Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Celina Bledowska - KGB - CIA - Intelligence and Counter-Intelligence Operations-Exeter Books (1987)
Celina Bledowska - KGB - CIA - Intelligence and Counter-Intelligence Operations-Exeter Books (1987)
Celina Bledowska - KGB - CIA - Intelligence and Counter-Intelligence Operations-Exeter Books (1987)
CELINA BLEDOWSKA
and
JONATHAN BLOCH
NEW YORK
f3 A Bison Book
PICTURES. PREVIOUS PAGE:
Some areas of activity
which have involved the
KGB and CIA. A leader of
l»rt
the CIA-backed Contras
i
Europe (bottom right). ut»h you ar« frtt 3* •lonjr Churoh Lano
ranp« pdny laad^ng b*o* to th» Churah.
right: An actual set of
KGB rendezvous ui uava a boo,: *dd oi>*ot*ol«o in
instructions, given to the vj'.ir hands*
agent Douglas Britten by
his Soviet controller.
Current Conflicts
172
Index
191
THE
POSTWAR
SCENE
The 14August 1945 marked the end of World New York in 1932. He had travelled exten-
War time a more secretive
n, yet since that sively before the war in Italy and Germany
war has prevailed: the conflict between the as well as in Britain and France. A British
security services of the two superpowers, MI6 (Secret Intelligence Service) officer of
the United States and the Soviet Union. The the time said of him: 'We can do more
activities of spies have sometimes been through Donovan than any other individual
presented as heroic and even romantic, but ... he can be trusted.' After Pearl Harbor
this secret war has been a brutal parade of Donovan's office changed its name and
ruthlessness, deceit and callous corruption. jurisdiction: he now became head of the
The United States' Central Intelligence Office of Strategic Services (OSS) and his
Agency (CIA) was set up as a direct result of headquarters moved to London. By the end
American intelligence operations during of the war the OSS employed 13,000 people
World War II. In 1941, President Franklin D and had a budget of 337,000,000. There
Roosevelt realized the need a co-ordina-
for were four departments beneath Donovan -
tor of intelligence to protectthe interests of Support, Secretariat, Planning, and Over-
the United States, and he appointed William seas Missions. Each of these tiers spawned
J Donovan (known in some circles as Wild a further array of sections known as 'opera-
Bill') to the position. Donovan was from the tion groups'. Many future directors and
right background for the job. He had been deputy directors of the CIA started their
decorated in World War I, was a millionaire, spying careers working for the OSS.
had served as assistant attorney general in The OSS had grown largely out of the vital
the Justice Department and had also run as wartime need for overseas intelligence but
the Republican candidate for governor of Donovan was convinced of the need to re-
THE POSTWAR SCENE
8
THE POSTWAR SCENE
entertains diplomatic
representatives of his
British and American allies
either. He left after six months to become gence organization, the Strategic Services above: Lieutenant General
presidential assistant for intelligence affairs. Unit. This unit consisted of 1000 people, 600 Hoyt S Vandenberg, who
-•
Soviet-controlled area of
eastern Germany.
above: The man under the Meanwhile the rift between the United
hood is Igor Gouzenko, the Statesand its former wartime ally the Soviet
Soviet clerk whose Union was growing. Relations were not
defection in September helped by the revelation of extensive Soviet
1945 revealed the
spying activities. In September 1945 Igor
existence of a widespread
Gouzenko, a cypher clerk from the Soviet
Soviet spy network in
12
THE POSTWAR SCENE
above: 2 Dzerzhinsky
Square in the heart of
Moscow, the central
headquarters of the Soviet
secret services and site of
the notorious Lubyanka
prison, in which so many
opponents of the
government have been
held and tortured.
13
KGB/CIA
14
tf*
Soviets from 1941, and he was not arrested program - with such scientists as Andrei above: A nuclear bomb
until 1950. Another prominent physicist Sakharov they were quite capable of work- explodes at Bikini atoll in
was Alan Nunn May, who worked on the ing out for themselves. But the revelations
it one of America's first
Anglo-Canadian atomic project and passed about espionage certainly created panic postwar tests. The Soviet
samples of the uranium used to Soviet and paranoia in the West. Union was desperate to
agents. He was caught as a result of the 1947 saw an escalation of intelligence getits own bomb, and
Gouzenko revelations. Also passing on activity on both sides of the world. The
much of its espionage in
atom secrets were Julius and Ethel Rosen- the late 1940s was
Soviet Union reorganized its services, creat-
berg, eventually executed m the United directed to that end.
ing a Committee of Information (KI) which
States in 1953, and Donald Maclean, of was comprised of foreign intelligence units
whom more later (see Chapter 5). It is of the MVDand the army's intelligence
generally believed now that espionage in organization. In the United States the
fact did little to speed up the Soviet nuclear National Security Act of 1947 gave birth to
15
KGB/CIA
above: Ethel and Julius the CIA, reformed from the CIG. The act
Rosenberg, condemned to also established a governing body to replace
the electric chair as atom the National Intelligence Authority. This
spies in 1953, despite new body was named the National Security
worldwide protests.
Council (NSC). The President would be
Americans blamed traitors
chairman of the NSC, giving a direct line of
for the Soviet
communication between the CIA and the
development of the atom
bomb and anti-communist White House. The new director of the CIA
hysteria gripped the
was Admiral Roscoe Hillenkoetter, who had
United States. worked for several years with navy intel-
ligence and had set up a naval intelligence
network in the Pacific. The National
Security Act actually came into being on 18
September 1947. It gave the CIA intelli-
gence collecting powers and made it
right: Donald Maclean, answerable to the National Security
one of the spies recruited Council. It also encompassed a wide range
by the Soviet Union at of ''other functions' which the CIA could
Cambridge University,
perform at the discretion of the NSC.
England, in the 1930s.
The duties of theCIA were defined as
Maclean was posted to
Britain's Washington
follows: to advise the NSC on intelligence
embassy after the war and activities of government departments and
had access to American agencies relating to national security; to
atom secrets, which he make recommendations to the NSC for the
passed on to Moscow. co-ordination of such intelligence activities,
16
THE POSTWAR SCENE
18
THE POSTWAR SCENE
"
-\r: ;
-ivv
Beatmgthe Berlin
blockade. Maintaining
food supplies for half of a
city (left) involved a
massive operation by air.
i f
Germany largely
contributed to the
worsening relationship
between the United States
« and the Soviet Union,
plungingthe world into the
era of the Cold War.
19
KGB/CIA
crimes blackened the Truman The boss of this new group was
first
threatened to withhold money from any Frank
image of the Soviet Union.
Italian
Wisner, an ex-OSS man.
government which included com-
In 1963 President
Truman commented
HH
THE POSTWAR SCENE
left: An anti-communist
Italian election poster
YDTA
calls on people to 'vote for
their country.' The
propaganda campaign
mounted by the CIA in Italy
in 1948 was one of the
21
EARLY
OPERATIONS
During World War II, the OSS had devoted Stalin's interference in the affairs of his
the greater part of its efforts to operations in country. Albania, as Yugoslavia's closest
enemy-occupied territory, particularly in communist neighbor, had received aid from
liaisonwith local resistance groups. Not Tito. Yugoslavia trained Albania's profes-
unnaturally, many ex-OSS operatives sional workforce as well as supplying that
sought a similar role for themselves in the country with essential materials and food.
post-war confrontation with the Soviet At one stage Tito described his relationship
Union. The result was a series of operations with Albania's leader Enver Hoxha as that
in Eastern Europe which could be termed of 'elder brother'. This was now all going to
active 'spy wars', as opposed to paper change, leaving Albania isolated and
propaganda operations. The first of these, apparently vulnerable to the West.
which could be taken as typical, was the At this time in the United States, the idea
Albanian fiasco. was growing that given the right sort of aid,
Until 1948 Albania had been largely ig- anti-Soviet partisan groups, who were
nored as a little backward state, somewhere allegedly already working within the East-
in the Balkans. The break between Yugo- ern bloc countries, might be able to over-
slavia's communist leader Josip Broz Tito throw the post-war communist govern-
and Stalin dramatically changed this state of ments. Already during the spring of 1948
affairs.In 1948 Stalin expelled Yugoslavia the US Chiefs of Staff had sent a colonel to
from Cominform, the organization of com- the CIA in order to brief the Agency on the
munist states. Tito and the Yugoslav parti- military's intelligence needs. Also former
sans had successfully fought against the OSS veteran, Robert McDowell, in his capa-
Nazis during World War II and Tito resented city as advisor to the US Chiefs of Staff, had
22
EARLY OPERATIONS
Germans developed an
independent spirit in the
Yugoslav communist
supporters of Tito, and
after the war they were not
prepared to accept
domination by Stalin.
against communist
governments in Eastern
Europe.
23
KGB/CIA
above: King Zog of Albania worried that 'the Americans were not
reviews his troops in 1938. always as forthcoming as we could have
Ten years later, the King wished'. Accordingly William Hayter and
was living in exile in Cairo, Lord Jellicoe for the British Foreign Office
but still dreaming of a
flew to the United States to lobby support.
return to the Albanian
There they met with OPC's Frank Wisner
throne.
and Robert Joyce of the State Department.
The meeting agreed that neither govern-
ment should come into the open about any
possible action against the Albanian
regime, but they could and would sponsor
Albanian rebels. These rebels were to in-
clude wartime royalist and Balli Kombetar
resistance leaders, most of whom were now
based outside Albania: Midhat Frashen was
in Turkey, Abas Ermenji in Greece, Said
Kryeziu and Abas Kupi in Italy. There was
also a strong Albanian presence in Egypt,
led by the exiled King Zog. The United
right: Yugoslav leader
States depended heavily on British experi-
JosipBroz Tito, a great
friend of the Albanian
ence and wartime knowledge of Albania.
communist government In April 1949, Frank Wisner flew to
until his split with Stalin in London, to discuss locations for a possible
1948. The Albanians training and lift-off base for the guerrillas.
stayed loyal to Moscow Initially a US base in Libya was chosen, but
and broke off relations this was then turned down for a variety of
with Tito. reasons, and eventually the British-con-
26
EARLY OPERATIONS
operations might not prove as successful as These were led by Abas Ermenji and had and his generals enter the
was hoped. The Albanian refugees were fought bravely during World War II. A Albanian capital Tirana in
made up of diverse factions, some of whom further disjointed piece in this already October 1944, ready to
instal a communist
were still not talking to each other, even complex jigsaw was the exiled King Zog
regime. Hoxha was to be
after several years of joint exile. Roughly himself. A compromise was reached in July
the only East European
speaking, the exiles were divided into three 1949. Abas Kupi, the King's nominee, could
communist leader who
mam camps, though other feuds, mainly of a be chairman of a military junta with Ermenji remained a Stalinist even
family nature, also existed. For example, and another senior Albanian, Said Kryeziu, after destalinization in the
most tribes from northern Albania were as deputies. An executive called the Soviet Union itself.
