MODULE 1: CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE

Inquiry question​: What distinguishes one cell from another?

What does cell theory state?
Cell Theory states that:
● All organisms are made up of cells
● New cells are produced from existing cells
● The cell is the smallest organisational unit of a living thing.
Describe and list advantages and disadvantages of light microscopes and electron
microscopes

Type of Description Advantages Disadvantages

microscope

Light Uses light and system ● Low costs ● Low

of lenses to magnify the ● Can be used to magnifying
image. One lens is the observe living power
ocular lens and the specimens ● Lower
other is the objective resolution

Electron Uses an electron beam ● High ● High costs

to refract then a system magnifying ● Only in black
of lenses to magnify power and white
● High resolution

Describe the following different types of cells, including at least one unique feature of
each.

Type of cell Description (characteristics and features)

Plant Eukaryotic with membrane bound organelles.

Larger than animal cells.
Have a rigid cell wall which helps maintain structure of the cell and large
central vacuoles.

Animal Eukaryotic with membrane bound organelles.

Smaller than plant cells.
Animal cells have centrosomes and lysosomes.

Bacteria Prokaryotic with no membrane bound organelles

Have very diverse metabolic systems, making them extremely adaptable.
 Organelle Function Structure Appearance
(What it does) (What it’s made of)

Nucleus Contains the genetic Membrane-bound:

instructions for cell double membrane
replication, growth, Contains DNA
repair and function

Cell wall in Cell structure and External structure of

plants protection cellulose surrounding
cell membrane
No membrane

Ribosome Synthesises proteins Made of proteins and

rRNA
No membrane
Mitochondria Obtains energy from Membrane-bound:
organic molecules - site double membrane,
of aerobic respiration inner membrane is
folded

Rough Processes and modifies Membrane-bound

endoplasmic proteins network of cisternae
reticulum Ribosomes bind to its
membranes

Smooth Synthesises lipids Membrane-bound

endoplasmic network of cisternae
reticulum

Golgi Processes and Membrane-bound

apparatus packages proteins as stack of cisternae that
well as prepare aren’t connected to
substances for each other
secretion from cell

Lysosome Digests cellular waste Membrane-bound

material and foreign vesicle containing
matter digestive enzymes

Cytoplasm Gives cells their shape, Consists of cytosol

provides area for and organelles
chemical reactions (eukaryotes)
Gel-like substance
(cytosol) made up of
80% water
Chloroplast Uses light energy, Spherical with double
carbon dioxide and membrane
water to produce Contains DNA and
glucose - thylakoid sacs
photosynthesis

Flagella Allows cells to move. Rod like structure

Longer than cilia

Cilia Movement of External structure

substances across cell containing
surface microtubules

Vacuole Stores substances and Membrane-bound

keeps a variety of fluid-filled vesicle
substances separate
from cell contents

Peroxisomes Key role in the breaking Small vesicles

down toxic materials. Single membrane
Digest fatty acids

Cytoskeleton Supports the cell’s Made of microtubules

structure, allows them of protein called
to move and helps tubulin, and filaments
transport organs and of actin
vesicles within cell
 Plant Cells Both Animal Cells

Larger than animal cells Both are eukaryotic and have Smaller than plant cells
specialised cells

Have cell wall and Both have a nucleus,

chloroplasts mitochondria, ribosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum, golgi
apparatus, vacuoles, cilia,
flagella and cell membrane

Plant cell: Animal cell:

Describe (provide characteristics and features) the role of the cell wall in plants and
identify analogous structures in other organisms.
The role of a cell wall in plants is to provide support, prevent expansion and allow water and
dissolved substances of a cell to pass through it.
Describe how to make a wet mount onion slide. Outline the process by listing the
materials required and specifying logical, numbered steps. Include
numbers/amounts/sizes as required.

Materials required:
● Slide
● 1 drop water
● Dropper
● Coverslip
● Onion slice
● Scalpel
● Dissecting needle
Method:
1. Using the scalpel, carefully separate the epidermal skin from the remaining onion
2. Peel off the epidermal skin of the onion
3. Make sure the skin doesn’t wrinkle or fold
4. Place onion on the slide with a dissecting needle
5. Drop one drop of water on the slide to erase any air bubbles
6. Place coverslip so that its bottom edge is in contact with drop of water
7. Gently remove dissecting needle and lower coverslip

Prokaryotic - Both Eukaryotic -

Bacteria, archaea Animalia, fungi, plantae
and protista

Very small (0.1-5.0Mm) Have ribosomes in cytoplasm Larger (10-100Mm)

Large SA:V ratio
No membrane bound
organelles
Single circular chromosome
and small circular DNA
Bilayer of phospholipid
molecules
Smaller SA:V ratio
Many membrane bound
organelles
Linear chromosomes
Have cell compartments
which allow enzymes and
reactants of a particular
cellular function to be close.
Also allow processes which
require different
environments to happen
simultaneously, make cell
less vulnerable to
environmental changes
Describe the structure and features of the Fluid Mosaic Model of the Cell Membrane.

