addition to this, the researcher must make sure that the composition of the final
sample to be used in the study meets the research’s quota criteria.
The first step in non-probability quota sampling is to divide the population into exclusive
subgroups.
Then, the researcher must identify the proportions of these subgroups in the population;
this same proportion will be applied in the sampling process.
Finally, the researcher selects subjects from the various subgroups while taking into
consideration the proportions noted in the previous step.
The final step ensures that the sample is representative of the entire population. It also
allows the researcher to study traits and characteristics that are noted for each subgroup.
In a study wherein the researcher likes to compare the academic performance of the
different high school class levels, its relationship with gender and socioeconomic status, the
researcher first identifies the subgroups.
Usually, the subgroups are the characteristics or variables of the study. The researcher
divides the entire population into class levels, intersected with gender and socioeconomic
status. Then, he takes note of the proportions of these subgroups in the entire population and
then samples each subgroup accordingly.
The main reason why researchers choose quota samples is that it allows the
researchers to sample a subgroup that is of great interest to the study. If a study aims to
investigate a trait or a characteristic of a certain subgroup, this type of sampling is the ideal
technique.
Quota sampling also allows the researchers to observe relationships between

subgroups. In some studies, traits of a certain subgroup interact with other traits of another
subgroup. In such cases, it is also necessary for the researcher to use this type of sampling
technique.
may appear that this type of sampling technique is totally representative of the
population. In some cases it is not. Keep in mind that only the selected traits of the population
were taken into account in forming the subgroups.
the process of sampling these subgroups, other traits in the sample may be overrepresented. In
a study that considers gender, socioeconomic status and religion as the basis of the subgroups,
the final sample may have skewed representation of age, race, educational attainment, marital
status and a lot more.
Sequential Sampling
Sequential sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the researcher

picks a single or a group of subjects in a given time interval, conducts his study, analyzes the
results then picks another group of subjects if needed and so on.
Sequential sampling technique, initially developed as a tool for product quality control.
The sample size, n, is not fixed in advanced, nor is the timeframe of data collection. The
process begins, first, with the sampling of a single observation or a group of observations.
These are then tested to see whether or not the null hypothesis can be rejected. If the null is not
rejected, then another observation or group of observations is sampled and the test is run again.
In this way the test continues until the researcher is confident in his or her results.
For survey sampling applications, the term sequential sampling describes any method of
sampling that reads an ordered frame of N sampling units and selects the sample with specified
probabilities or specified expectations. Sequential sampling methods are particularly well suited
when applied with computers. They can also be applied for selecting samples of a population
resulting from some other process: for example, cars coming off an assembly line, patients
arriving at a clinic, or voters exiting the polls. Examples of sequential sampling schemes
discussed in this entry include simple random sampling, systematic sampling, and probability
proportional to size (PPS) sequential sampling.
This technique can reduce sampling costs by reducing the number of observations needed. If a
whole batch of light bulbs is defective, sequential sampling can allow us to learn this much more
quickly and inexpensively than simple random sampling. However, it is not a random sample
and has other issues with making statistical inference.
This sampling technique gives the researcher limitless chances of fine tuning his research
methods and gaining a vital insight into the study that he is currently pursuing.
If we are to consider all the other sampling techniques in research, we will all come to a
conclusion that the experiment and the data analysis will either boil down to accepting the null
hypothesis or disproving the null hypothesis while accepting the alternative hypothesis.
In sequential sampling technique, there exists another step, a third option. The researcher can
accept the null hypothesis, accept his alternative hypothesis, or select another pool of subjects
and conduct the experiment once again. This entails that the researcher can obtain limitless
number of subjects before finally making a decision whether to accept his null or alternative
hypothesis.
The researcher has a limitless option when it comes to sample size and sampling schedule. The
sample size can be relatively small of excessively large depending on the decision making of
the researcher. Sampling schedule is also completely dependent to the researcher since a
second group of samples can only be obtained after conducting the experiment to the initial
group of samples.
As mentioned above, this sampling technique enables the researcher to fine-tune his research
methods and results analysis. Due to the repetitive nature of this sampling method, minor
changes and adjustments can be done during the initial parts of the study to correct and hone
the research method.
There is very little effort in the part of the researcher when performing this sampling technique.
It is not expensive, not time consuming and not workforce extensive.
This sampling method is hardly representative of the entire population. Its only hope of
approaching representativeness is when the researcher chose to use a very large sample size
significant enough to represent a big fraction of the entire population.
The sampling technique is also hardly randomized. This contributes to the very little degree
representativeness of the sampling technique.
Due to the aforementioned disadvantages, results from this sampling technique cannot be used
to create conclusions and interpretations pertaining to the entire population.
Be sure to understand the limitations of the technique. Sequential modeling is not a probabilistic
sampling option. It can lead to valid statistical conclusions but the means in which these are
obtained is separate from probabilistic sampling techniques.
Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling is a random sampling technique which is frequently chosen by