Roman Catholic and, to a certain extent, Albania National Committee was to be set
better educated than their southern Moslem up to promote the cause of a free Albania.
compatriots. There also existed the problem The chairman of this executive was to be
27
above: The harbor at the Balli leader Midhat Frashen. It was only at a British intelligence base on Corfu com-
Valetta on the island of by much skilful diplomatic maneuvering manded by Alan Hare. Apparently three
Malta. In 1949 Malta was that the King agreed to such a proposition. men had been killed, and others had been
controlled by Britain and rounded up. James Angleton, who moni-
Zog then offered, as back-up, his entire
seemed the ideal base for
Royal Guard without, one presumes, the tored this operation, believed that informa-
assembling and launching
one or two who were entrusted with the job tion had been leaked to the Soviets by some
Albanian agents into their
of guarding Albania's pre-war gold reserve of the refugees living in the West. Already in
home country.
which was held in Zog's palace in Cairo. 1917 when Felix Dzerzhinski had set up the
On 14 July 1949 the first small band of Soviet secret service one of its first aims had
guerrillas landed in Malta ready for training. been to penetrate every anti-communist
Great secrecy surrounded these men once group around. Angleton believed that there
on Malta, though this at times was difficult was no reason to suspect that the Soviets
to maintain, given the existing British mili- had changed their tactics. Some of the
tary presence on the island. On 9 September Albanian group finally got back to safety
the first team of Albanians left Malta for and were able to take part in further expedi-
their homeland, on board a ship called the tions, but there was always some mishap
Stormie Seas. Italian coastguards monitored and insome bizarre fashion the Albanian
the little boat's progress and relayed in- security forces always knew what was
formation to the CIA. By October the group going to happen.
had reached Albania. The OPC liaison officer working with the
Tragically for the little team, on making British was Michael Burke. Burke had
contact with the local rebel groups, they worked in the OSS during the war and had
were met by members of the Albanian been chosen by Frank Lindsay, the OPC
police and security services. Messages European director, because of his impres-
got out by a cousin of one of the sive wartime record. Burke's first destina-
iian liaison officers, and were received tion was Rome in order to supervise the
28
'
EARLY OPERATIONS
29
the McCarthy hearings
The sudden exposure of the atom spies and the
revelation of Soviet agents working in government
men. The pilots had terrible difficulty in put on parade in Tirana for a show trial. It is
finding the right drop-off spot in Albania, believed that all those who were
but eventually the infiltrators decided to not sentenced to death met their end at the
jump anyway and risk it. Yet again a trap hands of the Albanian secret police. After
had been set and all but two of the men the October 1951 trial morale in the Al-
were captured by waiting security forces. In banian camp was extremely low. Argu-
retaliation for the escape of one of the men, ments broke out again between the royalist
Adem Gjura, the security police murdered and republican sides. The British attempted
his whole family, including cousins. Gjura to train further groups of Albanians in
and his colleague reached Yugoslavia safely Britain "itself, on the rugged terrain of Dart-
where he was imprisoned for 17 years. moor. The training failed; the men were just
While in Yugoslavia he tried to send out a not fit enough. The Dartmoor session was
below: Harold 'Kim' message to warn the mission's com- the last straw for the British: they pulled out
Philby, perhaps the manders about the 'reception committee', of the Albanian nightmare.
supreme double agent. but he was never sure if the message had Not so the CIA. They had their hopes
His high mental abilities,
been received. pinned on one guerrilla in particular - Hamit
plus his perfectly
Despite these horrific setbacks the OPC Mat] am - who had so far survived every
'appropriate' social
continued with its operations. Further obstacle which had come his way. During
background, earned him a
recruits were trained in the 'schloss'. More 1952 men were trained with Mat] am as their
rapid rise through the
money was pumped into the operation and leader. The men were transferred from Ger-
British intelligence
service, but he was in fact channelled through Rome. In June 1951 many to the Greek island of Kalanissia, now
a totally dedicated another drop was made of 16 men. Yet again a secret CIA base. King Zog released more
communist, tireless in his the tragic fate of their comrades befell them. men from his personal Royal Guard to join
work for the Soviet cause. Those who were not shot on the spot were the mission. Even at this stage the CIA still
36
EARLY OPERATIONS
gated, but successfully managed to blind signals that the expeditions were doomed the CIA from 1950 to
1953. Smith was highly
his questioners. Of his timeWashington
in to failure? Were they so caught up in their
suspicious of Philby and
Philby himself says: 'The more visitors I had own Cold War propaganda that they could
insisted on his removal
in Washington, the more pies I got my finger no longer clearly evaluate a situation? The'
from Washington as a
into. That after all was my aim in life. Philby ' OPC European director at that time, Frank
condition of continuing
has never actually confessed to the Alba- Lindsay, today says: 'It was unethical as intelligence co-operation
nian massacre but by piecing together his well as foolish to carry on sacrificing human between the United States
position, his contacts, the Washington era lives in the operation's later stages.' and Britain.
and the later revelations that he was a Of course the main victims of this un-
traitor,plus the fact that the Albanian secret happy espisode were the Albanians them-
police were so well briefed as to the landing selves. Egged on by both intelligence
spots of the emigre guerrillas, one can services these men set forth on a mission
suppose that Philby was largely responsible which otherwise they would never have
for the murder of over 300 men, women and attempted. Philby was the traitor but
children. neither MI6 nor the CIA was totally
The other reasons for the fiasco include innocent.
37
THE BATTLE
FOR
INTELLIGENCE
Ifan intelligence agency is to be seen as charge of this Directorate. Frank Wisner be-
working efficiently it has to be seen to be came deputy director of plans with Richard
working. In order to be seen to be working it Helms as A Directorate
chief of operations.
must first of all convince its own govern- of Intelligence was
established in order to
ment and only secondly convince the promote the CIA's public face. An Office of
enemy. This moral appears to be the National Estimates (ONE) came under this
guiding light for both the US and Soviet jurisdiction in order to provide analysis and
intelligence agencies from the 1950s up estimates within the Agency. Other ana-
To carry out these
until the present day. lytical offices included the Office of Scienti-
functions the agency must be properly fic Intelligence (OSI) and the Office for
38
THE BATTLE FOR INTELLIGENCE
39
KGB/CIA
above: The powerful which were already dominated by the as labor organizations, the CIA channelled
transmitters of Radio Free communist parties. But among the world funds to youth movements. The European
Europe, the US labor organizations, the CIA was not Youth Campaign, for example, received
propaganda service reticent. In the 1970s it was revealed that £1,300,000 from the CIA between 1951 and
broadcasting to Eastern
the CIA had been behind the vast Inter- 1959. This was confirmed in 1975 by Tom
Europe. The CIA pumped
national Confederation of Free Trade Braden, an ex- CIA officer who had served in
$30 million a year into RFE
as part of its effort to
Unions (ICFTU). As well as trying to control the CIA's International Organizations
roll
encouraging the peoples regional operations throughout the Third While the CIA reorganized and mounted
of Eastern Europe to World. The man behind a lot of these itspropaganda offensive, its counterpart in
eventual resistance or schemes was Arthur Goldberg, who had the Soviet Union had been undergoing
revolt against their been head of OSS labor operations and then major reconstruction. In the last years of
governments. went on to be Secretary of Labor and a Stalin's rule, in the early 1950s, the dictator
Supreme Court Justice. had become even more paranoid than be-
Essentially, the purpose of these 'front' fore and Bena's secret police had been ever
organizations was to transmit propaganda more inventive in its 'discovery' of plots and
without looking like propaganda organiza- thorough But Beria
in its reign of terror.
tions. On the one hand they had to appear in himself was far from secure. According to
the role of liberal friends to all people and on Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev's later
the other hand they could be used to account, Stalin ordered Semen Ignatiev,
disseminate information which, had it director of the MGB, to fabricate evidence
emanated from the direct source, would against a number of Moscow physicians,
have immediately been discredited. As well most of them Jewish, who were accused of
40
THE BATTLE FOR INTELLIGENCE
peasant populations.
41
KGB/CIA
March
state
IP ?' I IIAifl IM > L
1
_,
erstwhile colleagues,
including police chief
V f t
•
<ft ^ -/--•
ff 1 *.$^
# k55 ?
1
.1
* i
«^
1
•iSa^
_^»~ «•.-
above: Georgi Malenkov, ing that he was under threat, had a direct them as much as it had the ordinary Soviet
immediate
Stalin's hand in Stalin's death. citizen. Formally, the organization was
successor, addresses the It seemed likely that Beria would win the downgraded from a ministry to a state
Supreme Soviet. Beria sits
ensuing power struggle to rule the Soviet committee, becoming the Committee for
uncomfortably alongside
Union, for his control of the secret police State Security (Komitet Gosudarstennoi
Khrushchev at the back of
apparently gave him the trump card. But the Bezopasnasti - KGB). Its powers were con-
the podium.
other members of the Politburo, with siderably reduced - it could no longer arrest
Khrushchev playing an important role, out- party members or conduct its own trials,
maneuvered Beria and in June 1953 he was and most camps were taken out
of the labor
arrested. On 24 December Pravda an- of its control. The number of employees of
nounced that he had been executed. The the KGB was also much smaller than its
party leadership then took its revenge on predecessor. The MVD, for its part, became
the MGB which had for so long terrorized the ministry in control of the ordinary police.
42
THE BATTLE FOR INTELLIGENCE
43
KGB/CIA
AB0VE:AU2spyplane The head of the new KGB was General Ivan In fact, via James' Angleton a copy of the
cruisingathighaltitude.lt Serov, previously security chief in speech did fall into the hands of the CIA.
was thought that flying at Khrushchev's Ukraine, but overall control of How it reached Angleton is another ques-
85,000 feet would make state security lay with the more powerful tion. One school of thought is convinced
the aircraft immune to figure of Aleksander Shelepm. In 1958, West German intelligence organi-
that the
Soviet air defenses, but
Shelepin was to take over direct control of by Remhard Gehlen obtained the
zation run
surface-to-air missile
the KGB himself. copy and passed it on. Others claim that
technology eventually
Despite these internal preoccupations, Angleton obtained the speech from close
caught up and overtook
thespyplane. the Soviets were by no means idle in the contacts with the Israeli secret service,
fields of propaganda and intelligence work Mossad. Mossad, in turn, is suspected of
during these years. From 1948 until 1953 having obtained the speech through con-
MGB agents posing as Soviet newsmen tacts in Poland.
mounted an intense disinformation cam- Once it had got a copy of the speech, the
paign against the United States and US CIA could not make up its mind what to do
involvement in Japan, for example. They with it. Soviet-watcher Dr Ray Cline,
had also found time to plant 130 listening though convinced of the document's
devices in US embassies, and in 1952 a accuracy, did not want it to be released in
further 44 devices were placed m
the US sections, preferring that the document
embassy in Moscow. should be released in full. Angleton and
The Soviets had no match for the propa- Wisner on the other hand thought that
ganda coup achieved by the CIA in 1956, maximum propaganda effect could be
however, when it obtained a copy of gained by releasing the speech in sections.
Khrushchev's 'secret' speech delivered to a A huge argument raged for days at the
closed session of the 20th Party Congress, in Directorate of Plans' Headquarters, the
which the Soviet leader denounced Stalin's 'Reflecting Pool,' in Washington. Eventually
crimes and his methods of ruling the the speech was released in full and pub-
country. The KGB knew that if the speech lished in the New York Times. To the
was released to the West, it would play into present day there have been many debates
the hands of the CIA who would seize upon as to the legitimacy of the copy of the
it as a justification of all their covert actions. speech released and as to whether the CIA
Also, how could the KGB ensure that the had actually doctored it. Naturally enough,
West did not doctor and exaggerate the dis- the Agency denies any such implications.
graceful list of crimes which Khrushchev Also in 1956, the CIA began a quite new
attributed to Stalin? kind of spy project that looked toward the
44
THE BATTLE FOR INTELLIGENCE
future and opened up fresh fields of the line of development that the CIA chose
espionage. The Agency had always lacked to pursue, producing theU2 reconnaissance
a secure and dependable way in which to aircraft.
spy directly on the Soviet Union. Reliance The aim of the U2 project was to fly over
on agents was dangerous and the informa- the Soviet Union and photograph missile
tion they could collect was limited. Eisen- and defense-related installations. In co-
hower had already publicly floated the idea operation with the air force the CIA re-
that one way to disarmament in motion
set cruited pilots, one of whom was Gary
would be to allow monitored viewing by Powers. Altogether about 100 pilots were
each side of the other's military establish- chosen. The CIA used among other places
ments, and suggested that aerial photo- the Incirlik Air Base near Adana in Turkey as
graphy might be the means of carrying this a base from which to make the reconnais-
out. Khrushchev described the proposal as sance flights, and for this work Powers and
'pure fantasy'. But aerial surveillance was his colleagues were paid S30.000. Powers
45
SPY PLANES
In 1952 the United States began to consider the use irrefutable photographic evidence of the existence of top and roPRiGHT:The
of high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft to solve the Soviet ballistic missile sites on Cuba. The U2 Lockheed SR-7
problem from behind the
of obtaining intelligence continued in service until 1976. but in 1964 the Blackbird.
completed before Gary Powers was shot down by an of spy satellites. flight.
himself made the first flight over the Soviet the Soviet Union took place on 1 May 1960
Union in November 1956. For four years the and once more Powers was the pilot. As he
U2 spy flights continued, bringing back flew over Sverdlovsk, Powers was brought
information and photographs of 'airfields, down by a Soviet SA-2 missile. Even worse
aircraft, missiles, missile testing and train- for the CIA, he was neither killed in the
ing, special weapons storage, submarine crash nor took the cyanide pill with which
production, atomic production and aircraft he had been issued. With Powers a prisoner
deployments.' The U2 was an extremely in their hands, the Soviets were in a position
flimsily built aircraft, but despite its fragility to carry out a magnificent diplomatic coup.
the plane could cruise at the astonishingly An. international summit was scheduled to
high altitude of 85,000 feet, thus avoiding take place on 16 May, with Eisenhower,
any problems with turbulent weather. Khrushchev and the French and British
What was to prove a fatal U2 flight over leaders participating, so it was a focal
moment in superpower relations. To gain
maximum advantage from the situation,
Khrushchev first allowed Eisenhower to
deny publicly that spy flights were being
authorized. The Soviet leader then pro-
duced Powers at a press conference on 7
May and the American President was re-
vealed as a liar. The summit conference was
abandoned in an atmosphere of mutual
antagonism and distrust.
