Lecture 9

Lecture 9 - Integration II
MATH1027 Calculus
Dr. Nan Meng
School of Mathematical Sciences

University of Nottingham Ningbo China
Spring Semester
Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 1 / 41

Contents
9. Integration II
9.1 General rules for integration
9.2 Integration by inspection
9.3 Integration by parts
9.4 Integration by substitution
9.5 Partial fractions
9.6 Applications of definite integral

9. Integration II
9.1. General rules for integration
Let a and b are constants and C is the additive constant of the integration.
(a) If F 0 = f , G 0 = g, then
Z
(af (x ) + bg(x ))dx = aF (x ) + bG(x ) + C
(b) If F 0 = f then
Z
1
f (ax + b)dx = F (ax + b) + C (a 6= 0).
a

9.1. General rules for integration
d
(f (x ))n+1 = (n + 1)(f (x ))n f 0 (x ) (n 6= −1), one has

(c) Since
dx
Z
1
(f (x ))n f 0 (x )dx = (f (x ))n+1 + C (n 6= −1).
n+1
(d) Since
d f 0 (x )
(ln |f (x )|) = ,
dx f (x )
we have
f 0 (x )
Z
dx = ln |f (x )| + C .
f (x )

Example: Find the anti-derivatives of the following indefinite integrals.
Z
4x 2 + 10 cos x dx

(a)
Z
(b) sin(3x + 2)dx

Z
4x 2 + 10 cos x dx

(a)
Z
(b) sin(3x + 2)dx
Solution:
Z Z Z
4
4x 2 + 10 cos x dx = 4 x 2 dx + 10 cos xdx = x 3 + 10 sin x + C

(a)
3
Z
1
(b) sin(3x + 2)dx = − cos(3x + 2) + C
3

Z
(a) (ax + b)n dx
Z
(b) e ax dx

Z
(a) (ax + b)n dx
Z
(b) e ax dx
Solution:
1 (ax + b)n+1
Z
(a) (ax + b)n dx = +C (n 6= −1, a 6= 0)
a n+1
Z
1
(b) e ax dx = e ax + C (a 6= 0)
a

9.2. Integration by inspection
Given a function f to integrate, it is often worth trying to guess the indefinite
integral F + C , and then check to see if the guess is correct by differentiating F
and using Z
f (x )dx = F (x ) + C ⇐⇒ f (x ) = F 0 (x )
Some of the simplest functions have well-known integrals that should be
remembered. For example:

5x 2 − 6
Z
Example: dx .
x3

5x 2 − 6
Z
Example: dx .
x3
Solution:
5x 2 − 6
Z Z
5 6
3
dx = − 3 dx
x x x
Z Z
1 1
=5 dx − 6 dx
x x3
x −2
=5 · ln |x | − 6 · +C
−2
=5 ln |x | + 3x −2 + C ,
where C is a constant.

Z Z Z
1 1 1
Example: Evaluate dx , dx and dx .
x5 (x + 1)5 x5 +1

Z Z Z
1 1 1
Example: Evaluate dx , dx and dx .
x5 (x + 1)5 x5 +1
Solution:

Z
1 1
dx = − 4 + C
x5 4x
Z
1 1
5
dx = − +C
(x + 1) 4(x + 1)4
√ √
5 2x 2 + ( 5 − 1)x + 2 (x + 1)2
Z
1 1
dx = ln √ + ln
1 + x5 20 2x 2 − ( 5 − 1)x + 2 10 x (x − 1) (x 2 + 1)
p √ √
10 − 2 5 −4x + 5 + 1
− arctan p √
10 10 − 2 5
p √ √
5+5 5 4x + 5 − 1
− arctan p √ +C
10 10 + 2 5

9.3. Integration by parts
The Integration by Parts formula is derived from the Product Rule. Let u and v
be functions of x :
d dv du
(uv ) = u + v.
dx dx dx
According to this formula, uv is an antiderivative of the right-hand side, so
Z Z
dv du
uv = u dx + v dx .
dx dx
Moving the second integral on the right to the other side, we obtain
Z Z
dv du
u dx = uv − v dx .
dx dx
Integration by parts
du dv
By letting du = dx and dv = dx , we find the following
dx dx
Z Z Z
udv = uv − vdu = uv − u 0 vdx .

Z
Example: Find xe −x dx .