researchers for its simplicity and its periodic quality.
Systematic sampling is a type of probability sampling method in which sample members

from a larger population are selected according to a random starting point and a fixed periodic
interval. This interval, called the sampling interval, is calculated by dividing the population size
by the desired sample size. Despite the sample population being selected in advance,
systematic sampling is still thought of as being random if the periodic interval is determined
beforehand and the starting point is random.
In systematic random sampling, the researcher first randomly picks the first item or
subject from the population. Then, the researcher will select each n‟th subject from the list.
The procedure involved in systematic random sampling is very easy and can be done
manually. The results are representative of the population unless certain characteristics of the
population are repeated for every n’th individual, which is highly unlikely.
Since simply random sampling a population can be inefficient and time-consuming,

statisticians turn to other methods, such as systematic sampling. Choosing a sample size
through a systematic approach can be done quickly. Once a fixed starting point has been
identified, a constant interval is selected to facilitate participant selection.
For example, if you wanted to select a random group of 1,000 people from a population
of 50,000 using systematic sampling, all of the potential participants must be placed in a list and
a starting point would be selected. Once the list is formed, every 50th person on the list, starting
the count at the selected starting point, would be chosen as a participant, since 50,000/1,000 =
50. For example, if the selected starting point was 20, the 70th person on the list would
bechosen followed by the 120th, and so on. Once the end of the list was reached, if additional
participants are required, the count loops to the beginning of the list to finish the count.
Within systematic sampling, as with other sampling methods, a target population must
be selected prior to selecting participants. A population can be identified based on any number
of desired characteristics that suit the purpose of the study being conducted. Some selection
criteria may include age, gender, race, location, education level and/or profession
The process of obtaining the systematic sample is much like an arithmetic progression.
Starting-Number
The researcher selects an integer that must be less than the total number of individuals in the
population. This integer will correspond to the first subject.
1-Interval:
The researcher picks another integer which will serve as the constant difference between any
two consecutive numbers in the progression.
The integer is typically selected so that the researcher obtains the correct sample size
For example, the researcher has a population total of 100 individuals and need 12 subjects. He
first picks his starting number, 5.
Then the researcher picks his interval, 8. The members of his sample will be individuals 5, 13,
21, 29, 37, 45, 53, 61, 69, 77, 85, 93.
Other researchers use a modified systematic random sampling technique wherein they first
identify the needed sample size. Then, they divide the total number of the population with the
sample size to obtain the sampling fraction. The sampling fraction is then used as the constant
difference between subjects.
Risks Associated with Systematic Sampling
One risk that statisticians must take into account when conducting systematic sampling involves
how the list used with the sampling interval is organized. If the population placed on the list is
organized in a cyclical pattern that matches the sampling interval, the selected sample may be
biased. For example, a company’s human resources department wants to pick a sample of
employees and ask how they feel about company policies. Employees are grouped in teams of
20, with each team headed by a manager. If the list used to pick the sample size is organized
with teams clustered together, the statistician risks picking only managers (or no managers at
all) depending on the sampling interval.
Advantage and Disadvantage of systematic sampling
Another advantage of systematic random sampling over simple random sampling is the
assurance that the population will be evenly sampled. There exists a chance in simple
random sampling that allows a clustered selection of subjects. This is systematically
eliminated in systematic sampling.
The main advantage of using systematic sampling over simple random sampling is its
simplicity. It allows the researcher to add a degree of system or process into the random
selection of subjects.
▪ The process of selection can interact with a hidden periodic trait within the population. If the
sampling technique coincides with the periodicity of the trait, the sampling technique will no
longer be random and representativeness of the sample is compromised
Since systematic random sampling is a type of probability sampling, the researcher must ensure
that all the members of the population have equal chances of being selected as the starting
point or the initial subject.
The researcher must be certain that the chosen constant interval between subjects do not
reflect a certain pattern of traits present in the population. If a pattern in the population exists
and it coincides with the interval set by the researcher, randomness of the sampling technique is
compromised.
Snowball or Chain Sampling
This particular one identifies, cases of interest from people who know people who know what
cases are information rich that is good examples for study, good interview subjects. This is
commonly used in studies that may be looking at issues like the homeless households. What
you do is to get hold of one and he/she will tell you where the others are or can be found . When
you find those others they will tell you where you can get more others and the chain continues.
Snowball sampling is a special Non-probability method used when the desired sample
characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate respondents in
these situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional
subjects. While this technique can dramatically lower search costs, it comes at the expense of
introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample will
represent a good cross section from the population.
Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling technique that is used by researchers to