One of the major questions about this
incident, which has never been satisfactor-
ily resolved, the issue of who authorized a
is
48
1
<
1 *s '
49
KGB/CIA
William Fisher in England in 1903. His father a small business in Brooklyn. From there he
had been a mend of Lenin and eventually successfully conducted espionage activities
moved to the Soviet Union. Rudolf joined a number of years. In 1957, however, he
for
the Soviet Communist Party in 1920 and, as was finally arrested in a New York hotel
a gifted linguist, was soon recruited for room where he was staying under yet
intelligence work. He obviously displayed a another alias, 'Martin Collins'. Abel refused
flair for it, since he was sent to Berlin to the to be 'turned' and gave nothing away; he
Technische Hochschule to study. He re- was sentenced to 30 years' imprisonment.
turned to Moscow after graduating and But Abel was lucky in that fate intervened
below: Soviet spy Rudolf continued his training in military espionage. on his behalf. James Donovan, a New York
Abel in handcuffs after his
In 1949, after taking on the alias of Andrew attorney and a former OSS man, was in-
arrest by the FBI in 1957. who had structed in 1962 to see if it were possible to
Kayotis, a US citizen died while
Abel resisted interrogation
many
visiting relatives m Lithuania, Abel entered arrange a 'swap' for Powers. Donovan
very well and details
Quebec, Canada. Once safely in Canada agreed to the deal and set up negotiations
of his activities remain
obscure. He was returned
Abel adopted a new persona, calling himself with the Soviet Union. The contacts be-
to the Soviet Union in
Emil R Goldfus; he also found himself a new tween the two sides took place through the
exchange for U2 pilot Gary profession, that of photographer. Armed medium of letters. Donovan started to re-
Powers in February 1962, with his new identity Abel crossed the ceive correspondence from someone claim-
the first ever 'spy swap.' Canada/US border, and set himself up with ing to be Helen Abel, supposedly the wife of
the Soviet spy. He passed the letters on to
CIA general counsel Lawrence Houston
who prepared a response. Eventually
Donovan went to Berlin to set up the final
parts of the deal. Technically he travelled as
a private US citizen with no special govern-
ment protection. In February 1962 Gary
Powers was exchanged for Rudolf Abel at
the East German checkpoint of Glienicker
Bridge. This was to be the first of many such
swaps on the bridge with little change to
the routine, except that the size of the
security forces overseeing each successive
swap has increased. Rudolph Abel died in
the Soviet Union in 1971.
The 1950s, then, in terms of propaganda
and espionage, was a period of expansion
and also the laying of foundations for future
operations. With the establishment of the
various CIA-backed foundations and the
Soviet investment in Western trade unions
both sides had succeeded in building strong
and lasting powerbases. One of the main
differences m operations during this period
was that the Soviet leadersknew what the
KGB was involved in, whereas the CIA had
not necessarily informed the US Adminis-
tration of what exactly was going on. The
KGB has often been shown to have been
more brutal in its methods, but at the CIA
training camp at Camp Peary, Virginia, in
the mid-1950s an instructor once told his
class: 'On occasions it has been necessary
to physically eliminate someone who was a
threat to the Agency.' Other officers within
the CIA disagree with this point of view.
During the time when these tools of prop-
aganda were being put in place, major
events occurred elsewhere which changed
the world completely and have played a
major part in policy and decision-making
today. These include the CIA interventions
in Iran, Guatemala and Cuba.
50
THE BATTLE FOR INTELLIGENCE
51
CIA
INTERVENTION
In the 1950s evidence first emerged of CIA they were incapable of getting rid of Mos-
intervention in the internal affairs of sadegh themselves. With American sup-
countries outside the Soviet block to unseat port, they mounted an economic blockade
established governments and replace them which had a critical effect on the Iranian
by anti-communist rulers favorable to economy, but Prime Minister Winston
American interests. In 1953, the target was Churchill wanted more direct action. In
Iran. 1952 the British first put out feelers to see if
For two years, since 1951, effective power an operation could be mounted by the CIA.
in Iran had rested with Prime Minister The Truman Administration was cautious
Mohammed Mossadegh, who had reduced about such an adventure, however, and
the young Shah, Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, nothing happened until the following year,
to a virtual figurehead. Mossadegh rode a when John Foster Dulles was installed as
wave of popular nationalist enthusiasm, Secretary of State. To Dulles, Iran appeared
supported, but in no sense dominated, by a clear case of Soviet-orchestrated com-
the local communist party, the Tudeh. His munist subversion. He was also not un-
most popular move was his initial decision aware that this was an opportunity to move
to nationalize the powerful British-owned into an area that had previously been a
Anglo-Iranian Oil Company which many British preserve. So the CIA was instructed
Iranians believed was milking the nation's to carry out the task of ousting Mossadegh.
wealth and offering little in return. The The man put in charge of the operation
British were outraged by this measure, just was Kermit ('Kim') Roosevelt, grandson of
as they would be later when Nasser President Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919).
nationalized the Suez Canal in 1956, but Kim had left Harvard to work in the OSS
52
CIA INTERVENTION
53
KGB/CIA
above: Pro-Mossadegh
demonstrators confront
soldiers on the streets of
the Iranian capital,
Teheran, during the vital
1953.
54
CIA INTERVENTION
during the war and ended up as a Middle was organized on the streets of Teheran,
East specialist. To carry out the Iran mission previously dominated by the Tudeh and
he took with him a small band of operatives pro-Mossadegh crowds. Roosevelt's activi-
and a budget of $2 million. They had to ties were outstandingly successful.
operate outside the protection of the US Mossadegh's supporters lost the initiative
embassy, but local agents were roped in to and the military leaders primed by the CIA
help them, as were members of Iran's intel- were able to drive him from power after only
ligence services. brief, if bloody, fighting with opposing army
The plan was to replace Mossadegh by elements. Zahedi emerged as the victor and
his interior minister General Fazollah invited the Shah to return from exile. When the Shah and his
Zahedi and at the same time restore the The overthrow of Mossadegh was, at family (below) were forced
effective power of the Shah. The crisis came least in the short term, a triumph for the to flee Iran in August 1953,
in August 1953. Assured of American and United States. The following year Western they were met in Rome by
Meanwhile, in 1954 the CIA engineered a trade union rights for workers and land re-
far more audacious coup considerably distribution. This policy was not welcomed
nearer home, in the Central American state by the United Fruit Company, which had
of Guatemala. It was a horribly poverty- powerful contacts in Washington. At the
stricken country, in which only two percent same time, Arbenz tolerated and co-
of the population owned 70 percent of the operated with the Guatemalan commu-
land. Over half the people were illiterate and nists, although none was included in his
the country was dominated by a single cabinet. To the United States, this was in-
American employer which exploited the tolerable: Arbenz not only threatened US
workforce, the United Fruit Company: economic dominance but offered a toe-hold
Guatemala was the original 'banana re- to communism in the Americas.
public.' In 1951 Jacobo Arbenz Guzman In March 1953 the CIA backed right-
was elected as the country's president. wingers in Guatemala with money and arms
Arbenz was determined to do something for to stage a revolt, but the rising failed. Eisen-
the impoverished population and tried to hower had decided that 'Arbenz must go',
push through a senes of reforms, including however, so something better would have
56
to be planned. Although Allen Dulles was
nominally in charge, real responsibility for
the operation lay with Frank Wisner, Deputy
Director of Plans. Wisner chose Guatemalan
Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas as the figure-
head to lead the planned coup. It was to be
presented to the world as a revolt by the
Guatemalan military and exiles, without
any US involvement. Guatemalan exiles and
mercenaries from the United States and
South America were assembled at training
bases in Nicaragua, an impressive air force
of P-47 Thunderbolts and C-47 transports
was established at Managua airport, and
radio transmitters were set up in Honduras
on Guatemala's borders.
In May 1954 the CIA learned of a ship-
ment of arms bound from Czechoslovakia to
Guatemala. It was the pretext they needed.
Fifty tons of military equipment were A British official pointed out at the time that above and top: Squalor
shipped from the United States to the train- America's threatened action against and malnutrition are the
ing base in Nicaragua and a propaganda Guatemala amounted to a 'technical act of normal lot of the
campaign magnifying Arbenz' links with war'. The official added: have written a
'I
Guatemalan poor, housed
communism was mounted in the press private letter to Sir R Makins asking him in shanty towns and
57
KGB/CIA
Liberation' operated by David Phillips - and Phillips fabricated whole news broadcasts,
the aggressive campaign of accusations listing battles and defeats which were pure
against Arbenz started to gam effect. figments of his imagination, yet the de-
Arbenz grounded the air force, suspecting it moralizing effect these broadcasts must
of disloyalty, and the air force commander have had on listening Guatemalans cannot
defected to the CIA-backed side. At a meet- be overestimated. Simultaneously leaflet
ing in Washington shortly before the raids were being carried out over Guate-
planned invasion, Eisenhower asked mala City, interspersed with bombing
whether the operation would succeed. attacks. Guatemala accused the United
Apparently in answer to his own question, States in the UN of being actively involved
-
Eisenhower said: 'I'm prepared to take any in these raids, a charge which the Ameri-
steps that are necessary to see that [this cans repudiated, claiming that 'the situa-
mission] succeeds. For if it succeeds, it's the tion does not involve aggression but is a
people of Guatemala throwing off the yoke revolt of Guatemalans against Guate-
of communism. If it fails the flag of the malans'. Allen Dulles, meanwhile, had
United States has failed.' This was said successfully requisitioned further planes
below: Arbenz (second despite the fact that Arbenz had been through President Eisenhower. The acqui-
from left) with his wife and democratically elected by the Guatemalan sition of the planes was laundered through
government ministers at a
people. certain dubious payments made by
public ceremony some
On June 18 Castillo Armas and 'Army
his Nicaragua. By 27 June the strain had proved
time before the
of Liberation' crossed the border into too much for Arbenz and he handed over to
president's overthrow. The
strain of staying in power
Guatemala from Honduras. On the same Colonel Carlos Diaz, head of the Guate-
in the face of continuous day the P-47s bombed San Jose, a major malan armed forces. To the horror of the
CIA-inspired conspiracies Guatemalan port on the Pacific coast. The CIA, however, Diaz declared his intention of
is clearly visible in their invasion was magnified by the activities of fighting the rebel invaders. Further bomb-
faces. David Phillips and the 'Voice of Liberation' ing raids were launched against Guatemala
58
CIA INTERVENTION
City, and this time the headquarters of the peasants and handed back to the United
Guatemalan Army was hit. Diaz, president Fruit Company.
for a day, was ousted and a new junta Talking about Guatemala on US tele-
formed. On 2 July a pact was signed be- vision Foster Dulles said: 'the struggle in
tween Castillo Armas and the junta, which Guatemala exposed the evil purpose of the
eventually led to Castillo Armas assuming Kremlin to find nesting places in the
the presidency. There followed a lengthy Americas.' He added: 'Led by Colonel
reign of terror for the Guatemalan people. In Castillo Armas, patriots arose in Guatemala
one foul swoop 70 percent of the Guate- to challenge the communist leadership and
malan population was disenfranchised by to change it. Thus the situation is being
an act which denied illiterates the vote. cured by the Guatemalans themselves.' It
Labor and union rights were repealed and later transpired that the whole operation
800,000 acres of land was taken from the had cost the CIA $20 million.
