Unit 5

EV Components Design
Syllabus

Criteria for battery selection, Forces on EV calculation, Power for EV calculation, Sizing
the Power Converter, Sizing of Electric Machine for EVs and HEVs, Motor Torque
Calculation, Induction motor control, PMSM motor control, Battery pack design, in
vehicle networks- CAN

Criteria for battery selection

1. Primary vs. Secondary

One of the first choices in battery selection is to decide whether the application requires
primary (single use) or secondary (rechargeable) batteries. For the most part, this is an
easy decision for the designer. Applications with occasional intermittent use (such as
smoke alarms, toys, or flashlights) and disposable applications in which recharging
becomes impractical (such as hearing aids, watches, greeting cards, and pacemakers)
warrant the use of a primary battery. If the battery is used continuously and for long
stretches of time (such as in a laptop, cell phone, or smart watch), a rechargeable battery is
more suitable.

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2. Energy vs. Power
The runtime of a battery is dictated by the battery capacity expressed in milliampere per
hour (mAh) or amp hours (Ah) and is the discharge current that a battery can provide over
time.
Battery manufacturers often specify capacity at a given discharge rate, temperature, and
cutoff voltage. The specified capacity will depend on all three factors. When comparing
manufacturer capacity ratings, make sure you look at drain rates in particular. A battery
that appears to have a high capacity on a spec sheet may actually perform poorly if the
current drain for the application is higher. For instance, a battery rated at 2 Ah for a 20-
hour discharge cannot deliver 2 A for one hour, but will only provide a fraction of the
capacity.

A good analogy for power versus energy is to think of a bucket with a spout. A larger
bucket can hold more water and is akin to a battery with high energy. The opening or
spout size from which the water leaves the bucket is akin to power — the higher the
power, the higher the drain rate. To increase energy, you would typically increase the
battery size, but to increase power you decrease internal resistance. Cell construction plays
a huge part in obtaining batteries with high power density.

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3. Voltage
Battery operating voltage is another important consideration and is dictated by the
electrode materials used. A useful battery classification here is to consider aqueous or
water-based batteries versus lithium-based chemistries. Lead acid, zinc carbon, and nickel
metal hydride (NiMH) all use water-based electrolytes and have nominal voltages ranging
from 1.2 to 2 V. Lithium-based batteries, on the other hand, use organic electrolytes and
have nominal voltages of 3.2 to 4 V (both primary and secondary).
Many electronic components operate at a minimum voltage of 3 V. The higher operating
voltage of lithium-based chemistries enables a single cell to be used rather than two or
three aqueous-based cells in series to make up the desired voltage.

4. Temperature Range
Battery chemistry dictates the temperature range of the application. For instance, aqueous
electrolyte-based zinc-carbon cells cannot be used below 0° C (32° F). Alkaline cells also
exhibit a sharp decline in capacity at these temperatures, although less than zinc-carbon.
Lithium primary batteries with an organic electrolyte can be operated up to -40° C/F, but
with a significant drop in performance.
In rechargeable applications, lithium-ion batteries can be charged at maximum rate only
within a narrow window of about 20-45° C (68°-113° F). Beyond this temperature range,
lower currents/voltages need to be used, resulting in longer charging times. At
temperatures below 5-10° C (41-50° F), a trickle charge may be required to prevent the
dreaded lithium dendritic plating problem, which increases the risk of thermal runaway.
We have all heard of exploding lithium-based batteries, which could happen as a result of
overcharging, low- or high-temperature charging, or short-circuiting from contaminants.

 Temperature Requirements: Operational temperature range.

 Service Life: Length of time over which operation is required.
 Physical Requirements: Size, shape, weight limitations.
 Shelf Life: Allowable storage time.
 Charge-Discharge Cycle: Discharge profile and charging efficiency.
 Environmental Conditions: Atmospheric conditions including pressure and
humidity, shock, vibration, spin, acceleration environment compatibility.
 Safety & Reliability: Permissible failure rates.
 Maintenance: Ease of battery maintenance and replacement.
 Cost: Initial and operating costs.

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Forces on EV calculation
Power for EV calculation

Aim: - To Calculate Forces Acting on a Vehicle & Power calculations required to run a
vehicle. Objectives :- What should be the maximum speed of the motor used in an electric
scooter capable to run at 90 kmph, if the fixed gear ratio is 7 and tire size is 90/100 R10
53J? Assume the following…

Aim :- To Calculate Forces Acting on a Vehicle & Power calculations required to run a
vehicle.

