CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION sare being torn orl igh skin peeling, lining of diKesth or ely Healy qugh formatio cells around the formation of i healed thous) ms ? multntizatin in unicelitar organ Tradition is required 40 orm prom yiigelular Siena, ll of cell repiaduction © imdamentally sia in The mecha ail the organisms showing kinship and unity of fife ree nth eproduction pase = at divide immediately. some Minimum grewth: A newly farrned ¢#ll does srroaat afedinimum growth iceland 5 £9p" rex elt attaite the ability to underga-dWision, a indecrease of surtace- (it to Increase incell size cesults 1 re raipney ofsurace exchange required for <4 ism. As it reaches a critical stage the cell ponent (s required befor Surface "Volume volume ratio, This-ti aining optimurn metabal maint undergoes division. ** _ Nucleacytoplasmic or kernplasma fatio: Cell functions are. controlled By nc aac ge sire of pucleus does nat change while that of ROHR a inte artio decreases, the cell jacresces during cell growth, As nucleacytoplasmic mene ig stimulate Mitogens: to divide are substances or fact fun ‘ors which bring about cell division so US Eet isa slant hormone which functions as mitagen, Tere af Severs! ei gene sobstances known in humah Beings 8, EGE (Epidermal growth acter}, PDGF ( platelet derived growth factor) and lymphokines. = There are some agents wh ch inhibit cell division. They are called mitotie ‘ample, azides, eyanides, chalones, colchicines: Golghicines is, ‘phtained from atucrocus (Golehieurm automat) jt arrests cel sion 3° Tmetaphas¢ due {6 nansformananotspindle, a: poisons. Ex cycle «Cell cycle ( Howard and Péle, 1958) Benetically controlled series of chanses that occur ina newly formed cell by which it supplicates ins contents, undergoes, growth and division to form twa daughter .it consists of tWo PO Oakes siay ; > NaN asl gOFLL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION Guphase % Giphase is also known as frst the longest phase af cal) div TRNA, rRNA} and proteins h phase or post mitotic gap phase. itis n. In this phase different types of RMA (mRNA, are synthesize > rants lig &, Ole PRO a lataCELL DIVISION nage Is lnown as svete by the synthesis of hBSe: In this stage replication of BWA take result each chromascin iesome carries» duplicate + Genetie stability came number and type oF chrDIVISION © fidence ef basic relationshio Th if iss ate Sia + Melons sa protass of reductional division bw af bas) sbserved er that genes are wansmitied on chvomasomer Se \ Metts ise for sexual reproduction atid therefore occurs in al foduce sexily ‘eukaryotes {including single celled organisms tat rep IMetasis does not ecvur In archaea or bacteria, which req” process such as binary fission. uring melosis, the genom segments of DNA packed into chromosoates, division, resulting in fou haploid cells. Each of the Complete set of shramosomes, oF half of the gone cell f merosis prodices gametes, these cells must fuse during fertilization to ereate 2new dipisid cell, or zygote before any new erowth can accur Thus the division mechanisin af melosis|s a Teciprocal process ta the joining oFIWS: | tion: Because the eheomosomes al each m cel, whieh is eamposed at indergaes two rounds of is contain one | camtent sf the original sliploid s genomes that occurs at fertl parent undergoes enetic recombination during meiosis, each gamete and thus ach 2ygote, will have a unique genetic blue print encoded in its NA, Together melas and fertilization constitutes sexually nthe eukaryotes, and generate genetically distinct individuals in population, th lower plants, and in many protists, meiosis results in Formation of haplols celis that can divide vegetatively without undergoing fertiliestion, referied to as spores. In these groups, gametes are produced by mitosis 48FLL YELE AND CELL Division Hor aNd maine yn compeneteg ear ini inkerssporocyes andmeguscie ye on the age hen lost ctu th tel to pes Depending upon the stage w! gometie, 29 Ife eycle In some lower plants miosis takes place in the trganiom are haploid tis mote and the esting sd Eyhotc meiosis. Giqanafh having vps meiosis have-baplontic lifecycle spore melasis = in plants, melosis generally eccurs at the time of sporogenesis | formation of 9 Of micraspores and megaspores| Ils called spore maiasis Intermediate meiosi. Spores produce a new garvetopbytie phase in the Ne ceyele, Gametes are formed by gametonhytes. Because af the presenge of two Cistinct muiticellar phase, diploid and haploid, tite cycle of plants diplahaplontic Phases of meiosis = Becau a one-way” process, it cannot be said to engage in acell eycle-as mitosis does. Ho rer, the preparatory steps that lead un ta