59
KGB/CIA
Cuba was another country with which fall of the present government.' Dulles
the United States became involved; indeed, approved of this recommendation and a
for a time the affairs of that country were to meeting of the National Security Council
dominate US foreign policy. In November was held, at which it was agreed to create a
1956 Fidel Castro landed on Cuba with 81 Special Group to look into any possible
followers bent on overthrowing the dicta- action against Cuba. After further meetings
torship of Fulgencio Batista. By 1959, of this Special Group, a CIA Task Force was
against all odds, the rebels had succeeded set up to carry out its wishes, including the
and Castro was able to establish his own creation of an armed force of Cuban exiles,
regime. At first the Americans were not an attempt to form a subversive
hostile to the new government, but they organization inside Cuba, and if possible the
soon became so when Castro declared his assassination of Castro.
intention of supporting guerrilla movements Eisenhower was aware of the plans to
against US-backed dictatorships through- eliminate Castro. In his memoirs he says:
out Latin America and seized US assets m 'On 17 March 1960, I ordered the CIA to
Cuba. He also established friendly relations begin to organize the training of Cuban
below: President with the Soviet Union, although he was not exiles mainly in Guatemala against a future
Fulgencio Batista of Cuba himself a communist. day when they might return to their home-
wreathed in smiles, having In December 1959 Colonel J C King, head land.' Eisenhower had also been in attend-
just escaped an
of the CIA's Western Hemisphere Division, ance at the National Security Council
assassination attempt in
wrote to Allen Dulles expressing his fears meetings where the proposals to murder
March 1957. Batista's
for the area as a whole. Cuba, it was well Castro were raised. Castro's two major col-
days as dictator of Cuba
noted, was only 90 miles from the United leagues, Che Guevara and brother Raul
were already numbered,
however, as Fidel Castro States itself. King recommended that Castro, were also to be 'eliminated.'
had begun his guerrilla 'thorough consideration be given to the The initial plan was to discredit Castro in
campaign on the island elimination of Fidel Castro - the disappear- front of his nation. Castro had an immense
the previous November. ance of Fidel would greatly accelerate the following within Cuba. He was charismatic
60
CIA INTERVENTION
^
1 962 reveals the Soviets
M 7 V*
m atSan Cristobal, marking
the end of the
confrontation with the
"IF *5?.
&vX United States, left: An SA-
2 missile site
CIA's intelligence
on Cuba. The
eliminating Castro. In July 1960 a Cuban Americans who wanted to recover their
agent reported that he was shortly to have seized Havana assets. Rosselli soon
access to Raul Castro, Fidel's brother. The gathered who was really behind it but still
CIA back in the United States was delighted agreed to carry out the work. Rosselli em-
and immediately briefed its man in Cuba to broiled two of America's most wanted men
carry out an assassination. At the last in the plot, Sam Giancana, chief US Mafia
minute, though, plans were changed and boss, and Santos Trafficante, Cuba Mafia
the agent's instructions were rescinded. chief. The CIA liaison man, Chief of Opera-
The need to destroy Castro consumed the tional Support Division James O'Connell,
Agency to the extent that they approached met these men and immediately recognized
the Mafia to take charge of matters for them. them. While the CIA was not too fussy
To do this Robert Maheu, a former FBI about using known gangland figures for its
agent, was employed. Through a long chain devious activities, the FBI objected strongly
ofcommand Maheu 's authorization can be and was furious that it could not arrest the
traced right back to Deputy Director of Plans Mafia men.
US Mafia boss Sam Richard Bissell. Maheu had been actively
National Guardsmen recruited for the job. promises designed to cut down on US
sup-
Many of those behind the Guatemalan coup port for the Cuban the amount of air
exiles,
were again involved, including David cover was reduced and the landings were
Phillips,the radio propaganda expert, who shifted from a more favourable site to the
set up a broadcasting station on Swan Bay of Pigs, where it was felt the landing
Island, off Honduras. Codenamed JM/ force could get ashore with a minimum of
WAVE, the whole operation was controlled naval and air force back-up.
and planned from the campus of the Escorted by US naval vessels, the 1300-
University of Miami. Print shops, gun shops, strong invasion force crossed to Cuba and
coffee shops and other cover establish- landed on 17 April 1961. Air attacks by the
ments were founded in Florida to give the
CIA a screen behind which it could operate.
Obviously, though, such a massive opera-
tion could not take place without attracting
left: Richard Helms, a
public notice; Castro himself talked about
future director of the CIA,
the American plans to overthrow him. distanced himself from the
As the date for the invasion approached, Agency's plans for an
uncertainty about the CIA plans grew. invasion of Cuba, which
Richard Bissel, Deputy Director of Plans, ended in the Bay of Pigs
had responsibility for it, but his second-in- fiasco of April 1961.
own intelligence reports showed that the Cuban exile invasion force
at the Bay of Pigs is
popular uprising that was supposed to greet
interrogated by Castro's
the exile landings was very unlikely to
soldiers. About 1180 of
occur. The US Joint Chiefs of Staff were
the invaders were taken
unimpressed by the CIA's planning, and prisoner, the other 120
Kennedy was extremely nervous about any losingtheir lives in the
direct US involvement. In a series of com- fighting.
65
KGB/CIA
six B-26s now assigned to the operation contributed as much as the CIA to the Bay
were inadequate, however, and the ex- of Pigs debacle, a shake-up of the Agency
pected support from opponents of the followed. Dulles was made the scapegoat:
regime organized by agents inside Cuba in November 1961 he was replaced as head
never materialized. Hopelessly exposed to of the Agency by a Kennedy appointee,
counterattacks by the Cuban air force and John A McCone. But there was no question
tanks, the whole of the invasion force was of running down the CIA. It was at this
either killed or taken prisoner, and Castro's stage that the Agency moved to its present
regime rose to new heights of popularity. headquarters in Langley, Virginia. Set in
Although a wavering political leadership rolling woodland the headquarters is vir-
tually invisible to the peering eyes of
strangers; it was funded by S46 million from
Congress and over its main entrance doors
has enscribed: 'And ye shall know the truth
and the truth shall make you free.'
The Bay of Pigs Affair was not the final
note in this extraordinarily controversial
tune. The Soviets decided that Cuba's
proximity to the United States could provide
right: John A McCone, them with a very useful missile base, so in
who replaced Allen Dulles 1962 scores of Soviet technicians moved to
as head of the CIA after Cuba. At first they started to ship in SA-2
the Bay of Pigs episode. anti-aircraft missiles and other SA-2 short-
The plots to assassinate range defensive missiles. These the United
Castro continued under States discovered through CIA-organized
McCone.
U2 spying missions over Cuba. But further
flights over Cuba revealed that mobile
below: The CIA
medium-range were
ballistic missile sites
headquarters at Langley,
Virginia, a large and
also being constructed. These could be
expensive complex of used for offensive operations against the US
66
CIA INTERVENTION
House, the National Security Council and the missiles under UN supervision m
return above: Much-loved but ill-
the CIA, the President announced on for two promises: the first was that the fated President John F
American television that due to the dis- United States would lift the blockade and Kennedy. He emerged as
covery of the missiles the United States was the second was that the United States the hero of the Cuban
to impose a blockade around Cuba. Ken- would never invade Cuba. Kennedy ac- missile crisis in 1962 but
nedy added that the blockade would be the cepted these proposals and the Soviets was assassinated the
first step and that if Cuba did not dismantle following year.
eventually started to dismantle the missiles.
the missiles direct military action might It is perhaps interesting that this coup on
have to be considered. Tension between the behalf of the United States had taken place
two superpowers was high, and the world through overt diplomatic channels, apart
believed that a major war was liable to break from the initial CIA detection of the missile
out at any time. On 26 October Khrushchev sites. This contrasts starkly with the total
signalled that he was prepared to dismantle failure of all forms of covert action.
67
EUROPEAN
ACTIVITIES
The CIA and the KGB may dominate the listening posts the United States has used
world of espionage but that does not mean its space program for 'piggy-backing'
to say that other countries have not retained numerous spy satellites into space. These
their own networks, though increasingly in satellites are estimated to be so strong that
terms of manpower and finance these other they can pick up conversations between
agencies are having to rely on the might and Soviet officials using their car-telephones.
power of the two world superpowers. The GCHQ Hong Kong base was respon-
One of the areas where this mutual de- sible for providing the US with valuable
pendency is highlighted is the so-called information during the Vietnam War.
'special relationship' between the United GCHQ also operates in a domestic capa-
States and Britain, which among other city carrying out telephone tapping and
things allows shared global eavesdropping computer encryption on behalf of the British
facilities at the Government Communica- internal security service, MI5. It was a team
tions Headquarters (GCHQ) based in Chel- of scientists at the Joint Technical Lan-
tenham, England. In 1947 a secret treaty guage Services (JTLS) unit from GCHQ who
known as UKUSA was signed to link the US devised the 'key word' method of telephone
National Security Agency (NSA) with tapping, a process whereby if a sensitive
GCHQ. This agreement allows the two to word is used over a telephone line which is
have access to intercept messages and monitored, then that conversation will be
communications from all over the world. tapped. In Britain the mam domestic tap-
Similar treaties exist between Australia, ping center is based at Chantrey House in
Canada, New Zealand and all Nato Victoria, London. It is also believed that a far
countries. As well as having earth-based larger capacity exists for the tapping of
68
EUROPEAN ACTIVITIES
to conversations across
Europe, even picking up
the gossip of Moscow taxi
drivers.
international lines at a City address, also in charged with espionage. Prime had worked
London. The NSA has a UK base in Men with at GCHQ and it is believed that he had been
Hill, Some experts believe that
Yorkshire. passing secrets to the Soviets since 1968.