The Fluid Mosaic Model of the Cell Membrane consists of a bilayer of phospholipid molecules
consisting of a hydrophobic tail and hydrophilic head. Other molecules, such as proteins,
cholesterol and carbohydrates are scattered throughout the bilayer

Label the diagram of the Fluid Mosaic Model of the Cell Membrane. Identify a possible
‘channel protein’.

Inquiry question: How do cells coordinate activities within their internal environment and
the external environment?

Factors that affect the fluidity of a cell membrane:

● Phospholipid composition and structure
● Temperature
● Presence of cholesterol

Term Definition

Concentration Process in which particles move through a solution or gas from an area
gradient with a higher number of particles to an area with a lower number of
particles

Semi-permeable A selective membrane which chooses the liquids and materials that are
 membrane able to pass between the external and internal environment of the cell

High An area with a high number of particles per set volume

concentration

Low An area with a low number of particles per set volume

concentration

Solute The dissolved component of a solution

Solvent The dissolving component of a solution

Solution A type of ​homogenous​ ​mixture​ in which the ​particles​ of substances (the

solute​) are distributed uniformly throughout another substance (the
solvent​).

Permeability of cell membranes to different molecules:

Molecule/ion Examples Permeability

Small, uncharged molecule Oxygen, carbon dioxide Permeable

Non-polar molecule Alcohol, chloroform, steroids Permeable

Small, polar molecule Water, urea Permeable or semipermeable

Small ion K+, Na+ Impermeable (ions pass

through protein channels)

Large, polar, water-soluble Amino acids, glucose Impermeable (passes

molecule through protein channels)

Mechanisms of transport into and out of cells.

Active transport: ​Type of transport in which substances move against the concentration
gradient and therefore requires energy.
Passive transport​: Type of transport in which substances move along the concentration
gradient and therefore require no energy input.

Transport Define and describe Materials Particle Direction c/w

Method transported size concentration
limitations gradient

Diffusion Movement of particles Gases, Smaller the Across

from an area of high digestive particle,
 concentration to an area food faster
in low concentration. molecules. diffusion
Very slow process.
Affected by the
difference in
concentration,
temperature, particle
size

Facilitated Movement of particles Food Across

diffusion from high to low molecules
concentration through
channel protein

Osmosis The net diffusion of Water Across

water molecules across
a semipermeable
membrane. Movement
from area of high
concentration of free
water molecules to area
of low concentration of
free water molecules

Endocytosis In endocytosis, materials Molecules Against

are taken in bulk by which aren’t
forming new vesicles. allowed past
Small area of membrane the
sinks to form pocket, membrane
pocket encloses and
forms vesicle - requires
input of energy

Exocytosis Secretory vesicle Molecules Against

membrane and cell which
membrane come into cannot pass
contact, fuse and secrete through
materials in cell membrane
 Hypertonic Isotonic Hypotonic

The solution with a lower The solutions being The solution with a higher
concentration of solute compared have equal concentration of solute (lower
(higher concentration of concentration of solutes concentration of water)
water)

Factors which affect movement of a molecule across the cell membrane.

Factor Moves easily across cell Moves across with

membrane difficulty or not at all

Size of molecule Small Large

Electrical charge of Uncharged Charged

molecule

Lipid solubility of molecule Insoluble in water Water soluble

Explain (provide the how and the why) the importance of Surface Area to Volume ratio
(SA:V) in transport across the cell membrane. What are the implications of this as
organisms grow in size?

A large surface area to volume ratio is one of the most important features of a cell because they
rely on processes like diffusion and osmosis for substance transport and these methods rely on
a large SA to efficiently provide the substance. As organisms get larger, their SA:V ratio
decreases meaning that they aren’t as efficient getting things into cells. Larger organisms can
increase their SA:V ratio by cell compartmentalisation, a flattened shape or cell membrane
extensions.

Organic compounds: ​complex compounds containing carbon and hydrogen atoms; proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, DNA, RNA
Inorganic compounds​: compounds without carbon atoms; water, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, minerals
 Autotrophs Both Heterotrophs

Obtain energy from sunlight
Make their own organic
compounds from inorganic
compounds found in soil and
atmosphere (carbon fixation)
Use organic and inorganic Obtain organic compounds
compounds to produce the by consuming other
energy required for all organisms
biological processes through
photosynthesis (autotrophs)
and cellular respiration (both
autotrophs and heterotrophs)

Substances needed by cells

Substance Types Used how in the body?