identify potential subjects in studies where subjects are hard to locate.
Snowball Sampling
Researchers use this sampling method if the sample for the study is very rare or is limited to a
very small subgroup of the population. This type of sampling technique works like chain referral.
After observing the initial subject, the researcher asks for assistance from the subject to help
identify people with a similar trait of interest.
The process of snowball sampling is much like asking your subjects to nominate another person
with the same trait as your next subject. The researcher then observes the nominated subjects
and continues in the same way until the obtaining sufficient number of subjects.
For example, if obtaining subjects for a study that wants to observe a rare disease, the
researcher may opt to use snowball sampling since it will be difficult to obtain subjects. It is also
possible that the patients with the same disease have a support group; being able to observe one
of the members as your initial subject will then lead you to more subjects for the study.
Types of Snowball Sampling
▪ Linear Snowball Sampling
▪ Exponential Non-Discriminative Snowball Sampling
▪ Exponential Discriminative Snowball Sampling
Advantages and Disadvantages of Snowball Sampling
▪ The chain referral process allows the researcher to reach populations that are difficult to
sample when using other sampling methods.
▪ The process is cheap, simple and cost-efficient.
This sampling technique needs little planning and fewer workforce compared to other
sampling techniques.
The researcher has little control over the sampling method. The subjects that the researcher
can obtain rely mainly on the previous subjects that were observed.
▪ Representativeness of the sample is not guaranteed. The researcher has no idea of the true
distribution of the population and of the sample.
Sampling bias is also a fear of researchers when using this sampling technique. Initial
subjects tend to nominate people that they know well. Because of this, it is highly possible
that the subjects share the same traits and characteristics, thus, it is possible that the sample
that the researcher will obtain is only a small subgroup of the entire population.
Description of Respondents
This part of chapter 3 explains the characteristics of the respondents along with its
limitation.
Respondents are those persons who have been invited to participate in a particular study
and have actually taken part in the study. This definition applies to both qualitative and
quantitative studies.
Research Instrument
This part of chapter 3 presents the research tool that will be used in data gathering. Research
instrument could be standardized or a researcher-made questionnaire. It should be noted that if
the researcher will be using a new (researcher-made) survey instrument, its reliability and validity
should be tested before finalizing them.
Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. To test the survey instrument’s reliability, it
should be pilot-tested to respondents with the same characteristics as the actual respondents
but should be conducted to other company/locations. For instance, managers of a BPO company
are the respondents, so the researcher should pilot-test his/her designed questionnaire to other
bpo company’s managerial employees. The results should be tallied and computed by
statisticians to determine whether the instrument’s reliability is high or low. If low, it should be
revised depending on details of the reliability test.
When a measure has good test-retest reliability and internal consistency, researchers should be
more confident that the scores represent what they are supposed to, validity test should then
follow. Validity is the extent to which the scores from a measure represent the variable they are
intended to.
After passing the reliability test, the instrument should be validated by field experts. In the given
example, HR practitioners (not connected with ABC Company) should validate content of the
questionnaire. HR professors‟ or college instructors‟ expertise may also be sought to validate the
instrument. Experts in the field of research and statisticians should be consulted as well to
validate whether the survey instrument is consistent with the over-all objectives of the
investigation.
Once the researcher have secured validity and reliability of his/her research instrument, data
gathering maybe conducted then.
Data-Gathering Procedure