meiors are identical in pattern and name of the interphase of the mitotic ell eye,2 Meiois nseRELNey CUENT eee HW! Sate therstore ceases he I tidied under ferred 0 #52 0 phase, anaphase and neleP n= more complicated and mest we fee raphase we avid into five S% packytene, dibtete nother \ res recognized prior to Feptomen of their thinnes | of mitosts: For the sak phases: Leptotene, zypotene. fubsphase called prelent in this phase chromosomes are 1 tut sex chromosomes (present) afe often Seen heteropyknotic) bode’: anil lal ot distinguishable becaus® sheterachrorvatic( | sptotene rage of prophase! during whic ito long strands within wo sister cheomatids a7€ je another. nown as leptonerna isa first in to candense i nn. However the distinguishable from an ranged or maybe polarized ‘pscape studies nave © Laptotene also kt individual chrornosomes bes nucleus which are loosly interwove ill so tightly bound that they are in chromosomes may be irregularly a rentrioles forming a bouquet Electron Mish ceormation results when a group of ehramosemnes “nuclear membrane » 1 plant cells the pea tangle of threads, called the svnizesie + Leptotene towards the « bouquet se together on th! .s may sometimes shown th attached clo! chromosome: knat, on one side of nucleus: «There are two sets of chromosomes 0 8 diploid cell unde et contributed by the jrale parent and other By she Fem 2 going meiosis, one ale parent. These are =, OM ah arg CMe. eesi CELL-CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION, veotene + Guring eygotene or 2ynonena the eheampsomes become sharter anad thieket The hamologous chromosomes corne tole se by sin pairs. (G.2ygon ‘yolk tene = Thread). This pairing of homal synapsis or syndesis.& pirat homola ames Ii sill not visible. fiber, som evhat sth leet called a bivalent. The chromatid laddertike, organelle, called sy syrapsed homologous chtamosames. Wt & thou to statue te + Pairing of two homologous chromosomes bens when their corresno nding ‘may occia it one of the ends come together on the nuctear mates Pai Following three way Proteeminal paiting :At-starts at the ends and proceeds towards the riddle (ii) Procentric pairing: it begins at the centrameres and propresses towards the ends, (ii) Random (intermediate) pairing: te commences at many point towards the ends. # The synaptonemal complex is attached at both ends through its fateral int to the inner surface of the nuclear membrane. The central elements: elem is not attached directly. Also arising from the lateral elemnent is another series of smaller loops. These loops fuse in the middle Tine to make up the centrat element Pateinal totaal PachyteneSe oom noc an ved arinealing. is aided by an enzy Biplotene = During diplotene or diplonema the synaptic forces Keeping the homologous chromosames together come to an end. The homologous chromosomes start separating (G diplos = double; tene = thread}. This s called disjunction. It makes chromatids more distinct and the tetrads very clear. Separation of homologous chrornosomes does not take place at the points called chlasmata (singular, chiasma), The chiasmata make the sites where crossing over occurred during pachytene ( Gr .chiasma = crosspiece). They help in holding hhormologaus chromasomes together. the numbier and position of chiasmata varies with the length of the chromosomes and with the species. Chiasmata are found in the meiosis of ‘almost all eukaryotic organism. However, achiasmatic meiosis | meiosis without chiasma} has been reported in some organisms, e.g, males of higher dipteral (including Drosophila), Panorpa ( scorpion fly), many mantids and. roaches, some grasshoppersand scorpions. A chiasma formed at the ends of chromosomesis called termical chiasma. Chiasmata formed-along the lengths of chromosomes are called interstitial chiasmata 1“ OM aN aes C® Al QUAD CAMERALL CVELE AND CELL DIVISION al thy ends of the and ts postion taken yp by an interstitial chiasma, ich na called 1 nal chinsina. This process [scaled terminalzaion- As aplotene bropresses the number of ntersta ehigsmata becomes lesser Ih num The ter ninalieation ray be due to electrostatic force or despraizatin of chromosomes ‘ + When terminalvation ic eompleted the homologous remain in ont rough the terinina chiara. The degree of terminalzaton i expressed By + The synapronemal complexes mo mostly disappear during diplotene, incerta wort segments may persist. The most eomnman regions where the sists are, near the ends of the bwaients where the lateral are attached to the nuclear membrane, and atthe sites of chiasmata 1 the disappearance af the synaptanemal complexrs the ela! Jotene, the chramsames may unfalé to nearly normal form and start transcrFption af mRNA and FRNA Ko hulle up food reverves inthe eyteplasm his process ic most profound in the primary ooctytes of amphibians, reptiles and bids. In some species, the-ehvorgosomes enlarae greatly, 33SUMinB lampbrush forn chasm — givatent! Tetrad ‘Diplotene: « Diokinesis is not sharply differentiated from diplotene. The chromosomes become more conctracted. The bivalents are more evenly distributed in the ‘aia ENKOW\pLe Visa)osomes. Anaphase 115 | 2w of independent Jhromesamer ofa \ fromosome of jore, independent in anaphase | introduces genetic alleles of sa variability felophas ‘© During telophase | the chromosomes at each pole of the spindle Uncoiland elongate, but remain straight and often do not assume interphase form. The 16 Pom aN aes Swe TW en ay-YELE AND CELL DIVISION. my (> nthiedivsion, the Teporate from each other and £0 ¥ chromosornes rematns rhe second mivotie division is essential of each chramosam chramatids ste daughtercells. With the res sn produced by meiasis | Meiosis (lis, ther : iygion, Ir however, differs fram mitosis in that ONAMBEs Het or tromere #0 50. Ithas-4 phases ~ Prophase i metaphase I, homoty duplicate, wh anaphase || and -sely propartional time compared to tetophase In he disappearance of nucieoitand the nuclear envelop and thickening of chromatids. Centrioles move le fibres. kes an in this process we se in as wellasthe shortening ‘and are arranged by spindl to the polar reg v7 TOM a aes Cw TW ena.)ELL GYCLE AND CELL DIVISION rounds apposite Boles + Cytoplasny divides at its middle by furrowing in an animal cell and by ell plate formation in a plant cell. This produces two daughter ells, The latter have half the number of chromosomes and half the amount of nuclear DNA, These cells ace mature game esi animals and spores in plans + Cytokinesis may occur after each nuclear cvision. In such cases, is said tobe cossive type, First the dipaid parent cell divides by heterotypic division ino two haploid cells, which then produce fourhapleid cells by hornatypic division. The four daughter cells may form ajinear or isabilatera tetrad, Oftén vtokinesi: is delayed until bath the nuclear divisions are completed, so that. four cells are simultaneously formed, each with a haploid nucleus. The 585s said to be of simultaneous type yeoplasmic d Pan les hea aiayLe Mutations sans YCLE ANE CELL pjy \ SION 56 oF the sp wwildy:nenrme that weuld erippe the repraduet ious BrOAMCeS Ee! ichowevet ‘ifepring Re gametes that propagate maintain stability a DE ee a) aries of meiotic visions. Some ofthese mutatlons re wilt am anid are perpetuated by natural setection. arity and ORMAL Cl GROWTH ne controlled pracess, The telomere al six nucleotide. These rezions code ‘i division. As cells go on dividing with, imately cells stop Cell visio { chromosomes contains eatitive sequence ot foran enzyme relomerace which contra each division the numbsy of nuslestide decreases and ult dividing, tincantrolled cell divisian may lead to-the formation of unaifferentiated aggregate of cells termed tumor or neoplasm jon Jeads te hyperplasis, hypertrophy, metaplasis, Uncontrolled cell divi neoplasia, and He Le cell The increased preduction and growth of norm: termed hyperplasia. Itisan accelerated rate a increased level of cell metabolisin, This generally viene moss and organ siz, it occurs ony in tissues copableof mitosls sue) the epithelium of skin, intestine and glands Some cele do nok divide and thus eat nt undergo hyperplasia, for example nerve and muscle cals var increase in the size of a tissue or organ brousht aboutby the enlargement ilsietermed hypertrophy, When cells hypertrophy components of the al cells in a tissue or organs f cell division resulting from af results in an enlargement of 19 ON aN ae Cw Tele asc)LUCYCLE AND CELL DIVISION 5 Moet Slap 10 an increaved demas by Sotmation of more cuatial development of cells that may be Renlen or malignant asm — benign and malrgnant Thete 376 Wwo types ot ne hs restricted to a particular site of the nt pants of the hady e.g fs termed neaplasia Benign growth =the tenign growth body and the cells never spread our to alt simple t Malignant growth :in.malignant growth alter the cells are being formed at ticular site, the cells move out different parte of the body and initia corny Ut Oferowth. tha stage of malgnart gromininineny the ce meeatttUhuigh the bad ful to citeresn Care cree body is termed jgnent growthis also termed cancaroucgront Sulture of fst human ial cells) are = rained OT their Marine earcinomeetic fained for use in studying eellula’ pracedses, ap metastasis, Moi ~ He La celts don. an euploid epitna line fancerous cells donated by H Since 1952, These cells ate main jos Coleticine in tice