Organic Carbohydrates Important energy sources and structural components

C-H-O : 1:2:1 of organisms

Lipids Important role in cell membranes, important for energy

C-H-O storage

Proteins Have many roles, some are enzymes, hormones,

C-H-O-N-S (some) antibodies (CHON), structural component of
membranes

Nucleic acids Carry genetic information of cells

C-H-O-N-P

Inorganic Water Important solvent and transport medium. Most

reactions take place in cytosol, made mainly of water

Oxygen Needed for efficient energy supply through cellular

respiration

Carbon dioxide Source of carbon atoms

Nitrogen Building block of amino acids

Minerals Important for building many enzymes and vitamins

that are needed for the structure and function of
biological systems
Assist in all chemical reactions

Metabolism:​ total of all the chemical reactions in a living organism

Excretion:​ removal of substances that once formed part of the body of an organism; carbon
dioxide and nitrogenous waste
 Brown paper test Lipids - translucent Biuret test Protein - green

Benedict’s test Glucose - yellow Silver nitrate Chloride ions - white

Iodine test Starch - blue Iodine + H2SO4 Cellulose - brown

Construct a 2-stage flow chart of photosynthesis and label the reactants and products of
the chemical reaction. Clearly identify the light dependent and light independent stages
of photosynthesis and where each occurs.

Photosynthesis is a biochemical process in which plants and other photoautotrophic organisms

obtain energy from sunlight to produce their own organic compounds. Chloroplasts are the sites
of photosynthesis.

Water + carbon dioxide = glucose + oxygen

6H2O + 6CO2 = C6H12O6 + 6O2

Light dependent stage​: chlorophyll captures solar energy and uses it to produce adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). Photolysis occurs- water is split into hydrogen ions and oxygen gas. Occurs
on thylakoid membranes.

Water = hydrogen ions + oxygen + ATP

Light independent stage​: produce glucose, water and adenine diphosphate (ADP). Don’t
require solar energy, use ATP instead.

Hydrogen ions + ATP + Carbon dioxide = glucose + water + ADP

Things that affect the rate of photosynthesis:

● Light intensity: when light intensity is low, the light dependent stage cannot occur. As
light intensity increases so does the rate of photosynthesis up until a certain stage.
● Carbon dioxide concentration: carbon dioxide availability affects the rate of
photosynthesis because photosynthesis uses the carbon atoms from carbon dioxide to
make glucose. As carbon dioxide concentration increases so does the rate of
photosynthesis up to a point
● Temperature: affects rate of photosynthesis because all light dependent and light
independent reactions are catalysed by enzymes. Enzyme activity increases with
temperature until it is denatured after the optimum temperature at 25 degrees.
Construct a flow chart of the process of cellular respiration and label the reactants and
products of the chemical reaction. Where does it occur?

Cellular respiration is a biochemical process in which glucose and oxygen are used to produce
usable energy such as ATP.

Glucose + Oxygen = Carbon dioxide + water + energy (ATP)

1. Glycolysis: Splits glucose molecules into two parts and doesn’t require oxygen
2. Aerobic respiration (oxygen): occurs in mitochondria; converts ADP to ATP.
3. Anaerobic respiration (if there’s insufficient or no oxygen): occurs in the cytosol; provides
no ATP - prevents buildup of pyruvate to let glycolysis continue

Pathway of oxygen:
Alveoli in lungs - (diffuse) - haemoglobin in red blood cell - (diffuse) - into cells

Explain the function, features and importance of enzymes.

Enzymes are protein molecules which catalyse their own specific biochemical reactions that
would otherwise be very slow and unsuitable for survival. They are formed from long chains of
amino acids that fold and can be compacted. They have specificity for a substrate (a molecule
which an enzyme reacts upon), aren’t consumed when they catalyse reactions and catalytic
power.

Catabolic reactions: break down substrates, release energy

Anabolic reactions: produce larger molecules from smaller substrates. Are endergonic

Factors that affect enzyme activity:

● Temperature: generally increases enzyme activity because heat increases kinetic energy
of particles with more collisions. However, are denatured after a point. Optimum for
humans is 36-38.
● pH: enzymes have specific pH at which they function best. If they are far above or below
optimum range, they may become denatured
● Enzyme and substrate concentration: increases enzyme activity until saturation point

Lock and key model Induced fit model

Describes the active site and substrates as When substrate binds to the active site of an
fitting together like lock and key enzyme, the active site changes shape
If the substrate doesn’t fit into the active site, slightly
no reaction occurs Active site is flexible

INVESTIGATIONS:

Investigation Describe the investigation Summarise the outcomes of

the investigation

Osmosis Used dialysis tubing with starch Turned blue, indicated starch
inside. Poured iodine on the outside had passed through with
beaker water

SA:V ratio Cut 3 different sized agar cubes and Very slow process, showed
covered them with HCl. that smaller sized cubes were
more able to diffuse efficiently

Food tests Did different tests to figure out what it

indicated

Photosynthesis Collected one leaf that had been in Indicated chlorophyll was
conditions light and another which hadn’t necessary for photosynthesis
Boiled them until they were limp
Covered them with methylated spirits
and put iodine on them

Enzyme reaction Indicated that certain temperatures pH - optimal

conditions were ideal through rate of bubbles Temperature -optimal
and height Substrate concentration -
induced