This part of research proposal entails the systematic conduct of survey depending whether
respondents are known or unknown. . In our given example, respondents are obviously
managers of the ABC Company. Data gathering procedures may be easier that may take a week
given the approval sought company to conduct the study.
Example of unknown respondents are customers of a fast-food chain as people come and go by
the store everyday. Data gathering from unknown respondents may take longer and the
approach should be more systematic. Conduct of survey should be done everyday (Monday to
Sunday), four times week (breakfast, lunch, afternoon snacks, and dinner) to ensure that all types
of customers are given the chance to be surveyed.
Statistical Treatment of Data
This part of research proposal presents the different statistical formulas the researcher the
researcher believes applicable to solve the pre-identified statement of the problem. It is best to
consult statisticians who are experts in the field as they know the appropriate formulas.
It is advantageous for the researcher to understand statistical treatment of data specially if intend
to improve his/her research skills.
ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS
ESSAY: 10 Points each
1. Discuss what includes a research proposal
2. Identify and explain briefly the parts of research proposal
PART 3
DESIGNING A SURVEY INSTRUMENT
OVERVIEW
No matter how convincing a research proposal may become, if the researcher failed to
ensure the survey instrument’s consistency with the overall objectives of the study, the results
may become invalid. In this lesson, practical techniques in aligning the survey instrument with the
research objectives will be discussed.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this lesson, students are expected to:
➢
Design a survey instrument
COURSE MATERIALS
Designing a survey instrument
1. Identify the major parts of the survey instrument. The major parts of the survey instrument
should be aligned with the statement of the problem.
Based on the given statement of the problem, first part of the survey instrument should be
“profile of the respondents” which seeks to gather information about their age, sex, civil status,
highest educational attainment, and length of service in the company. The second part of the
survey instrument should be “HRM practices” of ABC Company in terms of analysis and design
of work, HR Planning, Recruiting, Selection, Training and Development, Compensation,
Performance Management and Employee Relations.
2. Add more items under each variables in Part 2 based on the collected literature and studies.
3. Ensure that appropriate likert scale is used to assess what is intended to measure.
In the example given, HRM practices is being investigated, meaning the researcher intends to
determine whether the HRM functions ( analysis and design of work, HR Planning, Recruiting,
Selection, Training and Development, Compensation, Performance Management and Employee
Relations.) are being practiced by the ABC Company, therefore Likert Scale applicable are:
Always -5
Frequently -4
Sometimes -3
Seldom -2
Never -1
Or
Strongly Agree - 5
Agree - 4
Somewhat Agree - 3
Disagree - 2
Strongly Disagree - 1
Designing a survey instrument
2. Identify the major parts of the survey instrument. The major parts of the survey instrument
should be aligned with the statement of the problem.
Based on the given statement of the problem, first part of the survey instrument should be
“profile of the respondents” which seeks to gather information about their age, sex, civil status,
highest educational attainment, and length of service in the company. The second part of the
survey instrument should be “HRM practices” of ABC Company in terms of analysis and design
of work, HR Planning, Recruiting, Selection, Training and Development, Compensation,
Performance Management and Employee Relations.
4. Add more items under each variables in Part 2 based on the collected literature and studies.
5. Ensure that appropriate likert scale is used to assess what is intended to measure.
In the example given, HRM practices is being investigated, meaning the researcher intends to
determine whether the HRM functions ( analysis and design of work, HR Planning, Recruiting,
Selection, Training and Development, Compensation, Performance Management and Employee
Relations.) are being practiced by the ABC Company, therefore Likert Scale applicable are:
References:
Chapter 4, Research Methodology and Design. Unisa Institutional Repository (UnisaIR),