Z
Example: Find xe −x dx .
Solution: Let xe −x = uv 0 . One way to do this is to choose
u=x v 0 = e −x ,
so that
u 0 = 1 v = −e −x .
The formula for integration by parts then gives
Z Z
−x −x
−e −x dx = −xe −x − e −x + C .

xe dx = −xe −
What if we chose u and v 0 the other way round? Set u = e −x and v 0 = x ?
x 2 −x
Z Z 2
−x x −x
xe dx = e + e dx
2 2
The right-hand side is harder to evaluate than the left!

9.3.1. How to choose u and v 0 ?
(a) However you choose v 0 , make sure you can find v .

(b) It helps if u 0 is simpler than u.
(c) It helps if v 0 is simpler than v .

Z
Example: Find x 2 cos 4xdx .

Z
1
Solution: Set f = x 2 and g 0 = cos 4x so that f 0 = 2x and g = sin 4x . Then
4
using the integration by parts formula yields:
x2
Z Z
2x
x 2 cos 4xdx = sin 4x − sin 4xdx
4 4
x2
Z
1
= sin 4x − x sin 4xdx .
4 2
Z
We must now tackle x sin 4xdx .

Z
We use integration by parts again: now set f = x and g 0 = sin 4x so that f 0 = 1

1
and g = − cos 4x . Hence the integration by parts formula gives
4
Z Z
x 1
x sin 4xdx = − cos 4x + 1 · cos 4xdx
4 4
x 1
= − cos 4x + sin 4x + C
4 4
Finally, we have
x2
Z
1 x 1 C
x 2 cos 4xdx = sin 4x − − cos 4x + sin 4x +
4 2 4 16 4
2
x x 1
= sin 4x + cos 4x − sin 4x + C1
4 8 32

Z
Example: Find I(x ) = e x sin xdx .

Z
Example: Find I(x ) = e x sin xdx .
Solution: Choose f = e x and g 0 = sin x so that f 0 = e x and g = − cos x . Using

the formula for integration by parts we get
Z Z
I = e x sin xdx = −e x cos x + e x cos xdx .
Using integration by parts again on the last term on the right-hand side we set:
f = e x and g 0 = cos x so that f 0 = e x and g = sin x . Then the integration by parts
formula yields
Z
I = −e cos x + e sin x − e x sin xdx
x x
⇒ I = e x (sin x − cos x ) − I + C
⇒ 2I = e x (sin x − cos x ) + C
1
⇒ I = e x (sin x − cos x ) + C1 ,
2
1
where C1 = C.
2
9.4. Integration by substitution
Z
2x cos x 2 dx . We can evaluate it if we remember the

Consider the integral
chain rule calculation:
d
sin x 2 = 2x cos x 2 .

dx
This tells us that sin x 2 is an antiderivative of 2x cos x 2 , and therefore,

Z
2x cos x 2 dx = sin x 2 + C .

A similar Chain Rule calculation shows that

Z
1 + 3x 2 cos x + x 3 = sin x + x 3 + C .

An observation:
0
sin x + x 3 = cos x + x 3 · 1 + 3x 2


9.4. Integration by substitution
Theorem (Integration by substitution.)

Let f be continuous, and let g be an injection such that g 0 is continuous and g −1
is differentiable. Then
Z b Z g −1 (b)
f (x )dx = f (g(t))g 0 (t)dt
a g −1 (a)
Proof (not examinable): We regard a as a constant and b as a variable, and we

define the functions Z b
G(b) = f (x )dx
a
Z g −1 (b)
H(b) = f (g(t))g 0 (t)dt
g −1 (a)

9.4.0. How to choose u and v 0 ?
Proof (not examinable): Applying to G the fundamental theorem of calculus, we
have
G 0 (b) = f (b).
Applying to H the fundamental theorem of calculus, the chain rule and the inverse
function differentiation rule, we have

0
−1
0 −1 d −1
H (b) = f g g (b) g g (b) g (b)
db
1
= f (b)g 0 g −1 (b)

g 0 (g −1 (b))
= f (b).
Hence G 0 = H 0 , which implies that G and H differ at most by an additive constant.

Z a Z g −1 (a)
But since G(a) = f (x )dx = 0 and H(a) = f (g(t))g 0 (t)dt = 0, the
a g −1 (a)
additive constant must be equal to zero. Hence G = H.

9.4.1. Remark
Procedures:
(a) Set x = g(t) everywhere in the integrand.

(b) Write dx = g 0 (t)dt.
(c) Write the limits in terms of the new variable.
Remarks:
g needs to be an injection but it may be either increasing or decreasing.
The differentiability conditions for g and g −1 at the endpoints can be relaxed.
For indefinite integrals, the recipe simplifies in that no substitution a the
endpoints is involved but the final answer needs to be expressed in terms of
the original integration variable.

Z
2x cos x 2 dx

Example:

Z
2x cos x 2 dx

Example:
√
Solution: Suppose x > 0 and write x = t = g(t) where t > 0.
√
Write x = t and x 2 = t.
dx 1
Write dx = dt = √ dt.
dt 2 t
√ √ 1
Z
I = 2 t cos ( t)2 · √ dt
2 t
Z
= cos tdt
= sin t + c = sin x 2 + c,

in the last step writing t in terms of the original variable x .

Z
2x cos x 2 dx

Example:
The substitution assumed x > 0, but we may check by direct differentiation that
the final answer is valid for all x :
d d
sin x 2 + c = sin x 2

dx dx

d dt
= sin t · (chain rule with t = x 2 )
dt dx
| {z } |{z}
=cos t =2x
= 2x cos x 2


√
Z
Example: I = cos x sin x + 1dx

√
Z
Example: I = cos x sin x + 1dx
Solution: Suppose we let t(x ) = sin x + 1. Then
dt
= cos x ⇒ dt = cos xdx
dx
and the integral becomes
√
Z Z
2 3/2
I= tdt = t 1/2 dt = t +C
3
2
= (sin x + 1)3/2 + C
3
Check by differentiation:

d 2 2 3
(sin x + 1) + c = · (sin x + 1)1/2 · cos x
3/2
dx 3 3 2
√
= cos x sin x + 1

Z
x
Example: I = dx
1 + x2

Z
x
Example: I = dx
1 + x2
Solution: Let t(x ) = 1 + x 2 (since t 0 (x ) = x appears in the integrand). Then
dt
= 2x ⇒ dt = 2xdx
dx
and we obtain Z
1 dt 1
I= = ln |t| + C
2 t 2
1
= ln 1 + x 2 + C .

2
The absolute sign has been omitted since 1 + x 2 is always positive.

Z 1
x2
Example: Find xe − 2 dx . (Notice!)
0

Z 1
x2
Example: Find xe − 2 dx . (Notice!)
0
x2
Solution: Use the change of variables u = − .
2
du
= −x ⇒ du = −xdx
dx
The range of new variable u becomes
1
x = 0 → u = 0, x =1→u=− .
2
Therefore, the original integral can be written as
Z 1 Z − 12
−x 2 u=− 1 1
xe 2 dx = − e u du = − e u |u=0 2 = −e − 2 + 1.
0 0
In addition, we can calculate the integral directly, i.e.,

Z 1 Z 1 2 x =1
2
− x2
2
− x2 x x2 1
xe dx = − e d − = −e − 2 = −e − 2 + 1.
0 0 2 x =0

9.4.2. Integration by trigonometric substitution
p
If a2 − x 2 occurs in an integral where a > 0, try the substitution (assuming
π π
− ≤θ≤ )
2 2
p
x = a sin θ, dx = a cos θdθ, a2 − x 2 = a cos θ
p
If x 2 + a2 occurs in an integral where a > 0, try the substitution (assuming
π π
− ≤θ≤ )
2 2
p
x = a tan θ, dx = a sec2 θdθ, x 2 + a2 = a sec θ
p
If x 2 − a2 occurs in an integral where a > 0, try the substitution (assuming
π 3π
0 ≤ θ < with x ≥ a, and π ≤ θ < with x ≤ −a )
2 2
p
x = a sec θ, dx = a sec θ tan θdθ, x 2 − a2 = a tan θ

Z
1
Example: Evaluate I = √ dx .
1 − x2

Z
1
Example: Evaluate I = √ dx .
1 − x2
Solution: The integrand is real-valued for −1 < x < 1. We substitute x = sin t

1 1
with − π < t < π, so that the correspondence between x and t is one-to-one.
2 2
Then dx = cos tdt, and we have
Z Z Z
1 cos t cos t
I= p cos tdt = √ dt = dt
1 − sin2 t cos2 t | cos t|
Z
= 1dt = t + C
= arcsin x + C
1 1
where we have used the fact that cos t > 0 for − π < t < π.
2 2
Please do not forget to substitute back t = arcsin x !