1. What should be the maximum speed of the motor used in an electric scooter capable to
run at 90 kmph, if the fixed gear ratio is 7 and tire size is 90/100 R10 53J? Assume the
following arrangement from motor to wheel. Recalculate the same value if tire code is
90/90 R18 51P

2. Prepare a simple excel calculator to identify vehicle propulsion power based on given
inputs and outputs. Implement formulas in cells.
Inputs: Kerb Weight (kg), Payload (kg), Coefficient of rolling resistance, Air density
(kg/m3), Width (m), Height (m), Drag coefficient, Acceleration (0 to top speed in
specified seconds), Hill climbing angle, Speed
Output: Total power in kW

What are the limitations of this calculation?

3. Assuming that tire pressure reduction by 15% results in increase of rolling resistance
effect by two times, how much will be the difference in total traction power keeping all
other parameters same?

THEORY:-
Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) :
 A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a type of hybrid vehicle that combines a
conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) system with an electric propulsion
system (hybrid vehicle drivetrain).
 The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel
economy than a conventional vehicle or better performance.
 There is a variety of HEV types and the degree to which each function as an electric
vehicle (EV) also varies.
 The most common form of HEV is the hybrid electric car, although hybrid electric
trucks (pickups and tractors) and buses also exist.

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  Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-improving technologies such as regenerative
brakes which convert the vehicle's kinetic energy to electric energy, which is stored
in a battery or super capacitor.
 Some varieties of HEV use an internal combustion engine to turn an electrical
generator, which either recharges the vehicle's batteries or directly powers its
electric drive motors; this combination is known as a motor–generator.
 Many HEVs reduce idle emissions by shutting down the engine at idle and
restarting it when needed; this is known as a start-stop system.
 A hybrid-electric produces lower tailpipe emissions than a comparably sized
gasoline car since the hybrid's gasoline engine is usually smaller than that of a
gasoline-powered vehicle. If the engine is not used to drive the car directly, it can
be geared to run at maximum efficiency, further improving fuel economy.

Solution 1: -
Numerical calculation
 What should be the maximum speed of the motor used in an electric scooter capable
to run at 90 kmph, if the fixed gear ratio is 7 and Tyre size is 90/100 R10 53J ? How
to read a Tyre?
 Recalculate the same value if Tyre code is 90/90 R18 51P?

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Speed Rating of Tyre Table:-

6
Load Carrying Capacity chart for Tyres:-

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Given data for electric scooter
For Calculation 1 (90/100 R10 53J) (To find Max Speed of Motor)

Velocity = 90 kmph
Gear Ratio = 7
Tyre size = 90/100 R10 53J
Step 1: - Converting km/hr to m/sec, so for that we will proceed with following
calculation :-
Then for 90 km/hr
= 90 * 5/18 (m/sec)
= 25 m/s
Now, we are calculating Tyre Diameter “90/100 R10”
Here, we have
Sectional Width of Tyre = 90 mm
Aspect Ratio = 100
Rim diameter (inches) = 10
So, converting
D(mm) = ('d') * 25.4
= 10 * 25.4
= 254 mm

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Now for calculating Tyre Diameter we will use given formula
D = 2*W*(A.R./100) + d
Where,
W = width of Tyre
A.R. = Aspect ratio
d = Rim diameter
So,
Tyre Diameter (D) = (2*w*(AR/100)) + d
= 2 * 90 (100/100) + 254
= 180(1) + 254
= 434 mm

Now for Tyre Radius,

Radius = Diameter (D) / 2
= 434 /2
= 217 mm
= 217/1000
= 0.217 m
Another step is to calculate speed of motor angular velocity,
ω=G*V/r
= 7 * 25 / 0.217
= 806.45 rad/s
Now, converting rad/s to rpm,

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We know that angular velocity (ω =(2*pi*speed/60))
Hence, speed in rpm = (60*ω/(2*pi))
Speed in rpm = 7700.05 rpm

Therefore, the maximum speed of the motor is 7700.05 rpm or 806.451 rad/s for tyre
size 90/100 R10 53J used by electric scooter.

For Calculation 2 (90/90 R18 51P) (To find Maximum Speed of Motor )

Velocity = 90 kmph
Gear Ratio = 7
Tyre size = 90/90 R18 51P
Step 1: - Converting km/hr to m/sec, so for that we will proceed with following

calculation:-
Then for 90 km/hr
= 90 * 5/18 (m/s)
= 25 m/s
Now, we have to calculate Tyre Diameter for tyre size specification “90/90 R18”
Here,
1. Width of Tyre = 90 mm
2. Aspect Ratio = 90
3. Rim diameter (inches) = 18 mm
4. Construction = Radial
So, Here we have to convert Rim diameter (inches) into mm

D(mm) = ('d') * 25.4

= 18 * 25.4
= 457.2 mm

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Now for calculating Tyre Diameter we will use given formula
D = 2*w* (A.R./100) + d
Where,
w = width of Tyre
A.R. = Aspect ratio
d = Rim diameter
So,
Tyre Diameter (D) = 2*w*(AR/100) + d
= 2 * 90*(90/100) + 457.2
= 180(0.9) + 457.2
= 162 + 457.2
= 619.2 mm
Now for Tyre Radius (R)
Radius = Diameter (D) / 2
= 619.2 /2
= 309.6 mm
= 309.6 * 10^(-3)m
= 0.3096 m
Another step is to calculate speed of motor angular velocity
ω=G*V/r
= 7 * 25 / 0.3096
= 565.25 rad/s
Now, converting rad/s to rpm,
we know that angular velocity (ω =(2*pi*speed/60))
Hence, speed in rpm = (60*ω/(2*pi))
speed in rpm = 5397 rpm
Therefore, the maximum speed of motor is 5397 rpm or 565.25 rad/s for 90/90 R18
51P used by electric scooter.