University of South Africa; Labaree, Robert V. and Ross Scimeca. “The Philosophical Problem
of Truth in Librarianship.” The Library Quarterly 78 (January 2008): 43-70; Maykut, Pamela S.
Beginning Qualitative Research: A Philosophic and Practical Guide. Washington, D.C.: Falmer
Press, 1994; Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford
University, 2013.
Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Barbara. Part 1, What Is Research Design? The Context of Design.

Performance Studies Methods Course syllabus. New Yortk University, Spring 2006.
Gall, Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction. Chapter 18, Action Research. 8th ed.
Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007; Kemmis, Stephen and Robin McTaggart.
“Participatory Action Research.” In Handbook of Qualitative Research. Norman Denzin and
Yvonna S. Locoln, eds. 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2000), pp. 567-605.; Reason,
Peter and Hilary Bradbury. Handbook of Action Research: Participative Inquiry and Practice.
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2001.
Bachman, Ronet. The Practice of Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice. Chapter 5,
Causation and Research Designs. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 2007;
Causal Research Design: Experimentation. Anonymous SlideShare Presentation; Gall,
Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction. Chapter 11, Nonexperimental Research:
Correlational Designs. 8th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007; Trochim, William
M.K. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006.
Healy P, Devane D. “Methodological Considerations in Cohort Study Designs.” Nurse

Researcher 18 (2011): 32-36; Levin, Kate Ann. Study Design IV: Cohort Studies. Evidence-
Based Dentistry 7 (2003): 51–52; Study Design 101. Himmelfarb Health Sciences Library.
George Washington University, November 2011; Cohort Study. Wikipedia.
Hall, John. “Cross-Sectional Survey Design.” In Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods.

Paul J. Lavrakas, ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 173-174; Helen Barratt, Maria
Kirwan. Cross-Sectional Studies: Design, Application, Strengths and Weaknesses of Cross-
Sectional Studies. Healthknowledge, 2009. Cross-Sectional Study. Wikipedia.
53
Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services. Chapter 5,
Flexible Methods: Descriptive Research. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999;
McNabb, Connie. Descriptive Research Methodologies. Powerpoint Presentation; Shuttleworth,
Martyn. Descriptive Research Design, September 26, 2008. Explorable.com website.
Cuthill, Michael. “Exploratory Research: Citizen Participation, Local Government, and

Sustainable Development in Australia.” Sustainable Development 10 (2002): 79-89; Taylor, P.
J., G. Catalano, and D.R.F. Walker. “Exploratory Analysis of the World City Network.” Urban
Studies 39 (December 2002): 2377-2394; Exploratory Research. Wikipedia.
Savitt, Ronald. “Historical Research in Marketing.” Journal of Marketing 44 (Autumn, 1980): 52-
58; Gall, Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction. Chapter 16, Historical Research. 8th
ed. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007.
Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services. Chapter 6,
Flexible Methods: Relational and Longitudinal Research. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia
University Press, 1999; Kalaian, Sema A. and Rafa M. Kasim. "Longitudinal Studies." In
Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods. Paul J. Lavrakas, ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage,
2008), pp. 440-441; Ployhart, Robert E. and Robert J. Vandenberg. "Longitudinal Research:
The Theory, Design, and Analysis of Change.” Journal of Management 36 (January 2010): 94-
120; Longitudinal Study. Wikipedia.
Atkinson, Paul and Martyn Hammersley. “Ethnography and Participant Observation.” In