Z 1 p
Example: Evaluate I = x2 1 − x 2 dx .
0

Z 1 p
Example: Evaluate I = x2 1 − x 2 dx .
0
1
Solution: As above, we substitute x = sin t with 0 ≤ t ≤ π : note that the
2
correspondence between x and t is one-to-one even when the endpoint x = 1 is
included. Then dx = cos tdt, x = 0 corresponds to t = 0 and x = 1 corresponds to
1
t = π. Hence
2
Z π/2 p Z π/2 √
I= sin2 t 1 − sin2 t cos tdt = sin2 t cos2 t cos tdt
0 0
Z π/2 Z π/2
= sin2 t| cos t| cos tdt = sin2 t cos2 tdt
0 0
π/2
1 π/2
Z Z
1 2
= sin (2t)dt = (1 − cos(4t))dt
4 0 8 0
π/2
1 sin(4t) π
= t− = .
8 4 0 16

9.5. Partial fractions
The method of partial fractions involves a simple manipulation of the integrand
in order to write it in terms of simpler functions that we know how to integrate.
This method is best illustrated by an example. Suppose we wish to find
x − 10
Z
I= dx .
x 2 + x − 12
Let
x − 10
f (x ) = .
x 2 + x − 12
First factorize the denominator as
x 2 + x − 12 = (x − 3)(x + 4)
so
x − 10
f (x ) = .
(x − 3)(x + 4)

Now write the integrand f (x ) in terms of partial fractions, that is, in the form
A B
+
f (x ) = .
x −3 x +4
The constants A and B are determined by combining the right-hand side to a
common denominator
A(x + 4) + B(x − 3) (A + B)x + 4A − 3B
f (x ) = =
(x − 3)(x + 4) (x − 3)(x + 4)
But the numerator must be x − 10, and so
1 = A + B, − 10 = 4A − 3B
Solving this linear system of equations gives A = −1 and B = 2. So
Z
−1 2
I= + dx
x −3 x +4
= − ln |x − 3| + 2 ln |x + 4| + C
(x + 4)2 (x + 4)2

= ln + C = ln +C
x −3 |x − 3|
3x − 9
Z
Example: Evaluate dx .
(x + 2)2 (x − 1)

3x − 9
Z
Example: Evaluate dx .
(x + 2)2 (x − 1)
Solution:
Partial Fractions Decomposition:
3x − 9 A B C
= + + .
(x + 2)2 (x − 1) x + 2 (x + 2)2 x −1
Determine the values of A, B&C by multiplying both sides by (x + 2)2 (x − 1).
2 2
A= , B = 5, C = − .
3 3
Carry out the integration:
3x − 9
Z Z Z Z
2 1 1 2 1
dx = dx + 5 dx − dx
(x + 2)2 (x − 1) 3 x +2 (x + 2)2 3 x −1
2 5 2
= ln |x + 2| − − ln |x − 1| + C .
3 x +2 3

Denominator Partial fraction decomposition
A
ax + b
ax + b
A1 A2 Ak
(ax + b)k + + ··· +
ax + b (ax + b)2 (ax + b)k
Ax + B
ax 2 + bx + c
ax 2 + bx + c
k A1 x + B1 A2 x + B2 Ak x + Bk
ax 2 + bx + c + 2 + ··· + k
ax 2 + bx + c 2
(ax + bx + c) (ax 2 + bx + c)

9x + 25
Example: Determine the partial fraction decomposition of .
(x + 3)2

9x + 25
Example: Determine the partial fraction decomposition of .
(x + 3)2
Solution: We first need to recognize the expression, and we can write

9x + 25 A B
= +
(x + 3)2 x + 3 (x + 3)2
To derive the value of A and B, we have
9x + 25 A(x + 3) + B
2
=
(x + 3) (x + 3)2
9(−3) + 25 = A(−3 + 3) + B
Derive the value of A and B:
−2 = B, 9=A
Partial fraction decomposition:

9x + 25 9 2
= −
(x + 3)2 x + 3 (x + 3)2

9.6. Applications of definite integral
9.6.1. Area under the graph of a nonnegative function
Definition
If y = f (x ) is nonnegative and integrable over a closed interval [a, b], then the
area under the curve y = f (x ) over [a, b] is the integral of f from a to b,
Z b
A= f (x )dx .
a

9.6.2. Area between two curves
Procedure
1. Find out the intersection points.
2. Find which curve is higher.
3. Integral calculation.
Z b
Area = [f (x ) − g(x )]dx
a
9.6.2. Area between two curves
Area Between Two Compound Curves
Z c
Area = |f (x ) − g(x )|dx
a
Z b Z c
Area = (f (x ) − g(x ))dx + (g(x ) − f (x ))dx
a b

Example: Find the area between two curves f (x ) = x 2 and g(x ) = x 3 within the
interval [0, 1].

Example: Find the area between two curves f (x ) = x 2 and g(x ) = x 3 within the
interval [0, 1].
Solution:
Z b
Area = [f (x ) − g(x )]dx
a
Z 1 2
x − x 3 dx

Area =
0
1
1 3 1 4
= x − x
3 4 0
1 1
= −
3 4
1
=
12

9.6.2 Area between two curves
We may have two functions which are functions in terms of y .
Z d
Area = f (y ) − g(y )dy
c

9.6.3. Average value of a continuous function
Definition
If f is integrable on [a, b], then its average value on [a, b], which is also called its
mean, is Z b
1
av(f ) = f (x )dx .
b−a a
The Mean Value Theorem for Definite Integrals

If f is continuous on [a, b], then at some point c in [a, b],
Z b
1
f (c) = f (x )dx
b−a a

p
Example: Find the average value of f (x ) = 4 − x 2 on [−2, 2].

p
Example: Find the average value of f (x ) = 4 − x 2 on [−2, 2].
Solution:
We know that the area is the half circle, and it can be computed, i.e.,
1 1
Area = · πr 2 = · π(2)2 = 2π
2 2
The function f is clearly non-negative, thus we have
Z 2p
Area = 4 − x 2 dx = 2π.
−2
The average value of f is
Z 2
1 p 1 π
av(f ) = 4 − x 2 dx = (2π) = .
2 − (−2) −2 4 2
9.6.4. Other applications
If you are interested in other applications, please find these in the textbooks.
Chapter 6, Thomas Calculus by George B. Thomas, Joel R. Hass, Christopher Heil,
Maurice D. Weir
Volumes Using Cross-Sections;
Volumes Using Cylindrical Shells;
Arc Length;
Areas of Surfaces of Revolution;
Etc.
Other resources:
Area Between Two Polar Curves;

Etc.

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Lecture 9 - Integration II

Dr. Nan Meng

School of Mathematical Sciences

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 1 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 2 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 3 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 4 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 5 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 5 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 6 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 6 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 7 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 8 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 8 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 9 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 9 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 10 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 11 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 12 / 41

Solution: Let xe −x = uv 0 . One way to do this is to choose

What if we chose u and v 0 the other way round? Set u = e −x and v 0 = x ?

The right-hand side is harder to evaluate than the left!

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 12 / 41

(a) However you choose v 0 , make sure you can find v .

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 13 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 14 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 14 / 41

We use integration by parts again: now set f = x and g 0 = sin 4x so that f 0 = 1

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 15 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 16 / 41

Solution: Choose f = e x and g 0 = sin x so that f 0 = e x and g = − cos x . Using

A similar Chain Rule calculation shows that

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 17 / 41

Theorem (Integration by substitution.)

Proof (not examinable): We regard a as a constant and b as a variable, and we

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 18 / 41

Hence G 0 = H 0 , which implies that G and H differ at most by an additive constant.

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 19 / 41

(a) Set x = g(t) everywhere in the integrand.

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 20 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 21 / 41

in the last step writing t in terms of the original variable x .

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 21 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 22 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 23 / 41

Solution: Suppose we let t(x ) = sin x + 1. Then

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 23 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 24 / 41

Solution: Let t(x ) = 1 + x 2 (since t 0 (x ) = x appears in the integrand). Then

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 24 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 25 / 41

In addition, we can calculate the integral directly, i.e.,

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 25 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 26 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 27 / 41

Solution: The integrand is real-valued for −1 < x < 1. We substitute x = sin t

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 27 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 28 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 28 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 29 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 31 / 41

Determine the values of A, B&C by multiplying both sides by (x + 2)2 (x − 1).

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 31 / 41

Dr. Nan Meng (UNNC) MATH1027 - Lecture 9 Spring Semester 32 / 41