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Solution 2 : -
Prepare a simple excel calculator to identify vehicle propulsion power based on given
inputs and outputs. Implement formulas in cells.
Inputs: Kerb Weight (kg), Payload (kg), Coefficient of rolling resistance, Air density
(kg/m3), Width (m), Height (m), Drag coefficient, Acceleration (0 to top speed in
specified seconds), Hill climbing angle, Speed
Output: Total power in kW
What are the limitations of this calculation?

Formula:-
 Rolling Resistance (Frr) = μrr * Total Weight
 Total weight = kerb weight + payload weight
μrr = Coefficient of rolling resistance
 Aerodynamic Drag Force (Fad) = ½ * rho * A * (V^2) *Cd
 Total Tractive Force (Fte) = Frr + Fad + Fhc + Facclrn
 Total Power (kW) = [ Fte *Velocity in (m/s) /1000 ]

Inputs:-
 Rolling resistance coefficient (Urr) for concrete road = 0.011
 Kerb weight = 120 kg for vehicle 1 & 140 kg for vehicle 2
 Payload weight = 90 kg for vehicle 1 & 80 kg for vehicle 2
 We have considered electric scooter as upright commuter, so Drag Coefficient
(Cd) = 1.1
 Width = 0.5 m & Height = 1 m
 We assume that velocity is similar throughout the process. Hence, dv/dt=0. So,
we have not considered acceleration force.
 Hill climbing angle = 10 degree considered.
 Speed (kmph) = 72 kmph

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Hill Climbing Force Calculations:-

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Vehicle Power Calculations:-

1. Rolling Resistance Force (N) (Frr) = Vehicle 1 is 22.66 N

= Vehicle 2 is 23.74 N
2. Aerodynamic Drag Force(N)(Fad) = Vehicle 1 is 137.5 N
= Vehicle 2 is 137.5 N
3. Hill Climbing Force (Fhc) (N) = Vehicle 1 is 357.553 N
= Vehicle 2 is 374.579 N
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4. Total Tractive Power required = Vehicle 1 is 10.354 kW
= Vehicle 2 is 10.716 kW

Limitations of this calculation:-

 The coefficient of rolling resistance is constant but it depends on tire pressure
& other road conditions.
 Air density is also taken as constant but it varies with respect to temperature,
pressure and other factors.
 Drag coefficient also varies on the aerodynamics of the car which is also
considered as constant.

Solution 3: -
 Assuming that Tyre pressure reduction by 15% results in an increase of rolling
resistance effect by two times, how much will be the difference in total traction
power keeping all other parameters same ?
Given condition states that for decrease in tyre pressure by 15%, there is an increase
of rolling resistance coefficient by 2 times. Hence, new Urr = 2 * old Urr. Due to this,
rolling resistance forces (Frr) also doubles.
Accordingly, we have calculated tractive power as under;

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The following results calculated;
1. Rolling resistance Force (Frr) (N):-
 Vehicle 1 = 45.322 N
 Vehicle 2 = 47.480 N

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2. Aerodynamic Drag Force (Fad) (N) :-
 Vehicle 1 = 137.5 N
 Vehicle 2 = 137.5 N
3. Hill Climbing Force (Fhc) (N) :-
 Vehicle 1 = 357.553.5 N
 Vehicle 2 = 374.579 N
4. Total Tractive Power (Pte) :-
Vehicle 1 = 10.808 kW
Vehicle 2 = 11.191 kW

Tractive Power Difference:-

While going through it, we observe that for given hill climb condition, total tractive
power required for vehicle 1 is 10.354 kW and if the tyre pressure drops by 15%,
then the same vehicle will require the tractive power of 10.808 kW. That means
tractive power difference for vehicle 1 is 0.453 kW which states that vehicle 1 will
require more 0.453 kW of tractive power if tyre pressure drops by 15%.
Also, total tractive power required for vehicle 2 is 10.716 kW and if the tyre pressure
drops by 15%, then the same vehicle will require the tractive power of 11.191 kW.
That means tractive power difference for vehicle 2 is 0.475 kW which states that
vehicle 2 will require more 0.475 kW of tractive power if tyre pressure drops by
15%.

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Solution 4: -
 See the Range rover sport dragon challenge. How much is the gradeability?
What was the average speed? Which
are the forces acting on car?

The challenge consisted of climbing 999 steps at a 45 degrees angle. It began at the
bottom of the Tianmen Mountain Road, which has a stairway and 99 dizzying turns.
It took Range Rover Sports 22 minutes 41 second to cover 11 km (7 mi) road with 99
turns and 999 Steps to complete and reaches the top of the mountain Tianmen cave
(Heaven's gate), a natural arch in the mountain of a height of 131.5 m (431.4 ft).
Gradeability :-
1. Gradeability is well-defined as the highest grade a vehicle can go up maintaining a
particular speed. In other words, it is the ability of vehicle to climb on slope at given
constant speed.
Gradeability is dependent on:
 Tractive force
 Rolling resistance
 Adhesion (friction)
 Engine torque
 Transmission, transfer case, final drive and tyre ratio
 Overall combined mass properties
Greadeability can be defined in two ways;
1. Degree :- theta = tan inverse(rise/run)
2. Percentage :-
To convert, use this angle degrees to the percentage of slope formula:
Percentage = [ Tan ( Degrees ) ] x 100
For Range Rover Hill Riding an angle of 45 degrees would be:
Percentage of Slope = [ Tan ( 45 ) ] x 100
After calculating, it gives a slope percentage of 100.00 %
This show that gradeability of range rover sport is 100% or 45 degree angle or
having 1:1 gradient ratio.

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GRADEABILITY CHART :-

AVERAGE SPEED OF RANGE ROVER SPORTS :-

During 99 turns, average speed of = 85-90 kmph
During 999 steps, average speed of car = 35-40 kmph
Total time taken to complete the challenge = 22 min 41 sec

Forces Acting on Range Rover Sports During Challenges:-

1. Traction force (Fte)
2. Aerodynamic Drag Force (Fad)
3. Rolling resistance Forece (Frr)
4. Hill Climbing Force (Fhc)
5. Vertical & Longitudinal Force
Forces Acting on Range Rover :-

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Excel Calculator Google Drive Link:-

https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1mprmYcYoLdo7U7muHxFNpUWvQDOU2
-l7VgVrhrC3_nk/edit?usp=sharing

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 Sizing the Power Converter
Inverter
An inverter is a device that converts DC power to the AC power used in an electric
vehicle motor. The inverter can change the speed at which the motor rotates by adjusting
the frequency of the alternating current. It can also increase or decrease the power or
torque of the motor by adjusting the amplitude of the signal.
Size Inverter Need
What Are The Two Types of Power Loads?
1. Resistive load: LED lights, TV, mobile phones, etc. Resistive loads will only use their
rated power.
2. Inductive load: Electric fans, water pumps, power tools, refrigerators, air conditioners,
etc. Inductive loads may use up to 40% more than their rated power.

These are the appliances you want to run:

 Laptop: 150W
 LED lights: 7W
 Small fridge: 75W
 TV: 150W
 Phone/Tablet/Drone: 50W

Now add up all the different wattages.

150 + 7 + 75 + 150 + 50 = 432W
This means to power the above appliances simultaneously, you’ll need a minimum
inverter size of 600 watts.
Remember the x1.4 is to add extra security if any of your appliances is inductive loads.
Inverter sizing in EV
It’s essential to determine what your power needs are going to be. It’s also important to
avoid overtaxing your electrical system, which is mainly an issue when dealing with
automotive applications. When installing an inverter in a car or truck, the amount of
power available is limited by the capabilities of the electrical system, which—barring
the installation of a performance alternator—are pretty much set in stone.

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Motor Torque Calculation

Torque is nothing but a momentary force developed at the time of force is applied to the
motor. The unit of torque is N.m (Newton-meter). In other words, Torque T(N.m) is equal to
the ratio between the electrical power P(W) in watts to the acceleration.
The total power rating of the motor details can be found from the motor’s nameplate
details. Absence of the power details, the power is equal to the product of the voltage and
current for DC motor and for AC motor, the product of the voltage, current and power
factor.
The speed of the motor can be found by using Speed measurement devices.
Hence motor torque T = P / ω
Here omega ω is equal to 2 x pi x N (rpm) / 60
For DC Motor torque Formula:
For Calculating, Torque for DC motor
T = V x I / (2 x pi x N (rpm) / 60)
N (rpm) is the speed of the motor
V => Input DC Voltage
I => Input DC Current
For Single phase AC motor torque formula:
T = V x I x pf / (2 x pi x N (rpm) / 60)
V => Input AC Voltage in volts (line to neutral voltage)
I => Input AC Current in amps

Example:
AC 1 HP single-phase AC motor has an input voltage of 230V, the input current of 3.8
Amps and working at 2500 rpm, 0.8 pf, 100% load. Calculate the torque of the motor.
Apply our formula 1,
T (N.m) = 230 x 3.8 x 0.8 x 100% / (2 x 3.14 x 2500 / 60) = 2.66 N.m
The torque produced by the motor is 2.66 Nm.
Hence 1 HP motor can produce 2.66 N.m

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Induction motor control
The rotor speed (Nr) of an induction motor is given by,
Nr = (1−s) Ns
And the synchronous speed is given by,
Ns=120fP…(1)𝑁𝑠=120𝑓𝑃…(1)
Therefore, the rotor speed of the motor is given by,
Nr=(1−s)(120fP)…(2)𝑁𝑟=(1−𝑠)(120𝑓𝑃)…(2)
It is clear from eqn. (2) that the speed of the induction motor can be changed by varying
the frequency (f), number of poles (P) or slip (s).

Speed Control of Induction Motor by Variable Frequency Control

From the eqns. (1) and (2), it can be seen that the synchronous speed and hence the speed
of the motor can be controlled by changing the supply frequency.
The EMF induced in the stator of the induction motor is given by,
Es=4.44kwsfφN1…(3)𝐸𝑠=4.44𝑘𝑤𝑠𝑓φ𝑁1…(3)

Eqn. (3) shows that, if the supply frequency is changed, the stator EMF E s will also
change to maintain the same flux in the air gap of the motor. If the stator voltage drop is
neglected, then the applied terminal voltage Vs is equal induced EMF Es.
In order to minimize the losses and to avoid the saturation of the core, the motor is
operated at rated air gap flux by changing the terminal voltage (V s) with the supply
frequency (f) so as to maintain the (V/f) ratio constant at the rated value. For this reason,
this type of speed control is also known as constant volt per hertz control.
Thus, from the above discussion it is clear that the speed control of an induction motor
using the variable frequency supply requires a variable voltage supply source. In order to
obtain the variable frequency supply, the following converters are used −
 Voltage Source Inverter – An inverter is a circuit that converts a fixed voltage DC
into a fixed or variable voltage AC with variable frequency.
 Current Source Inverter – The current source inverter converts the input direct
current into an alternating current. The output voltage of the CSI is independent of
the load.
 Cycloconverter – A cycloconverter converts a fixed voltage and fixed frequency
AC supply into a variable voltage and variable frequency AC supply. The variable

23
 frequency will be lower than the fixed frequency. The cycloconverter controlled
induction motor drives are suitable only for large power drives and to obtain low
speeds.
The speed control by the variable frequency control allows good running and transient
performance to be obtained from a squirrel cage induction motor.
Rotor Resistance Control of an Induction Motor
The rotor resistance control method of speed control is used for varying the speed of slip-
ring induction motors. This method is not applicable to squirrel cage induction motors. In
this method, the speed of slip-ring or wound rotor induction motor is controlled by
connecting external resistance in the rotor circuit through slip rings (as shown in the
figure).

The maximum torque of the induction motor is independent of the rotor resistance. The
greater the value of rotor resistance R2, greater is the value of slip at which maximum
torque occurs. When the rotor resistance is increased, the pull-out speed of the motor
decreases, but the value of maximum torque remains constant. Therefore, using rotor
resistance method, the speed control is provided from the rated speed to the lower speeds.
The rotor resistance method of speed control is very simple. With this method, it is
possible to have high starting torque, low starting current and large breakdown or pull-out
torques at small values of slip.
The primary disadvantage of the rotor resistance control method is that the efficiency of
the motor is poor due to additional I2R losses in the external resistors connected in the
rotor circuit.
This method of speed control is used in cranes, Ward-Leonard Ilgener drives and other
intermittent load applications.

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Slip Energy Recovery of an Induction Motor
In the rotor resistance speed control method of induction motor, the slip power in the
rotor circuit is wasted as I 2R loss during the low speed operation of the motor.
Consequently, the efficiency of the motor by this method of speed control is reduced.
The slip power from the rotor circuit can be recovered and fed back to the AC supply
source. Thus, the overall efficiency of the motor can be increased. The principle of slip-
energy recovery is to connect an external source of EMF of slip frequency to the rotor
circuit. The figure shows the circuit arrangement for recovering the slip-energy.

The method of slip-energy recovery shown in the figure is known as static Scherbius
drive. It provides the control of a slip-ring induction motor below the synchronous speed.
In this method, the slip power is converted into DC supply by a diode bridge rectifier and
the rectified current is smoothed with the help of a filter circuit (smoothing reactor).
The output of the rectifier is then fed to the inverter, which inverts this DC power to the
AC power and feeds back to the AC supply source. The inverter used is a controlled
rectifier operated in the inversion mode.
The slip-energy recovery method of speed control is used in large power applications
where variation of speed over a wide range involves a large amount of slip power.

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PMSM motor control
The Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) is an AC synchronous motor whose
field excitation is provided by permanent magnets. The permanent magnet synchronous
motors are very efficient, brushless, very fast, safe, and give a high dynamic performance.
Due to their advantages, permanent synchronous motors have many applications and find
use in several fields.

A permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) is a synchronous electric motor with

permanent magnets as the inductor. In industrial applications, the Permanent Magnet
Synchronous Motor is an Important Product.

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) is brushless and has very high reliability
and efficiency. Due to its permanent magnet rotor, it also has a high torque with a small
frame size and no rotor current. Instead of using winding for the rotor, permanent magnets
are mounted to create a rotating magnetic field. As there is no supply of DC source, these
types of motors are very simple and less cost. The permanent magnet synchronous
motors are AC synchronous motor whose field excitation is provided by permanent
magnets and that has a sinusoidal back EMF waveform. The permanent magnets enable
the PMSM to generate torque at zero speed. This motor delivers high-efficiency
operations and requires a digitally controlled inverter.

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Construction
The permanent magnet synchronous motors, like any rotating electric motor, are consisted
of a rotor and a stator. The permanent magnet synchronous motor construction is similar
to the basic synchronous motor, but the only difference is with the rotor. In this type of
motor, the permanent magnets are mounted on the rotor and the rotor doesn’t have any
field winding.

The permanent magnets are used to create field poles. The permanent magnets used in the
motor are made up of samarium-cobalt and medium, iron, and boron because of their
higher permeability. The most widely used permanent magnet is neodymium-boron-iron
because of its effective cost and ease of availability.

Working Principle
The permanent magnet synchronous motors working principle is similar to the
synchronous motor. The principle of operation is based on the interaction of the rotating
magnetic field of the stator and the constant magnetic field of the rotor. It depends on the
rotating magnetic field that generates electromotive force at synchronous speed.
When the stator winding is energized by giving the 3-phase supply, a rotating magnetic
field is created in between the air gaps. This produces the torque when the rotor field poles
hold the rotating magnetic field at synchronous speed and the rotor rotates continuously.
As these motors are not self-starting, it is necessary to provide a variable frequency power
supply.

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 Characteristics
 No sparks, safer in explosive environments
 Clean, fast, and efficient
 More compact, efficient, and lighter than an ACIM
 Designed for high-performance servo applications
 Runs with/without position encoders
 Low audible noise and EMI
 Smooth low- and high-speed performance
 Produces optimal torque when coupled with Field-Oriented Control (FOC)

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor Control

Because permanent magnet synchronous motors must be driven with sinusoidal
waveforms, the complexity of the control increases. A permanent magnet synchronous
motor requires a control system, for example, a variable frequency drive or a servo drive.

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor Control

There are a large number of control techniques implemented control systems. The choice
of the optimal control method mainly depends on the task that is put in front of the electric
drive. To solve simple tasks is usually used trapezoidal control with Hall sensors. To solve
problems that require maximum performance from the electric drive, field-oriented
control is usually selected.

Do Synchronous Motors Have Permanent Magnets?

Permanent magnets placed in the steel rotor provide a continuous magnetic field in a
permanent-magnet synchronous motor (PMSM). A revolving magnetic field is created by
windings coupled to an AC source in the stator (as in an asynchronous motor).

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 Advantages
The advantages of permanent magnet synchronous motor include,
 Dynamic performance in both high and low-speed operation
 High power density
 Low rotor inertia makes it easy to control
 No torque ripple when the motor is commutated
 High and smooth torque
 High efficiency at high speeds
 Resistant to wear and tear
 Available in small sizes at different packages
 Easy maintenance and installation
 Capable of maintaining full torque at low speeds
 High reliability
 Efficient dissipation of heat
 Less noisy

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of permanent magnet synchronous motors are
 High initial cost
 Very expensive
 Difficult to start up because it is not a self-starting motor

Applications
The permanent magnet synchronous motors applications are
 Air conditioners
 Refrigerators
 AC compressors
 Direct-drive washing machines
 Automotive electrical power steering
 Machine tools
 Control of traction
 Data storage units
 Servo drives
 Electric vehicle drivetrain
 Large power systems to improve leading, and lagging power factor
 Industrial applications like robotics, aerospace, and many more.

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 Battery pack design
A battery pack is a device that stores electrical energy to provide power to an
electrical system, such as an electric vehicle (EV) or an energy storage system (ESS).
The energy is stored in cells that are all connected to one another in the battery pack.
To provide sufficient power, battery packs require a minimum voltage level which a
single cell cannot achieve. Multiple cells are therefore connected in series to boost
voltage. Some designs use small-capacity cells. To achieve the desired battery
energy, cells are connected in parallel to boost capacity. Cells connected in parallel
provide power as if they were a single, larger cell.
Battery packs are made of multiple, smaller sections called battery modules (or sub
packs). These modules include a smaller number of cells connected in series and
parallel. They are usually at a lower voltage, which is safe for handling. Modules
facilitate servicing when only a few cells are defective and if they can be replaced
without replacing the entire battery. EV batteries are typically made of 4 to 40
modules connected in series to one another.

The Components of a Battery Pack

A battery pack is the most expensive part in an electric vehicle. It is a complex
system made of a wide range of components. Here are some of the important
components.
 Cells are the most important components of a battery pack. The mixture of materials
comprising the cell is known as its chemistry. Different battery chemistries can
achieve different performances and specifications. There are two common types of
cells: energy cells and power cells. There are also many variants to provide the
perfect trade-off depending on the application. In the EV industry, the lithium-ion
cell (li-ion cell) is the most common chemistry. Alternative chemistries are
sometimes used, such as Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH), which offers a slightly
better lifecycle.
 Electrical connectors such as busbars, wires, or other distribution conductors are
used to make series or parallel connections between cells and groups of cells. These
connections are typically done using ultrasonic bonding or laser welding. Busbar
connections between modules can also be done mechanically using fasteners.
 Thermal interface materials (TIMs) such as pastes, adhesives and gap fillers are
inserted between battery components to join them mechanically while improving
thermal properties between surfaces. With the rise of the structural battery pack,
TIMs are becoming essential components.
 The Battery Management System (BMS) protects cells by monitoring key
parameters such as voltages, currents, and temperatures. It is responsible for cell
balancing (to maintain the optimal performance of the cells at the right voltage) and
communicates with several systems such as engine management and temperature
control. It also includes protection devices that can shut down the battery if needed.

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 The Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS) controls the thermal energy in
the electric vehicle’s powertrain and cabin, providing cooling or heating as needed
to meet the battery’s thermal needs and protect the cells. The BTMS includes
several components such as a heat exchanger, tubes, hoses, cold plates, pumps,
valves, and temperature sensors.
 The Contactor System is a switch controlled by the battery management system. It
can cut off the electrical connection between the main battery and the high voltage
bus, which delivers current to the traction motor and other high-voltage
components.
 The Housing is a rigid enclosure that protects the battery from environmental
factors such as water, dust, and salt. It helps maintain a precise temperature and
electrical insulation in the battery, and it prevents damages like rust and slow shorts.
 The Communications System ensures communication with other components in the
electric vehicle. The most used protocol is CAN bus.

The 4 Main Types of Battery Pack Designs

12V Battery Packs for Accessories

With their low voltage, 12V batteries are used for low energy applications such as
headlights, radio systems, and other accessories. In hybrid and petrol cars, they are
used to start the engine. In electric vehicles, they are used as an energy source that
can function without the main electric battery (traction battery). For example, it is
used to activate the traction battery and provide power to some vital components if
power has been cut off for safety reasons.
Traditionally, the most known type of 12V batteries were made using the lead-acid
cell chemistry and were hence referred to as lead-acid batteries. The number of cells

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in these packs was limited to 6. The most recent 12V batteries are lithium-ion battery
packs whose lithium cells offer better performance and lighter weight.
12V batteries are small and are typically placed under the hood. More recently,
manufacturers have started placing them inside the trunk to improve safety, as it
minimizes chances of short circuits during crashes. Since more collisions occur at the
front, the battery is better protected from impacts when it is positioned at the back.

Hybrid Battery Packs

Hybrid batteries contain a smaller amount of energy than EV batteries and are much
smaller. Still, today’s hybrid batteries typically have a range between 30 and 50 miles
(50 and 80 km). They can be used for most short-distance trips without having to fall
back on the internal combustion engine (ICE). That’s a major improvement compared
to the very first models, which offered a mere 0.6 miles of autonomy (1 km).
Hybrid battery packs are built to complement the combustion engine when it is least
efficient, such as when accelerating. The goal is to diminish petrol consumption as
much as possible. The battery can also recharge itself by recovering wasted energy
when braking (regen braking).

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EV Battery Packs

Unlike other battery pack designs, EV batteries are full-sized batteries made to supply
the entire range of the vehicle, including the traction motor and accessories. Current
EV batteries offer between 20 and 130 kWh of energy and can use between 90% and
95% of that energy—a much higher percentage than other types of batteries. The
Mercedes EQS is the electric car with the highest range, offering 485 miles of
autonomy (780 km).
EV batteries represent a significant portion of the vehicle’s weight and volume. They
can weigh up to 450 kg (1000 lbs), representing one-fourth of the car’s total weight.
Different designs come with high voltage going from 400V to 900V. In the most
recent designs, they are being integrated as part of the vehicle’s structure.

High Performance Battery Packs

High performance battery packs are batteries designed for Formula E races. They are
divided in two categories: hybrid and pure EV. They are made with composite

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materials to obtain an ultra-light structure. Some high-performance batteries are
removable so they can be replaced during races.
Even though they are small, these batteries can deliver ultra-high power. More
precisely, they can deliver several hundred kW of power, which is enough to output
power for an entire neighborhood. Their cooling system is oversized due to the
aggressive power demand.
High-performance battery packs are more energy efficient than other types of
batteries. For example, they can recover a larger portion of lost energy during braking
(regen braking).

Series configuration
The series configuration is used where the voltage of a single cell is not sufficient. The
series configuration is achieved by connecting the positive of a cell to the negative of
another cell, as shown in the image below. The four lithium-ion cells of 3.6 V connected
in series will give you 14.4 V, and this configuration is called 4S because four cells are
connected in series.

Parallel configuration
The cells are connected in parallel to fulfill higher current capacity requirements if the
device needs a higher current but there is not enough space available for the battery. That
device can use the parallel configuration to fit high-current capability in a small space.
The four-cell configuration in parallel is called P4, and three cells connected in a parallel
configuration are called P3. The image below shows a P4 configuration. The voltage in
the pack remains the same, but the current capacity (Ah) is increased.

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Series – parallel configuration
In this configuration, the cells are connected in both series and parallel. The series-parallel
configuration can give a desired voltage and capacity in the smallest possible size. You
can see two 3.6 V 3400mAh cells connected in parallel in the image below, which doubles
the current capacity from 3400mAh to 6800mAh. Because these parallel packs are
connected in series, the voltage also doubles from 3.6V to 7.2 V. The total power of this
pack is now 48.96Wh. This configuration is called 2SP2. If the configuration consists of
eight cells with the configuration of 4SP2, two cells are in parallel and four packs of this
parallel combination are connected in series. The total power produced by this pack is
97.92Wh.

In vehicle networks- CAN

Typical electrical wiring in a passenger carthe heavy cable is replaced with

lightweight 2-wire CAN in today’s
cars and trucks
CAN stands for controller area network. They are designed specially to meet the

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Automobile Industry needs. Before CAN was introduced, each electronic device is
connected to other devices using many wires to enable communication. But when the
functions in the automobile system increased, it was difficult to maintain because of the
tedious wiring system. With the help of the CAN bus system, which allows ECUs to
communicate with each other without much complexity by just connecting each ECU to
the common serial bus. Hence when compared with the other protocols used in
automotive systems i.e., CAN vs LIN, CAN is robust due to less complexity.

CAN Protocol can be defined as a set of rules for transmitting and receiving messages in a
network of electronic devices connected through a serial bus. Each electronic device in a
CAN network is called a node. Each node must have hardware and software embedded in
them for data exchange. Every node of a CAN bus system has a host microcontroller unit,
CAN controller and, CAN transceiver in it. CAN controller is a chip that can be embedded
inside the host controller or added separately, which is needed to manage the data and
sends data via transceiver over the serial bus and vice versa. CAN Transceiver chip is used
to adapt signals to CAN bus levels.

CAN is a message-based protocol where every message is identified by a predefined

unique ID. The transmitted data packet is received by all nodes in a CAN bus network, but
depending on the ID, CAN node decides whether to accept it or not. CAN bus follows the
arbitration process when multiple nodes try to send data at the same time.

Figure. CAN bus differential signals

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CAN Benefits
Low-Cost, Lightweight Network
CAN provides an inexpensive, durable network that helps multiple CAN devices
communicate with one another. An advantage to this is that electronic control units
(ECUs) can have a single CAN interface rather than analog and digital inputs to every
device in the system. This decreases overall cost and weight in automobiles.

Broadcast Communication
Each of the devices on the network has a CAN controller chip and is therefore intelligent.
All devices on the network see all transmitted messages. Each device can decide if a
message is relevant or if it should be filtered. This structure allows modifications to CAN
networks with minimal impact. Additional non-transmitting nodes can be added without
modification to the network.

Priority
every message has a priority, so if two nodes try to send messages simultaneously, the one
with the higher priority gets transmitted and the one with the lower priority gets
postponed. This arbitration is non-destructive and results in non-interrupted transmission
of the highest priority message. This also allows networks to meet deterministic timing
constraints.

Error Capabilities
The CAN specification includes a Cyclic Redundancy Code (CRC) to perform error
checking on each frame's contents. Frames with errors are disregarded by all nodes, and
an error frame can be transmitted to signal the error to the network. Global and local
errors are differentiated by the controller, and if too many errors are detected, individual
nodes can stop transmitting errors or disconnect itself from the network completely

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 CAN Applications
 Every kind of vehicle: motorcycles, automobiles, trucks...
 Heavy-duty fleet telematics
 Airplanes
 Elevators
 Manufacturing plants of all kinds
 Ships
 Medical equipment
 Predictive maintenance systems
 Washing machines, dryers, and other household appliances.

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