Menwith the biggest tapping facility
Hill is Prime was caught by a sheer fluke, not
in the world, far larger than anything the through any sophisticated detection by
KGB can muster. Menwith Hill is also British security agencies. Prime had left
connected to Britain's own telecommuni- GCHQ in 1977 and since that time had had
cations lines; m the late 1970s an American only two contacts with his' Soviet pay-
NSA analyst confirmed that Menwith Hill masters, one in 1980 in Vienna and the other
has the 'authority for tapping all telephone in 1981 in Berlin. His unmasking came
lines to Europe.' about when he was arrested by local police
Britain's image was tarnished in 1982 on charges of pederasty. Prime's wife
when a KGB spy, Geoffrey Prime, was Rhona, who had only recently found out
69
KGB/CIA
Donald Maclean (above) about Prime's sexual activities, decided to being the first KGB
spy to have been un-
and Guy Burgess (above inform the police about his previous secret masked Nuclear scientists Alan
in Britain.
right) created a sensation life. The Prime affair severely strained re- Nunn May and Klaus Fuchs were arrested
in May 1951 when they lations between Britain and the United for passing atomic secrets to the Soviets in
defected to the Soviet 1946 and 1950 respectively. But the revela-
States: the Americans referred to Chelten-
Union. American sources
ham as being 'as leaky as an old sow'. It is tion of their deeds was as nothing compared
believe that, although the
difficult to assess what damage Prime with the Burgess and Maclean affair that
pair were tipped off by
actually caused, given that his trial was held broke in 1951, almost totally destroying
Philby, they would still
have been caught if the 'in camera,' but expert observers believe he American confidence in the British security
British secret services had revealed secrets related to a project dubbed services. The defection of the two men to
been prepared to work at 'Byeman,' a new surveillance system con- Moscow caused a sensation. But the true
the weekend; instead of sisting of powerful satellites which could scale of the penetration of MI6 was not
pulling them in on a Friday pick up all the details the West could want publicly known for many years.
evening, MI5 decided to about the activities of the Soviet Union. A Motivated by a belief in communism
leave it until the following further project which Prime possibly re- widespread amongst the British intelli-
Monday, by which time
vealed was the top secret Argus satellite, gentsia of the 1930s, a group of young men
they had disappeared to
launched in June 1975. Argus could detect at Cambndge University had become in-
the Continent.
voice transmissions with such clarity that volved with the Soviet spy service. As well
conversations between Warsaw Pact tank as Donald Maclean and Guy Burgess, there
commanders could be picked up. Prime's was Kim Philby and the slightly older
information gave the KGB vital knowledge Anthony Blunt, who acted as a talent
about NSA/GCHQ computers and their spotter for the Soviets. During World War II
awesome capacity; it also allowed the all of them achieved positions in the British
Soviets to gain a complete picture of the secret or diplomatic services, Blunt with
Allied spy satellite program. It is no MI5, Philby in MI6 and the others in related
wonder that the NSA was furious with operations. Blunt left the spy world in 1945,
Britain once the enormity of Prime's crime having passed a considerable amount of
had been revealed. information to the Soviet Union during the
Of course, Geoffrey Prime was far from war years. Burgess, a chronic drunk and
70
EUROPEAN ACTIVITIES
flagrant homosexual, never achieved a set in motion, Burgess insisted on going Anthony Blunt (above left)
position of any trust. But Maclean and along with him. The pair left ostensibly for a was the last of the four
Philby progressed well in their chosen short holiday on the Continent and only Cambridge spies to be
profession. Maclean became First Secretary resurfaced in Moscow. exposed. His close
relationship with the
at the British Embassy in Washington and The finger now pointed at Philby,
Queen made his treachery
was appointed as Britain's representative especially as Burgess had been staying with
especially shocking to the
to the Combined Policy Committee for Joint him in the United States just before the British establishment.
Atomic Development. He soon had the run defection. The Americans refused to work 'Kim' Philby (above) also
of the US Atomic Energy Commission build- with Philby any longer, but MI6 found it disarmed suspicion
ing. Meanwhile Philby, a highly intelligent hard to believe in his guilt. He stood up well because of his upper-class
man (and the only one of the Cambridge under interrogation, showing all his background, and through
group not a homosexual) had risen to the strength of character and intelligence. his diligence and efficiency
top of MI6's counter-espionage section and However, Philby was eased out of MI6 by as a member of MI6.
been appointed to liaise with the CIA in degrees, and by 1963 when he finally de-
Washington. We have already seen the fected to Moscow, he was only loosely
effect Philby 's- betrayal had on joint CIA/ associated with the service in a 'freelance'
MI6 operations in Eastern Europe (see capacity. Philby 's career did not end with
chapter 2). his defection; he reportedly became an im-
The CIA's James Angleton was sus- portant advisor to Yuri Andropov, head of
picious of both Philby and Maclean. The the KGB and later leader of the Soviet Union.
Americans revealed their suspicions about Another MI6 double agent who did im-
Maclean to the British and he was with- mense damage at a lower level in the ser-
drawn to London. By May 1951 the net was
, vice was George Blake. Before his arrest in
closing around Maclean, but Philby was 1961, Blake had spied for the KGB for 10
well placed to save him. Through Burgess years, apparently havingbeen converted to
and Blunt - drawn out of his retirement from communism during a spell in a North
spying - Maclean was tipped off that he was Korean prisoner-of-war camp in 1951.
about to be pulled in for interrogation. As Sentenced to 42 years in prison, Blake made
the plan for Maclean's disappearance was a spectacular escape from Wormwood
71
KGB/CIA
M» no HKA •--
*iin( flJI»**MHCKPlPl. aaa I >1APM roaa-tio* paittUa. ira ataaaaaaat OXaayo ai '.'Uaoa MM R In*.,
m k«,
— Kaaaai aic oopaaoaa, toaaoaaa Raja, -- *1a] 6, a'o )'0 Jaffa*? -
^^^^^^ lal SOT IK'UI BMM twptll CtCTk film aTafaaca. Ulal «>a«oa>a 1*17 ro- rwaaaaB acaa r-paiaaa, oTIB-uaarh aaraa CaWjBT-Mqpi— Xe»»v P c'i
Rfy» apart. '' ta, tart* C »}j«jai»o«". ajioroayaanaCJ] aoR taUarpaiaoR a, a-3, BB.taaio, TO*r
J* ca«a c Kaaacaa a>«aba. C - o»
ttaaaa
i*>taaara aot-j aaatiMtaai , ao tptja. Maun, oi/aia/a apaaana-aaiBK a urn
at nokti Hcnaaaa, owaa • crpAaa aaai- C *nm waoMtaOM »tM
eaal rm- aeaoare ar'oooruaao euraei ao
, a .aoaa< a «<*• BAtalfi »o- •
aeMtaa, ae Siaatrr notepoaaoR. Saaa-
Syaia/aaM ci^od paiScma toao aocnaoro acaoaraa. A»" aaaa*,
paaaajtaaaa, jro 6wa ymnaoca'tr npla-
• tauteR o6aa»aaaa. Bapaap aa »TO*
— My, mbc cyRart off 3tom Tpyajta, ajo
ud o'rt-av
*>-
aaaaaai aovaii N« an
rcnaor. aoaAa-oa CToa. floa. crtta «T
a ot'tav-
araaxtoro Of*vra. R iraauatJ yaaraaa) apa- acta) aoaaaa topoaao, tora ace fwao CO-
aaraAaoi ai.'kro. Maioaaa aj iajal Haao- ctoaao ai poaiaaoe Aaaira-
m ca ^u iia u puifid a >ro»y >'ct, ca if ii oaa a >rj neooacryv aaap- in tana anacaat, taaJUaart, croa m M aceaa aa boocto. R tOAajl ao OCTpaa) ao- .
--
y 0« v. tv
a noowy, a arsaoajy aaraar ncaanojna. raoy. — waw aj il Rfpeao iaaauo.1 roro, aaaa 6aia. B aySaarajaart ataratJIa- akt, aaajxaa actpeaa to ctaiaaua ai iara-
-
»,-r a att rfjtaa rojcaa c !;•- a atrauvaapoaaaan aoaa*i aacTaaaxaaaa
- po* AocaauntA aa apaceae lim, orjae-i- araraol ara-a. KpoTi'alaci ero tn itaaKaau. aaaita atoary ae yaaiMarrra.
•^j'ii VrrCM C f>-
• 6>aaMpa, iar>ooo- ffottaaoB ryjacaa, Befptaae aaMaaaatarr ce- — Totapaq Kraa, taauiaat nonet yr- — Ho y« ta?fcrevTtR»ao -.pottiwi
i-_»
' waacaa MO- raftai aar, xa>l i;a» .»i aapaltaoea, trpajuer. a>R aai 6aaia tprtaaaa ao taai- Ml ->»-»» P«%fVI*a-«nO« kVf»J-»«*»l|t«>. —
•
B roaoac aiuax to*i»xoe, aaeoR a> boctb tauoa a ffoattacaoA -<. — >« >Jp»»CTbTT«.»% r>.»»>
- *>li»m«i- cjayaafia a ato. actoRR at aaaaai raocoff- ^••••tKTfp 1*-U- >< P« j2M**+mme
-
Upaa) a>aj6a aaaao yatMaaeaf H il l IB M aotira a paaaiaaaaoo pocTt, aw aa>
i
72
EUROPEAN ACTIVITIES
with the greatest of ease. There they were left: George Blake.
joined by another Soviet agent, Konon Although not as high level
Trofimovich Molody, better known as a double agent as Philby,
Gordon Lonsdale, who had also worked for Blake passed secrets to
Abel. Lonsdale and the Krogers ran a spy the Soviets for almost a
ring from 1956 until 1961, particularly in decade before his arrest in
tected Philby, Blunt (who was never prose- Lona Cohen, better known
under their alias as Peter
cuted although his treachery was known),
and Helen Kroger, ran the
and Lonsdale, among others. However, the
'Portland Spy Ring.' Their
allegations against Hollis may have
cover was an innocent-
emanated from MI6, an example of the end- seeming antiquarian
less infighting between the two services. By bookshop.
73
KGB/CIA
74
EUROPEAN ACTIVITIES
75
THE BERLIN WALL
.
~" C* '•?!• .*%!£
An example of a successful operation outside, the missile was loaded into a car
brought about by one of the smaller intelli- and taken to an apartment 200 miles away
gence agencies is offered by the Polish on the other side of West Germany. It was
intelligence agency, the UB, between 1951 then dismantled and packed into crates,
and 1967. In 1951 a concentration camp labelled 'business samples,' and the crates
survivor by the name of Linowsky, now were driven to Dusseldorf airport from
living in West Germany, was recruited by where they were flown to Moscow via
the UB while visiting relatives in Poland. He Copenhagen. Ramminger boarded the
in turn recruited two West Germans, Man- same plane but to his horror, upon dis-
fred Ramminger and Wolf Knoppe, the latter embarkation in Moscow, he discovered that
a pilot at the West German airbase of Zell. the precious cargo had not arrived. A
Aided by Knoppe, Linowsky was able to
penetrate the airbase and steal a Litton LM-
II navigation box. Linowsky' s next instruc-
right: Hans Clemens, one tions were to steal a Phantom aircraft, but
of the ex-SS men recruited
possibly realizing the difficulty of such an
by West German
exploit, he decided instead to steal a Side-
intelligence who also guided
winder AIM-9E air-to-air missile.
spied for the Russians.
Knoppe helped out again by giving Linow-
below: Manfred sky his base security pass and also identi-
Ramminger, who helped fied the Sidewinder storage shed. The two
steal a Sidewinder missile men then successfully stole the missile and
from West Germany. walked out of the base carrying it. Once
78
EUROPEAN ACTIVITIES
79
KGB/CIA
In 1963 there was a public scandal when claimed that Hsu had fallen out of a window
threeWest German agents, Hans Clemens, and allowed him to be taken to a nearby
Erwin Tiebel and Heinz Felfe, were con- hospital for treatment for a fractured skull,
victed of spying for the Soviet Union. All of spinal injuries and fractured ribs. Two
them had been members of the Swiss de- members of the legation accompanied Hsu
partment of the Nazi Reich Security Service to the hospital where, as soon as he was
during the war and had been recruited by unattended on a trolley, he was snatched
Gehlen. Felfe, as head of BND counter- back. The Dutch foreign ministry was
espionage, is thought to have done untold furious and demanded that Hsu be returned
damage. Between them, the three men had to hospital for treatment. Nothing happened
delivered 15,000 photographs of West and several days later the Chinese an-
German intelligence files and spools of tape nounced that Hsu had died from his injuries.
recordings to Soviet agents in East Berlin. It The Dutch demanded an autopsy on Hsu's
was not until this trial that the West German body, where it was revealed that the un-
and American publics became aware that fortunate man had met an exceedingly
Gehlen had such a murky past and they had violent death. The Dutch declared the
some difficulty understanding how this man Chinese charge d'affaires persona non grata
had gained such a high position and been and threatened to arrest anyone who left the
allowed to hire ex-Nazis, including former legation. Peking announced its intention to
SS men, with which to staff his intelligence retaliate in exactly the same way.
organization. Eventually the two sides agreed to differ
The East German equivalent to the BND, and the Dutch charge d'affaires was
the Hauptverwaltung Aufklarung (HVA), allowed to return home, as were the
achieved its greatest success when one of Chinese.
its agents, Gunther Guillaume, was estab- In 1969 yet another bizarre incident con-
lished as a confidential aide in the office of cerning the Chinese and the Hague
West German Chancellor Willy Brandt. The occurred. On 24 January a pajama-clad
arrest of Guillaume in April 1974 led to Chinese walked into the Hague police
station and demanded political asylum. The
man was Liao Ho-shu, the Chinese charge
d'affairesand the man who had been res-
ponsible for Hsu's hospital abduction. Liao
was flown to the United States where the
reasons for Hsu's mysterious death were
revealed. Hsu had in fact been working for
the CIA. His comrades not in fact welders
but members of the Chinese intelligence
organization, had discovered his betrayal
and had murdered him. The murder had
taken place when Hsu was on his way to
meet his CIA contact. The 'delegates' had
signalled to a waiting car to chase Hsu
which it did at very high speed, knocking
him down and killing him. Liao had prob-
ably defected in response to investigations
from Peking realizing that his return home
could only lead to imprisonment or death.