Handbook of Qualitative Research. Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, eds.
(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994), pp. 248-261; Observational Research. Research Methods
by Dummies. Department of Psychology. California State University, Fresno, 2006; Patton
Michael Quinn. Qualitiative Research and Evaluation Methods. Chapter 6, Fieldwork Strategies
and Observational Methods. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002; Rosenbaum, Paul R.
Design of Observational Studies. New York: Springer, 2010.
Rebecca Betensky, Harvard University, Course Lecture Note slides; Cresswell, John W. Et al.
“Advanced Mixed-Methods Research Designs.” In Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social and
Behavioral Research. Abbas Tashakkori and Charles Teddle, eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage,
2003), pp. 209-240; Nataliya V. Ivankova. “Using Mixed-Methods Sequential Explanatory
Design: From Theory to Practice.” Field Methods 18 (February 2006): 3-20; Bovaird, James A.
and Kevin A. Kupzyk. “Sequential Design.” In Encyclopedia of Research Design. Neil J.
Salkind,ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010; Sequential Analysis.
Wikipedia.
FINAL EXAM
Write a Thesis Proposal (Chapter 1-3 and Survey Instrument)
a. Identify a company through your relatives and friends (this will be done to ensure that the
conduct of your study will be assisted and accommodated by the company, since Pandemic,
students are not allowed to visit the company).
Seek approval to conduct study on the HRM practices of that particular company. You need not
to mention the company name in the title should the company won‟t allow it. Provide assurance
with company that all information gathered will be treated with utmost confidentiality.
Ex. Title: “The Human Resource Management Practices of a BPO Company in Ortigas,
Mandaluyong City”
b. Write a Thesis Proposal investigating the Office Management Practices of the chosen
company
c. Design the survey instrument. Part I should contain the profile variables and Part 2 should
contain all variablesand sub-problem should be formulated under each variable with
corresponding Likert Scale.
|(BUMA 20053 / Business Research

Buma 20053 Business Research

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Buma 20053 Business Research

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

1|BUMA20053 / Business Research

The Business Research introduces the Diploma in Office Management Technology-

It is expected that after finishing the course, the students must:

✓ Explain how research contributes to business decisions and practices

✓ Discuss and apply an advanced understanding of business research process

✓ Demonstrate proficiency in identifying a good research topic and defining relevant

✓ Demonstrate proficiency in conducting a critical literature review that deals effectively

2|BUMA20053 / Business Research

Part 1: Introduction to Business Research…………………………………………………..

Part 2: The Research Proposal……………………………………………………………….

Part 3: Designing a Survey Instrument………………………………………………………

✓ Determine a research topic worth investigating related to human resource management

✓ Write a thesis proposal comprising Chapters 1 to 3

✓ Design an appropriate survey instrument

✓ Demonstrate ability to defend research proposal in a professional manner

Course Grading System

Class Standing: 70%

Midterm/ Final Examinations 30%

Midterm Grade + Final Term Grade = 100%

3|BUMA20053 / Business Research

Business research can be described as a systematic and organized effort to investigate

This entire process by which we attempt to solve problems is called research.

At the end of this lesson, the student will be able to:

4|BUMA20053 / Business Research

THE EXCITEMENT OF RESEARCH AND WHY MANAGERS SHOULD KNOW ABOUT

5|BUMA20053 / Business Research

Business research is as an organized, systematic, data-based, critical, objective,

TYPES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH: APPLIED AND BASIC

6|BUMA20053 / Business Research

Consider the following two situations cited in Business Week.

It is obvious that Oxford has a multitude of problems and an outside consultant–

The above is an instance of basic research, where knowledge was generated to

7|BUMA20053 / Business Research

University professors engage in basic research in an effort to understand and generate

8|BUMA20053 / Business Research

1. Identify and effectively solve minor problems in the work setting.

2. Know how to discriminate good from bad research.

6. Relate to hired researchers and consultants more effectively.

7. Combine experience with scientific knowledge while making decisions.

9|BUMA20053 / Business Research

A common experience of all organizations is that the managers thereof encounter

SOME COMMONLY RESEARCH AREAS IN BUSINESS

1. Employee behaviours such as performance, absenteeism, and turnover.

23. Deferred compensation plans.

24. Installation of effective management information systems.

27. Creative management of a diverse workforce.

32. Differences in leadership positions, salaries, and leadership styles.

33. Instrument development for assessing ―true‖ gender differences.

36. Keeping ahead of the competition in the new millennium.

ESSAY: 10 points each

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

✓ Discuss the difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Research

WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT

Qualitative Research is considered to be particularly suitable for exploratory research. It is

Most common applied Qualitative Methods:

Quantitative Research Techniques:

Quantitative techniques typically comprise various forms of questionnaires, and surveys

QUALITATIVE OR QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH STUDY DESIGN

Ultimately, whether to pursue a qualitative or a quantitative study approach is up to you –

Chapter 1 – THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

Chapter 2 – REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES