CHEM 11 - 4TH QUARTER 1.

WORD EQUATIONS
Statements that indicate the reactants and products in a chemical
L1: CHEMICAL REACTIONS reaction
Iron (s) + + chlorine (g) → iron (III) chloride (s)
DARLENE MARIE PALANCA - 11SF (STEM)
“Solid iron and chlorine gas react (combine) to produce solid iron
(III) chloride”

CHEMICAL REACTION
2. SKELETON EQUATIONS
➔ It is a process in which a substance or a combination of
Uses chemical formulas rather than words to identify the reactants and
substances undergo a change in appearance or properties and
products of a chemical reaction.
further transform into a different substance or a combination
of new substances.
Fe(s) + Cl2(g) → FeCl3(s)
➔ Can be represented through chemical equations
Iron(s) + chlorine(g) → iron (III) chloride(s)
➔ Evidences of Chemical Reaction:
A. Evolution of Heat or Light
B. Formation of a Gas
C. Temperature & Color Change
D. Formation of a Precipitate

★ In chemistry, a precipitate is an insoluble solid that emerges from

a liquid solution. Precipitation - emergence of the insoluble solid
from the solution.

CHEMICAL REACTION IN EVERYDAY LIFE

1. Combustion
2. Rust
3. Digestion LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
4. Photosynthesis ➔ During a chemical reaction, atoms are neither created nor
destroyed. The amount of matter in a system does not change
5. Batteries
➔ CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H20
6. Fermentation
7. Washing
8. Baking

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
➔ Is an expression that gives the identities and quantities of the
substances in a chemical reaction

Reactants → Products

● Reactants: Substances that exist before a chemical change (or

➔ Based on the principle of conservation of mass, an equation
reaction) takes place. must be balanced. It must have the same number of atoms
● Products: The new substances that are formed during the of the same kind on both sides
chemical change.

CHEMICAL EQUATION SYMBOLS

○ (s) = solid
○ (l) = liquid
○ (g) = gas
○ (aq)= aqueous solution (the substance is dissolved in H2O)
○ “+” separates two or more reactants or products
○ “→” yield sign separates reactants from products
BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
ADDITIONAL SYMBOLS USED IN CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
● The goal is to have the same number of each type of atom on
the product and reactant sides.
● You can change the coefficients, but NEVER the subscripts.
H2 + O2 → H2O

● We put 2 on the product side so that we can have 2 oxygen

molecules on both sides.
H2 + O2 → H2O

● However, we will have 4 hydrogen molecules on the product

side. To balance, we also put 2 on the hydrogen molecule on
the reactant side.
H2 + O2 → 2H2O

Take note:
○ Balancing equation is a matter of trial and error
○ The coefficients must be reduced to simplest
whole number
○ Save H, C, and O for last
○ Always do a final balance check
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
1. COMBINATION ○ Two or more simple substances combine to
REACTION/ form a more complex substance.
SYNTHESIS ○ FORMULA: A + B -> AB

○ Examples: A rusty nail in copper sulfate

solution will result in a copper-coated nail
and iron sulfate

4. DOUBLE ○ Parts of two aqueous ionic compounds

REPLACEMENT switch places to form two new compounds.
REACTION ○ There are two reactants and two products
○ FORMULA: AB + CD -> AD + CB
/METATHESIS
2. DECOMPOSITI ○ A more complex substance breaks down ○ They typically involve aqueous solutions and
ON REACTION into two or more simple substances. The
can result in the formation of a precipitate,
reverse of combination reaction.
/ANALYSIS ○ FORMULA: AB -> A + B gas, or water
○ Precipitation & neutralization are the 2 most
○ Many of these reactions only take place in common double replacement reactions.
the presence of heat
○ Examples include: the breakdown of
hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen
gas.

5. COMBUSTION ○ All involve oxygen (O2) as a reactant,

REACTION combining with another substance
○ FORMULA/EXAMPLE:
CH4 + 2O2 -> CO2 + 2H2

○ Examples: burning wood, gasoline, and

natural gas.

○ Complete combustion always produces CO2

and H2O
○ Incomplete combustion will produce CO
and possibly C (black carbon soot) as well
○ AKA:
Oxygen is present –> reactant side
Carbon dioxide & water –> product side

3. SINGLE ○ A single uncombined element replaces

REPLACEMENT another element in an ionic compound.
REACTION There are two reactants and two product
○ FORMULA: A + BC -> AC + B
/SUBSTITUTION

○ We look at the “activity series”.

○ Elements with higher activities replace
elements with lower activities, but not
vice-versa.
CHEM 11 - 4TH QUARTER
L2: GAS LAWS
DARLENE MARIE PALANCA - 11SF (STEM)

GAS
● A state of matter consisting of particles that have neither a definite
volume nor definite shape.
STANDARD CONDITIONS
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)
Observable Properties
- The common reference points of temp., pressure & volumes of
● Gases have no definite shape and volume
gases are compared
● Gases diffuse very rapidly
- STANDARD TEMPERATURE: 273 K (0 °C)
● Gases can be readily compressed
- STANDARD PRESSURE: 1 atm, 760 torr & 760 mm Hg
● Gases have densities much lower than those of liquids and
solids. 0° Celsius and 1 atm
SI unit: 273 K and 101, 325 Pa
NOTE:
● For calculations involving temperature, the Kelvin scale must
ALWAYS be used.
● Molar mass = atomic mass

SUMMARY OF THE QUANTITIES

KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY

○ Gases have no definite volume
○ Gases undergo perfectly elastic collisions
○ Gases are in constant, random, straight-line motion.
○ Gases don’t attract or repel each other
○ Gases have an average kinetic energy.

Under what conditions then, do gases behave least ideally?

Real Gas ≠ Ideal Gas
- Low Temperature and High Pressure

Real Gas = Ideal Gas

- High Temperature and Low Pressure

PROPERTIES OF GAS (PVAT)

1. PRESSURE
● Defined as the force the gas exerts on a given area of the
container in which it is contained.
● SI unit: Pascal (Pa)

● 1 atm = 760 mm Hg ( milimitre mercury)

= 1760 torr
= 101, 325 Pa (Pascals)
= 1.013 bar

2. VOLUME
● Is the three dimension space inside the container holding the
gas.
● SI unit: cubic meter (m^3)
● A more common unit is the liter (l).
● 1 ml = 1 cc
● 1 cm^3 = 1 mL

3. AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE
● One mole of substance contains approximately 6.022 x 10^23
particles of the substance.
● SI unit: mole (mol)

4. TEMPERATURE
● Is an objective measurement of how hot or cold an object is.
It can be measured with a thermometer or a calorimeter.
● SI unit: Kelvin (K)
SUMMARY:

BOYLE’S LAW P1 V1 = P₂ V₂ Take Note: In every problem solving, always check if the
Temperature is KELVIN. If it isn’t, convert.
CHARLES’S LAW V1 = V₂
K = C + 273 K = C + 273
T1 T₂
= 20.0 + 273 = 37.0 + 273
T1 = 293 K T₂ = 310 K
GAY-LUSSAC’S P1 = P₂
T1 T₂
REQUIRED: V₂ = ?
COMBINED GAS LAW P1V1 = P₂V₂ SOLUTION:
T1 T₂

IDEAL GAS LAW PV = nRT

1. BOYLE’S LAW (Robert Boyle, 1627-1691)

● Pressure-Volume Relationship
● At constant temperature and fixed mass, the volume is inversely
proportional to the applied pressure.
● Formula:
Practice Problem #1
P1 V1 = P₂ V₂ ➔ A sample of neon gas at 760 mm Hg has a volume of 10.0 L and a
temperature of 34 °C. Find the new volume of the gas after the
● The harder we push, the smaller the gas volume gets
temperature has been increased to 75 °C at 760 torr. —> V2 = 11.34
● Application: Human breathing, syringe, popping a balloon,
L
opening a soda can, & airplane -> ear popping
Practice Problem #2
➔ A gas sample at 40 °C occupies a volume of 2.32 L. If the
Sample Problem
temperature is increased to 75 °C, what will be the final volume?
➔ In a 35.0 L automobile airbag, a sample of gaseous nitrogen has a
—> V2 = 2.58 L
pressure of 745 mm Hg. If this sample is transferred to a 25.0 L bag
at the same temperature, what is the final pressure of the gas?
GIVEN:
3. GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW (Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac, 1778-1850)
Initial Condition Final Condition
● Temperature-Pressure Relationship
V1 = 35.0 L V₂ = 25.0 L
P1 = 745 mm Hg ● At constant volume, the pressure is directly proportional to its
temperature.
REQUIRED: P₂ = ? ● Formula:
SOLUTION:
P1 = P₂
T1 T₂

● Just like in Charles's Law, an increase in temperature signifies an

increase in the motion of the gaseous particles.
● Application:: On hot summer days, the inflated tires of vehicles
may burst. The bursting of tires is caused by Gay-Lussac’s law.

4. COMBINED GAS LAW

● Derived from the relationships among the three properties of a
gas - pressure, volume, and temperature
● Formula:
Practice Problem #1
➔ If the pressure of helium gas in a balloon has a volume of 4.0 L at P1V1 = P₂V₂
210 kPa, what will the pressure be at 2.5 L? = 336 kPa T1 T₂

Practice Problem #2
➔ A sample of oxygen gas has a volume of 8.0 L and a pressure of 1.0
atm. What is the new volume if the pressure is increased to 2.0 atm?
=4L 5. IDEAL GAS LAW
● Also called the ideal gas equation state
● Formula:
2. CHARLES’S LAW (Jacques Charles, 1746-1823)
● Temperature-Volume Relationship PV = nRT
● At constant pressure, the volume is directly proportional to its
● The constant R is considered the universal gas constant, which
temperature.
has a value of 0.08206 L • atm
● Formula:
mol • K
V1 = V₂
T1 T₂

● As the temperature of any particular gas increases, the molecules

in that gas exhibits increased movement

● Application:
Demonstration
If you get a chance to read the instructions on a bottle of deodorant,
the warning sign indicates the bottle to be kept away from the Under what conditions then. Do gases behave least ideally?
sunlight and high temperature.
Real Gas ≠ Ideas Gas
Sample Problem - Low Temperature and High Pressure
➔ In a gas tight syringe, a sample of carbon dioxide occupies a volume Real Gas = Ideal Gas
of 25.0 mL at 20.0 °C. What is the final volume of the gas if the - High Temperature and Low Pressure
syringe is held by a warm hand that causes the temperature to rise
to 37.0 °C?

GIVEN:
Initial Condition Final Condition
V1 = 25.0 mL V₂ =
T1 = 20.0 °C = 293 K T₂ = 37.0 °C = 310 K
CHEM 11 - 4TH QUARTER
L2: QUANTUM MECHANICAL
MODEL OF ATOM
DARLENE MARIE PALANCA - 11SF (STEM)

★ FIREWORKS - HAS DIFFERENT ELEMENTS

★ HOW ARE THESE DIFF COLORS PRODUCED? - BECAUSE OF THE
EMISSION SPECTRUM (wavelength and frequency of light)
★ SPECTRUM OF DIFFERENT COLORS = RAINBOW
★ STUDY WELL ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOMIC MODELS
★ Red - lowest
★ Blue - highest (?)

ATOMIC ORBITALS
RED ORANGE YELLOW GREEN ● The wave function from the Schrodinger equation suggests a
STRONTIUM CALCIUM SALTS SODIUM SALTS BARIUM SALTS 90% probability of finding an electron in a region around the
SALTS Calcium Carbonate, Sodium Nitrate, Barium Nitrate,
Strontium Nitrate, Calcium Chloride, Sodium Oxalate Barium Carbonate nucleus.
Strontium Carbonate, Calcium Sulfate Cryolite Barium Chloride,
Barium Chlorate
● These regions are called atomic orbitals, which may be s, p, d
Strontium Sulfate
and f.
BLUE PURPLE SILVER WHITE
COPPER SALTS COMBINE WHITE HOT BURNING METAL
Copper (I) Chloride, Copper & Strontium Magnesium & Magnesium
Copper Carbonate, Compounds Aluminum Aluminum
Copper Oxide Titanium

➔ What do the colors of light emitted by metals tell about the

structure of atoms?

EMISSION SPECTRUM
● wavelength and frequency of light

NEILS BOHR
● An s orbital is spherical in shape. As the wave function
● Conducted studies in the Atomic model
suggests, there is a 90% probability of finding an electron
● Used Quantum Theory to improve another level of the atom,
within the sphere except at its center where the nucleus is.
to modify the previous models
● A p orbital is “dumbbell- shaped.” The three equivalent p
● Proposed the twin atoms that absorb energy, its electrons
orbitals are: px, py, and pz.
jump another orbit to another (higher energy)
● There are five kinds of d orbitals: dyz, dxz, dxy, dx2-y2, and dz2.
● There are seven f orbitals. These orbitals have the most
diffused shape compared to other orbitals.

4 QUANTUM NUMBERS - SHELL

- A set of quantum numbers gives an information about the
atomic orbital where an electron may be found. Every
electron in an atom is assigned a unique set quantum
numbers, of which there are four classes: principal,
azimuthal (angular), magnetic, and spin.
-
1. PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n)
- indicates the energy level or shell where an atom
ELECTRON EXCITATION AND RELAXATION
orbital can be found.
● When an atom absorbs energy, its electrons jump from one
- It can have integral values (n = 1, 2, 3, and so on)
orbit to another with a higher energy.
which correspond to the “orbits” in the Bohr Model.
● After which, the electron falls back to the original orbit.
● As it does, energy is released in the form of light – photons
(Basic unit)
● The atom will be in an excited state. Once it is a high state, it
will fall back to its original state (also known as ground state,
with lower energy),

A. Louis de Broglie - proposed that particles similar to a photon,

like an electron, moving at about the speed of light must also
have a wavelike property
B. Werner Heisenberg – since the electron is travelling like a
wave, it is impossible to determine its exact location and
momentum at a time (uncertainty principle).
C. Erwin Schrodinger - came up with an equation for an
electron moving like a wave in 3-dimensional space around
the nucleus (quantum mechanical model of atom).
2. AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM NUMBER (l)
- specifies the sublevel (or subshell) within a
particular principal energy level.
- it represents the kind and shape of the orbital (s, p,
d, or f) that is being occupied by an electron.
 3. MAGNETIC ( ml )
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
- indicates the specific orbital within the sublevel
where the electron is found.
● Each electron in an atom has a unique set of quantum
- It can have values of –l to +l.
numbers. How these electrons are distributed among the
PRINCIPAL ENERGY SUBLEVEL MAGNETIC/NUMBER OF orbitals in an atom is given by the electron configuration.
LEVEL ORBITALS

1 (s) 1

2 (s, p) 1, 3

3 (s, p, d) 1, 3, 5

4 (s, p, d, f) 1, 3, 5, 7
● The Aufbau principle of filling up of orbitals states that
electrons must first occupy the orbitals with lower energies
than those with higher energies.
4. SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER ● The first two orbitals (1s and 2s) are occupied first with two
● According to the Pauli exclusion principle, only a electrons.
maximum of two electrons can occupy an orbital,
and they must have opposite spins to minimize
repulsion between them.
● This principle is observed through spin quantum
numbers, which can have values of +1/2 or -1/2 for
each electron.

Electron Configuration: Sequence

● The first orbital that is assigned two electrons (of opposite
spins) is the 1s orbital,
● followed by two electrons for 2s,
● and another two for each 2p orbital ( a total of six electrons
for px, py, and pz).
● This sequence goes on until all the electrons in an atom have
been assigned to orbitals.
CHEM 11 - 4TH QUARTER
L3: CHEMICAL FORMULAS FROM
PERCENT COMPOSITION
DARLENE MARIE PALANCA - 11SF (STEM)

PERCENT COMPOSITION

Calculate the percent composition of Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

- Step 1: Calculate the molar mass for each element and the
compound.

- Step 2: Divide the molar mass of each element with the total
molar mass of the compound.

EXTRA NOTES:

PRACTICE

MOLECULAR FORMULA VS EMPIRICAL FORMULA

Molecular Formula Empirical Formula

- A molecule that shows the actual - A molecule that contains the

number of elements within the
compound.
- C2H4O2
- The subscripts can be reduced.
smallest whole number ratio of
elements within the compound.
- CH2O
- The subscripts cannot be
reduced.