The the spy game in Europe
final act of
in the 1960s came 1969 when Josef Frolik
in
above: Liao Ho-shu, a Brandt's resignation and a political crisis in defected from the Czech secret service.
Chinese diplomat in the West Germany. It was the outstanding When he first arrived in the West he was
Netherlands, seeks example of the security problems that both hailed as a 'big catch,' a very important spy
asylum in the West. Liao
Germanys have to endure. with access to a mass of secret information.
revealed details of the
workings of the Chinese
As well as the activities of the European On closer examination, however, it was
agencies, in the 1960s China was also in- found that a lot of the information that he
secret service in Europe,
including a 1966 murder
volved in spy incidents in Europe. In 1966 a brought with him just did not make sense. A
in The Hague. Chinese man was found on the streets of the information related to the activities
lot of his
Hague outside the Chinese legation. The of the BritishLabour Party and the alleged
man, who was alive but in great pain, was penetration of communists into British trade
Hsu Tsu-tsai, allegedly a member of a visit- unions. He named Will Owen, a Labour MP,
ing delegation of the International Institute as having been involved with the Czech
of Welding. The members of the legation Secret Service. Owen was tried in 1970 and
80
EUROPEAN ACTIVITIES
81
STRUGGLE FOR
THE
THIRD WORLD
One of the CIA's first forays into Africa was him the tools to do the job. On 26 August Enemies in the Congo:
the Agency's audacious attempt to assas- about 100 Soviet-bloc technicians and 10 Moise Tshombe (above
sinate Patrice Lumumba, prime minister of 11-18 Soviet transport planes arrived in the right), leader of the
82
STRUGGLE FOR THE THIRD WORLD
83
KGB/CIA
above: The breakdown of ing Dulles sent a cable to the Congolese tor of Planning, Richard Bissell. Gottlieb
order in the Congo in the capital, Leopold ville, giving Devlin 'wide was consigned to develop a poison which
early 1960s led to a authority for even more aggressive action if could take on the appearances of an African
nightmare of violence, it can remain covert.' A sum of SI 00, 000 disease. Having developed a suitable sub-
with massacre and
was authorized as expenditure for the pro- stance Gottlieb was dispatched to Leopold-
counter-massacre on all
gram. ville and instructed to provide scientific
sides. Here 10 rebel
Devlin took Dulles' advice at its face value back-up for Devlin. Just in case the poison
soldiers, responsible for
the public slaughter of two
and went ahead to cultivate anti-Lumumba plan did not work, the Agency trained two
village women, are factions within the Congo. On 5 September professional hit men, known as WI/ROGUE
themselves beaten to 1960 Kasavubu sacked Lumumba from and QJ/WIN, and prepared to send them out
death. government, after which army leader to the Congo as well.
Colonel Joseph Mobutu came to power. The Soon Gottlieb and Devlin were having all
CIA approved of Mobutu and was anxious kinds of bizarre discussions as to how to get
that he should remain in power, so it did not Lumumba and the poison together.
slacken in its efforts to dispose totally of Throughout these preliminary steps both
Lumumba. Gottlieb and Devlin believed that they were
The UN was keen to reopen the Congo- acting with the express consent of the
lese parliament after the accession of President. In a later post-mortem into the
Mobutu but the CIA feared that this parlia- affair Devlin confirmed this supposition. As
ment would probably bring Lumumba back with previous planned poison plots, how-
to power. There were also worries that the ver, this one failed. The main problem was
Soviet Union might try forcibly to oust that they had no means to ensure that
Mobutu and replace him with Lumumba. Lumumba actually took the poison. Gottlieb
Consequently the Agency started to look at was also starting to worry whether or not his
different ways m which Lumumba might be poisons had retained their strength, having
assassinated; the major area which they been unrefrigerated since his arrival in
examined was the one where to date they Zaire. Realizing that the plan was never
had been least successful, that of poison. going to work, Gottlieb returned to the
Sidney Gottlieb was approached, as he had United States on 5 October.
the right qualifications, holding a PhD in The ever-ingenious Devlin, undeterred by
bio-organic chemistry, and was also special the failure of the poison plot, decided that
assistant for scientific matters to the Direc- possibly a commando raid could be launch-
84
STRUGGLE FOR THE THIRD WORLD
ed against Lumumba's house. He also re- September. Once m the Congo O'Donnell
quested that a light hunting rifle be sent out requested that QJ/WIN be sent over to
to the Congo. The man chosen by the CIA to assist him. Lumumba, meanwhile, had
be at the trigger end of that hunting rifle was escaped from his UN custody and made his
He insisted that he did not
Justin O'Donnell. way toward his political stronghold of
wish to become any part of the CIA's plot to Stanleyville; once there Lumumba hoped to
assassinate Lumumba, but he did agree to establish a base and mount a counter-coup
help try to draw Lumumba from the UN against Mobutu.
protective custody under which he had The Mobutu government liaised with the
been held since Mobutu's accession in CIA in blocking roads and alerting troops in
85
KGB/CIA
86
STRUGGLE FOR THE THIRD WORLD
87
KGB/CIA
STRUGGLE FOR THE THIRD WORLD
who, in 1969, was John Vorster. General (NSA) were drafted to Silvermme, a South left: A South African
Hendrik van den Bergh was chosen to head African intelligence installation near Cape Daphne-class submarine
the new service. Both Vorster and Van den Town, and from this post the agents were at the top secret
Bergh had been interned by the government able to transmit reports of Soviet activity to Simonstown naval base.
during World War II because of their pro- the NSA's US headquarters at Fort Meade; Despite an official world
liaison with BOSS is the strategically im- paper, The Citizen, to act as an English- South African townships
portant position occupied by South Africa. language propaganda broadsheet. The has become a regular
feature of life under
It is perfectly situated to monitor Soviet and organization also spread its activities over-
apartheid. The main black
Cuban Angola and Mozambique,
activity in seas, first by trying to buy newspapers
of all
opposition group, the
as well as Soviet shipping and submarine in the United States. To this end, $10 million
ANC, is banned as a
activity around the Cape of Good Hope. At was given to Michigan newspaper pub- terrorist organization and
one stage during this 'special relationship' lisher John McGoff McGoff initially tried to
.
89
KGB/CIA
90
STRUGGLE FOR THE THIRD WORLD
The United States castigated the Portu- mid- Atlantic, and after pressure from the The refusal of Portuguese
guese for their behavior and at the UN called Portuguese overt diplomatic support for ruler Antonio Salazar
for a peaceful transition to power for the Roberto ceased. By the end of the 1960s, the (above left) to grant
independence to Angola
black nationalists. The CIA also started to United States was supplying the Portuguese in
important military facilities on the Azores in ing a guerrilla campaign against the Portu- fighter).
91
right: Troops take up
position in the streets of
Lisbon during the coup of
25 April 1974 which
brought a sharp leftward
shift in the Portuguese
government. The officers
iritm
guese in Angola, or rather it would have native group, the National Union for the
been able to, had Roberto been interested in Total Independence of Angola (UNIT A),
fighting. In fact, he showed little inclination which built up a following in the south of
to take on the colonialists. Angola. A third independence movement,
Recognized by the Organization of the Popular Movement for the Liberation of
African Unity (OAU) in 1964 as the true Angola (MPLA), had existed since 1956 and
government of Angola, GRAE's fortunes was strongest in the center and east of the
declined through the rest of the decade. In country, including the capital. During the
1966 Jonas Savimbi, a former member of 1960s the MPLA won the support of the
Roberto's movement, set up his own alter- Soviet Union and of many African states,
92
including Zambia where it had its military movements, and they soon established
base. By 1969 the Portuguese saw the links with UNITA which promised to
MPLA as by far the most serious threat to 'neutralize' the Soviet-backed MPLA.
their colony, and by 1971 the OAU had In 1974, the situation was transformed by
withdrawn its recognition of Roberto's events in Portugal itself, where a group of
government-in-exile. His force still existed, left-wing army officers mastermined a coup
however, renamed the Front for the Libera- that overthrew Salazar's successor, Mar-
tion of Angola (FNLA). Concern about the cello Caetano.One of the officers' key ob-
MPLA led the Portuguese to seek to make jectives was to end Portugal's colonial wars,
contact with the other two liberation and it was now clearly only a matter of time
93
KGB/CIA
before Angola became independent. The tination, but ended up in the pockets of
Portuguese forces virtually stopped fighting Zaire's ruling elite. Support for UNIT A in
and the race for power between the MPLA, the south of Angola was largely left to the
UNIT A and FNLA began. Worried about the South Africans, with CIA encouragement.
possibility of an MPLA victory, the adminis- In the run up to independence, set for 11
tration of President Gerald Ford authorized November 1975, a transitional coalition
the CIA to spend $32 million in support of government was established in Luanda
the two other groups. Secretary of State with the three rival groups participating,
Henry Kissinger insisted that absolute but the MPLA, strongest in the capital,
secrecy must be maintained, since there quickly emerged as the dominant partner
were legal obstacles to providing military and fighting broke out, soon escalating into
assistance to insurgents, and overt aid full-scale civil war. Roberto's CIA-equipped
could lead to 'unmanageable and overt force, accompanied by elements of the
confrontation with the Soviet Union.' Zairean army, invaded Angola from the
Naturally, as the CIA already had a north, while UNITA and South African
substantial presence in Zaire (as the Congo troops advanced from the south. The MPLA
was now called) alongside their protege was only saved by the direct intervention of
Mobutu, most of the US aid went to a Cuban force and a massive injection of
Roberto's FNLA. Almost half the total sum equipment from the Soviet Union.
was reportedly spent on providing arms and Back in the United States Congress was
equipment. Given the extreme corruption of becoming increasingly wary of the amount
Mobutu's regime, it is not surprising that ofmoney being pumped in to Angola, so the
much of the money never reached its des- administration was forced to turn to Europe
94
STRUGGLE FOR THE THIRD WORLD
conditions.
95
KGB/CIA
96
'
97
WAR IN ANGOLA
Between 1961 and 1974, three rival liberation
movements, the MPLA, the FNLA and UNITA, fought a
guerrilla war against the Portuguese colonial
authorities in Angola. After a left-wing military coup in
Portugal in April 1974, the new administration sought
to hand over power, but there was no possible
agreement between the Marxist MPLA and its
opponents. The CIA poured money and arms into
Zaire, where the FNLA was based, while South Africa
backed UNITA, with the approval of the United States.
The Soviet Union rushed arms to the MPLA in the
Angolan capital, Luanda, and Cuban troops moved in
to operate the Soviet weapons. Both the FNLA and
the UNITA/South African forces were defeated by the
Cubans and the MPLA in late 1975, and the MPLA
established itself as the government of Angola,
although the CIA and the South Africans continued to
support UNITA in a guerrilla war against the new
>
. 3
* i* -vtf'
"^"rr
i
.
%A
-
RIGHT AND BELOW RIGHT:
The MPLA was armed
from Soviet stocks and
their equipment ranged
from AK assault rifles
through grenades of
various types to
sophisticated anti-aircraft
weapons.
United States activities in the Middle East Nasser who turned to the Soviets to fund the The CIA failed to
also antagonized many observers. The dam and subsequently nationalized the understand the radical
Suez Canal, throwing the Middle East into Egyptian leader Gamal
CIA's involvement in the region has been
Abdul Nasser (right),
marked by
singularly unsuccessful, intelli- crisis. The CIA had completely failed to
advocating a tough line to
gence misjudgments and a repeated predict Nasser's response to America's
bring him to heel as an ally
failure to influence events in the desired tough line, which had radically increased
of the United States.
direction. In 1953, for example, the CIA Soviet power and influence not only in Instead, when American
backed the Arab nationalist Gamal Abdul Egypt, but throughout the Middle East. finance for Nasser's
Nasser when he seized power from the The initial US support for Nasser had been Aswan Dam project was
British -backed King Faroukh. It seemed the opposed by the most skillful spy agency in withdrawn, he nationalized
nght move in the game whose object was to the region, Israel's Mossad. The Arab the Suez Canal (above) to
replace Britain as the dominant Western nationalists were dedicated enemies of raise the funds and called
power while at the same time
in the region, Israel, and in 1954 Mossad conceived a in the Soviets to help.
keeping out Soviet influence. But subse- plan, known as Operation Suzanne, to ruin
quently the situation was badly mis- US-Egyptian relations. Agents were sent
handled. In 1955 Nasser started to receive into Egypt to carry out attacks on American
aid from the Soviet Union, causing both property, which could then be blamed on
Foster Dulles and Kermit Roosevelt to fly to communists and discredit the Nasser
Cairo and try to court the Egyptian leader. regime. The scheme failed hopelessly and
Their mission failed and in response to the Israeli spy network in Egypt was be-
Nasser's refusal to toe the American line, trayed to its enemies. But as we have seen,
the United States pulled out of funding the events did Mossad 's work for it
vital Aswan Dam project. This infuriated The United States has subsequently
100
STRUGGLE FOR THE THIRD WORLD
101
KGB/CIA
Israeli Mossad agents become Israel's closest ally, and the CIA
were experts in covert has maintained close contact with Mossad,
operations against their which has proved itself one of the world's
Arab nationalist enemies. leaders in undercover operations. In 1960,
Woltgang Lotz (right),
for example, Mossad was tipped off that an
known as 'the champagne
Egyptian general was actively recruiting
spy,' provided extensive
West German scientists to work on an
intelligence on Egyptian
missile development. But
undercover Egyptian missile project. The
it was dangerous work: in
general was the former head of the Egyptian
the photo above, a Air Force intelligence bureau, Mahmoud
Mossad agent is being led Khalil, a close friend of Nasser. Mossad
out by Jordanian officials learned that Khalil had succeeded in recruit-
to be hanged. ing 26 scientists, including Dr Eugen Sanger
of the Institute of Research on Jet Propul-
sion in Stuttgart. A series of undercover
companies was also set up by the Egyptians
in order to purchase material and other
essential products for the proposed missile
factory. Included in this list of bogus com-
panies was IntraHandel, based in Munich
and Stuttgart.
Later in that year a Mossad agent, Wolf-
gang Lotz, took what amounted to a 'Grand
102
STRUGGLE FOR THE THIRD WORLD
January 1979.
103
KGB/CIA
change in Iran.
105
right: The father of It was with growing unease that the United
modern Vietnam, Ho Chi States watched the rise and spread of com-
Minh, photographed munism Asia in the postwar years,
in east
during the war against the
with Mao Tse-tung's victory in China in
French colonial power that
1949 and the North Korean invasion of South
ended in 1954. Even his
Korea the following year. In 1953, the CIA
enemies admitted that Ho
tried to organize resistance inside China
was the most popular
political figure in Vietnam. against the communist government, but
two agents, John Downey and Richard
Fecteau, were arrested by the Chinese
authorities and the operation was a failure.
Partly as a result of this setback, the
Agency then turned its attention to French
107
above: French agree that had elections been held as of the mounted a classic 'dirty tricks' campaign in
paratroopers jump into time of the fighting, possibly 80 percent of the North to spread panic among the
Dien BienPhu, deep in the population would have voted for Ho Chi minority Catholic part of the population.
northern Vietnam.
Mmh.' The Americans were determined to Scare stories were published, false horo-
Surrounded by Viet Mmh prevent a communist victory, however, and scopes circulated and rumors started, to
forces, the French were
prepared to take over responsibility for such effect that some 800,000 people
worn down and finally
resistance to Ho Chi Minh after the inevit- emigrated to the South.
completely overrun in May
1954. The defeat at Dien
able French collapse. Eisenhower and At the same time, in the South Lansdale
BienPhu sealed the Secretary of State Dulles chose Colonel helped Diem build up his personal power.
collapse of French power Edward Lansdale, a former OSS man, to By October 1955 Diem had routed his oppo-
in Indochina. select a leader for the Vietnamese and to nents and was able to have himself elected
guarantee that leader whatever US support president in place of the discredited
would be needed to keep him in power. Emperor Dai. Not all Americans involved in
Lansdale concluded that the current prime the Vietnam situation approved of the
minister, Ngo Dinh Diem, had sufficient policy of support for Diem as sole ruler.
qualities to fulfill US wishes. In May 1954 the Former Chief of Staff General Lawton Col-
French were totally routed at the battle of lins, for example, favored the establish-
Dien Bien Phu and Indochina became in- ment of a coalition government. But once
dependent. Vietnam was, supposedly tem- Diem was in control, there was no one who
porarily, divided into two halves, the North could feasibly replace him. He set up a cor-
ruled by Ho Chi Mmh and the South by rupt and repressive regime, backed with US
Emperor Bao Dai and Prime Minister Diem. aid totalling over SI billion in 1955-60.
Immediately after independence, the CIA Diem's brother Ngo Dinh Nhu was also
108
'* -J
109
KGB/CIA
The US Administration started to doubt been directly involved in the coup. In 1971,
the wisdom of having supported the Diem when the Pentagon Papers were leaked to
dynasty, and the mounting conflict with the the press, it was clearly revealed that the
Buddhists brought matters to a head. In CIA had played a major part in the destabi-
1963 Diem's home was the focus of demon- lization of the Diem regime. In one of the
strationsby Buddhists angry at having their documents CIA headquarters orders the US
by Diem's regime.
rights constantly violated ambassador to Vietnam, Henry Cabot
Nhu's Special Forces opened fire on the Lodge, to 'preserve deniability in all con-
demonstrators and also attacked Buddhist tacts with plotters'. The documents also re-
pagodas and temples; Buddhist monks vealed that the CIA had worked very closely
burned themselves to death on the streets. with the Vietnamese generals who had car-
below: President Diem ried out the coup. After the Diem debacle
This was an embarrassing situation for the
(seated) accepts the
United States, given that most Vietnamese the United States and the CIA continued to
homage of his subjects in
realized that the CIA was responsible for pump more arms and men into Vietnam
a 1956 ceremony. Diem's
Catholicism was alien to
arming and supporting the Special Forces. by 1965, the situation had escalated
until,
the beliefs of most of the In November 1963 the Diem brothers from the political propping up of a weak
South Vietnamese were deposed and assassinated; conjecture anti-communist regime to a full-scale
population. was rife as to whether or not the CIA had devastating war.
110
INDOCHINA
left: A contingent of
South Vietnamese troops,
flown into a Viet Cong area
by US pilots, sets fire to a
building recently vacated
by theguerrillas. The
South Vietnamese Army
proved totally ineffectual
in these early combats.
Ill
KGB/CIA
Meanwhile, the CIA had also become Souvanna to return to power, but Phoumi
actively entangled in another part of Indo- clung to territory in the south of Laos
still
china, Laos. After the French withdrawal in and could boast the support of the Royal Lao
1954, control of the country had passed into Forces. Additional help for Phoumi came
the hands of a neutralist government under from his personal CIA aide Jack Hazey.
Prince Souvanna Phouma. But by 1958 the Up in the north of the country Kong Lae
communist Pathet Lao had made significant was active in persuading Souvanna Phouma
below: A Meo tribesman electoral gams and the CIA had decided to to form a coalition government; General
armed by the CIA. The use back right-wing elements against Sou- Phoumi and his vice-presidentwere also
of the various mountain vanna, whose policy was to include the invited- to join. The US ambassador, Win-
tribes of Indochina to
communists in government. In 1958 right- throp Brown, urged the United States to
combat communist
wing generals duly took power and the support the new government but the CIA
guerrillas was a great
Pathet Lao went into armed opposition. The decided to continue in its support of
success in the short term,
but it exposed the
CIA's favorite general was Phoumi Phoumi. This precipitated Phoumi to refuse
tribesmen to awful Nosavan, and he was in control in August to negotiate with Souvanna and also left
retribution asAmerican 1960 when a force of 300 men led by a Souvanna without an army. The govern-
power in the region 26-year-old army captain named Kong Lae ment was short of food and medical supplies
waned. carried out a dramatic coup. Lae invited as well as military equipment. To make
matters worse, the United States demanded
thatSouvanna abandon his neutralist stand
and oppose the Pathet Lao. Souvanna re-
fused to comply with these instructions.
After protracted pleading with the United
States for aid, Souvanna was forced to
appeal to the Soviet Union. The Soviets
were delighted with this request as it would
give them a foothold m southern Asia and
provide them with an opportunity to usurp
Chinese influence in the area. A Soviet airlift
from Hanoi was organized in 1961 - the
Russians had arrived.
This action by the Soviets produced an
immediate reaction from the US-backed
Phoumi who rapidly marched northward to
recapture the Laotian capital of Vientiane.
Both Souvanna and Kong Lae retreated from
the capital. Surprisingly Phoumi did not
chase the retreating Lae, so in 1961 Kong
Lae was still free and available to join up
with the Soviet-armed forces of the Pathet
Lao. The combined forces were joined by
North Vietnamese guerrillas who enabled
them to capture an airstrip on the Plain of
Jars. This airstrip was of vital importance to
Hanoi since it was only 50 miles away from
the North Vietnamese border.
Back in the United States a new President
had come to power: John F Kennedy was
inaugurated on 19 January 1961. One of the
new President's first acts was to ask his
aides todraw up a plan to 'save Laos.' The
aides devised a plan whereby Allied forces
would take over the defense of Vientiane
under the authority of the Southeast Asia
Treaty Organization. This policy, though,
was undermined by the President himself
who unilaterally ordered the Seventh Fleet
to station itself within striking distance of
Laos. This action was not guaranteed to
urge the Allied forces to support the United
States, and indeed Britain and France de-
cided that they did not want to give military
112
INDOCHINA
tE^S
V ' T
~K-
-W
&t£^2
r
•
T H A I L A
LAOS
KGB/CIA
Brown warned him that this action was advisors attached to Phoumi 's army. In
highly provocative and also that the Pathet March 1963, however, the Geneva Accords
Lao would be able to annihilate his forces broke down when North Vietnam refused to
with the greatest of ease. Brown was proved withdraw troops which it had supplied to
correct and the communists successfully support the Pathet Lao. A new offensive
routed Phouma's forces. commenced and the Plain of Jars was
This action eventually convinced Phoumi brought under communist control.
that he could not go it alone and it also As a result of the breakdown of the accord
contributed to Kennedy's decision to order a vicious series of war games started and
5000 US troops to take up positions on the the CIA rebuilt its control in Laos. At a cost
Thai/Laos border. Finally on 11 June the of S70 million the CIA embarked on a mas-
three sides in the Laos conflict agreed to sive program of support for local Meo
form a government and the decision was tribesmen under General Vang Pao to resist
ratified by the Geneva Accords, which were the Pathet Lao. In 1963 the Meo forces
signed on 23 July. That October the United expanded from a few small guerrilla bands to
States agreed to withdraw the 666 military a huge force of 30,000 men with battalion
114
INDOCHINA
size units and operations. The Meo were the Ho Chi MinhTrail. The great losers in
supplied with transport and arms through were eventually the Meo them-
this conflict
the CIA's proprietary airline, Air America. selves. By 1971 the tide of the war had
The Laos operations were largely con- turned and the CIA-backed tribesmen suf-
ducted through a subsidiary, Civil Air Tran- fered a series of defeats. Finally, in 1973,
sport (CAT). At its zenith CAT employed they were totally abandoned in the general
5000 personnel and controlled 165 aircraft. US withdrawal from Indochina. By the mid-
As well as playing a major part in CIA covert 1970s, the Meo population in Laos was
actions in Laos and other parts of southeast reckoned to have fallen from an original
Asia, Air America was also reputed to be quarter of a million to about 10,000.
involved with illegal narcotics trading By 1975 the major companies involved in
operations, although some of the airline's Air America had been sold off, some of them
activities were straightforward, such as the even being sold as private airlines to ex- CIA
running and administration of the mainte- men for their own personal use. In the early
nance base at Udorn, m Thailand, which 1960s Walter Lippmann of the Washington
would eventually assist in the US evacuation Post writing about the activities of the CIA
of Saigon. in Laos had said: 'I venture to argue that the
Another Air America company was Air reason we are on the defensive in so many
Asia Co, basedin Taiwan. Air Asia ran the places is that for some ten years we have
largest aircraft maintenance and repair used money and arms in a long, losing
facility in southeast Asia, employing at its attempt to stabilize native governments below: Young communist
peak 6000 workers. Air Asia not only ser- which, in the name of anti-communism, are guerrillas of the Pathet
viced aircraft for Air America but also for the opposed to all social change. This has been Lao advance through
US military. Pacific Engineering Co was also exactly what Mr Khruschev's dogma calls mountainous terrain. The
a part of Air America, providing supervising for - that communism should be the only CIA's Meo army was able
engineers for local work teams assigned to alternative to the status quo with its im- to stop the Pathet Lao
build airstrips for Vietnam as well as the memorial poverty and privilege.' In fact taking power in Laos and
covert war in Laos. many commentators agreed that the CIA protect US navigational
facilities directing
With this massive logistic back-up, the had too often played into the hands of the
bombing missions in the
CIA was able to use the Meo m a full-scale enemy they were so assiduously fighting, area, but thecommunists
war against the Pathet Lao and North Viet- and in the process giving the communists succeeded in defending
namese troops in Laos. The Meos also de- what they wanted on a plate, often in places the Ho Chi Minh Trail,
fended vital US Air Force navigational where they would not have envisaged that North Vietnam's supply
beacons on Laotian mountaintops that they could have met with any possible route through eastern
helped in the bombing campaign against success. Laos, from land attack.
115
KGB/CIA
above: Prince Norodom Cambodia, the other of the trio of Indo- lodged by these leaders as they drifted away
Sihanouk, leader of chinese states, is a case in point. As the from the United States. For example they
Cambodia, whose efforts Vietnam War grew in intensity, the United have all charged that the CIA conducted
to stay neutral during the hostile operations against their govern-
States became dissatisfied with the attitude
Vietnam War met with
of Cambodia's leader Prince Norodom ments during periods of ostensibly correct
disapproval from the
Sihanouk, who tried to maintain a policy of relations with the United States.'
United States. Sihanouk
neutrality although the North Vietnamese Sihanouk had good reason to be con-
was a man of many parts,
were using his territory as a safe refuge and cerned, for later m 1965 the CIA successfully
noted for his saxophone
playing and for his a supply route into South Vietnam. CIA organized a propaganda campaign to over-
ambitions as a filmmaker - involvement in Cambodia was a response to throw the Sukarno government in neigh-
he used thousands of his this situation. In 1965 the New York Times boring Indonesia while at the same time
people as extras in an commented that US activities m Vietnam offering military aid to anti-Sukarno rebels.
epic. and neighboring countries were causing
in Sukarno was later deposed and the new
great concern among leaders of those CIA-sponsored government organized a
countries: 'There is an array of southeast massacre of over 500,000 members of the
Asia leaders, once good friends of the Indonesian Communist Party to ensure that
United States, who are now bitter critics.' there could be no opposition to the new
Among these leaders the paper mentioned Suharto regime. Unknown to Sihanouk the
Prince Sihanouk of Cambodia. The paper CIA had alsobeen arming Cambodian
went on to add: 'There is a remarkable rebels, the Khmer Serai, with transmitters
similarity in the complaints that were in order to mount a campaign against him.
116
INDOCHINA
Cambodia rapidly
deteriorated, and the
notorious Pol Pot (right)
treatment or deliberate
extermination under the
Pol Pot regime.
117
KGB/CIA
INDOCHINA
Members of the Khmer Serai were later trate the Cambodian Army and provide
hired by the CIA for various covert missions military support for the coup. Thornton
against the government. maintains that Lon Nol was also asked to
In March 1970 the government of Prince assist ma Sihanouk assassination plan but
below: A grim meeting of
Sihanouk was at last overthrown by a group was unwilling for such a plan to be put into
the National Security
of anti-communist officers led by Premier action. Sihanouk was out of the country at
Council as the
Lon Nol. Lon Nol had allegedly been the time of the coup and thus managed to
communists overrun
approached by the United States and asked avoid being murdered. The coup led to an South Vietnam in April
ifhe would overthrow the neutral Sihanouk upsurge of warfare in Cambodia. Eventually 1975. Those present
regime. Sihanouk has always maintained the disintegration of the country brought a include William Colby (far
that this action was supported and funded defeat for Lon Nol m 1975 which ushered in left), by then director of
by the CIA and in 1973 made public his the horrendous dictatorship of the now the CIA, but previously the
claims in his book My War with the CIA. notonous Pol Pot regime. In 1977, former Agency's head of
According to US Navy intelligence specialist Secretary of State Henry Kissinger effec- operations in Vietnam.
Samuel Thornton, the CIA set up a covert tively admitted US involvement in the dis-
Despite repeated
operation called (somewhat unongmally) American assurances of
astrous overthrow of Sihanouk's govern-
Dirty Tricks which had the long-term role of continuing support for
ment when he said: 'The United States was
South Vietnam, they did
Khmer Kampuchean Krom
recruiting rebel not involved m Sihanouk's overthrow, at nothing to prevent the
mercenaries and instructing them to infil- least not at top level. country's collapse.
119
In the early days of
America's war in Vietnam,
great faith was put in the
effectiveness of
propaganda to sway the
population in favor of the
US-backed Saigon
government. The CIA
masterminded the mass
distribution of leaflets by
air. They were released
nt '
llWf 1 IF "'(ifHJflTfi
inn
But the most important field of conflict in tored bottle of apricot brandy to a plan for
Indochina was always Vietnam itself. The the abduction of the entire North Vietna-
below: A member of the CIA organized a whole variety of operations mese government. The introduction of the
US Special Forces training during the critical years of the war, starting US Army into Vietnam in 1965 inevitably
hill tribesmen in Vietnam. with covert raids into North Vietnam and overshadowed the importance of CIA
The between the
hostility
along the North Vietnamese coast m the operations, although there were over 1000
hill people and the ethnic
1961-64 period that played a major part m operatives in Saigon at the height of the
Vietnamese of all political
the escalation of the conflict. All efforts to war. CIA experts were constantly at odds
colors made them ready
organize networks inside North Vietnam with the military over the correct means of
to co-operate with the
eventually ended in failure, however, as did fighting. the war. The CIA was pessimistic,
Americans, but not with
the Saigon government extraordinary plans for coups against the and therefore accurate, in its assessment of
after the US troops pulled Hanoi leadership, ranging from a plot to the probable impact of large-scale US mili-
out. poison the Hanoi police chief with a doc- tary operations, and struggled to construct
122
HMI
CIA activities
in Vietnam
government-held towns
and villages, led to the
deaths of 25,000
Vietnamese.
123
The hurried evacuation of an alternative strategy based on intelli-
American personnel from gence and counter-insurgency techniques
Saigon as the North
From 1968 William Colby, as CIA station-
Vietnamese Army
chief in Saigon, ran the Phoenix program, an
advanced on the city was
a public humiliation forthe
attempt at 'accelerated pacification' by
United States. As
identifying and arresting or otherwise
helicopters lifted
eliminating communists in the villages of
evacuees from the roof of South Vietnam. According to Colby,
the US embassy (main Phoenix was essentially an intelligence
picture), panicking operation: all sources of information were to
Vietnamese civilians be centralized and analyzed so that com-
struggled to break into the munist cadres could be identified accurate-
embassy compound In Colby's view, this
ly. was both more
(inset left).
effective and more humane than the military
method of just bombing a village flat. But
others, including Frank Snepp, a senior CIA
agent in Saigon at the time, felt that Phoenix
was little more than an excuse for a reign
of
terror by South Vietnamese Provincial
Reconnaissance Units (PRUs), hit teams
directed by the CIA. According to Snepp,
CIA agents were frequently present during
the torture of suspected communists, and
the PRUsoften shot suspects out of hand,
until Phoenix became in effect a campaign
of assassination. In all some 25,000 people
were killed under Phoenix.
When the US Army left Vietnam in 1973,
the CIA remained. Its operatives in Saigon
were among the last people ferried out from
the US embassy roof as the victorious North
Vietnamese entered the city on 30 April
1975. In the final panic, the files containing
the names of CIA informants were not
destroyed, a last betrayal that seems a fit-
ting conclusion to the US relationship with
Indochina over the previous two decades.
The Indochina debacle was to be a major
factor in provoking a reassessment of the
CIA in the United States and restrictions on
its activities in the late 1970s. Interference
in other countries' internal affairs would,
however, soon be back in fashion.
jl
BACKYARD
POLICIES
I (f/i
BACKYARD POLICIES
127
KGB /CIA
above: Hungarians reorganized KGB, General Ivan Aleksander tion of emigre Hungarians, promising
express their feelings by Serov. Serov was born of a peasant family them that the revolt had a good chance of
burning Soviet flags, but received an education at the Frunze success. The CIA-backed Radio Free
Budapest. 1956. The
Academy after joining the Red Army. In Europe broadcast anti-Soviet propaganda
Soviet Union considered
1939 he was transferred to the secret police and promised American aid to the rebels.
control over Eastern
and was in charge of the 'Sovietization' of This threat of US intervention was too much
Europe essential to its
no concessions to the transferred to the Ukraine where he met and precipitated the arrival of Soviet tanks on
local population. The worked with the local leader, Nikita the streets of the Hungarian capital, Buda-
Soviet-installed national Khrushchev; it was through this earlier pest. Soon tales of torture and brutality
governments bore the association that Serov gained his promotion started to seep out to the West, and Austria
brunt of popular criticism to head of the KGB. was besieged with fleeing rebels seeking
for executing their The Hungarian uprising was essentially asylum from the Soviet invasion. The KGB
masters' orders. an attempt by the Hungarian people to take was instrumental in the removal of Nagy
control of the country's affairs rather than from power. Serov arranged a dinner for
have to adhere to Moscow's wishes and Hungarian and Soviet representatives in
demands. For the short period while it Budapest, ostensibly to discuss how best to
lasted the Hungarian rebels succeeded in negotiate the removal of Soviet tanks from
breaking down the imposed party appara- the streets. Half way through dinner Serov
tus, dismantling the secret police and re- and his men burst in on the unsuspecting
placing party leaders with non-party men. diners and arrested both Prime Minister
Prime Minister Imre Nagy broke with Mos- Nagy and the new Hungarian defense chief,
cow and sided with the people. All of this General Pal Maleter. The Soviet negotiator
was deeply disturbing to the Soviets, who General Mikhail Malmm protested, possibly
feared that if Hungary were seen to be suc- because he had not known of the KGB plot,
cessful in its bid to throw off the yoke other but to no avail. Maleter was later tried and
East European countries would try to follow then executed along with hundreds of other
suit. Hungarian dissidents. As a result of the
The West declared its support for the Soviet invasion, repression in Hungary was
Hungarian rebels, and both the CIA and the stepped up and any thoughts neighboring
West German BND promised to supply satellites might have had about decreasing
them with ie CIA was also respon- Soviet influence in their countries were
sible for en g the hopes and aspira- abruptly killed.
128
BACKYARD POLICIES
129
KGB/CIA
above: Soviet troops in senior Soviet officials to enter Prague after learned of the invasion was when Soviet
Prague met only passive the Soviet tanks, and the KGB was soon ambassador Dobrynin visited the White
resistance from the directing its local colleagues in a systematic House and told him. Pike surmised that 'the
population, since an
purge of those who might oppose the Soviet agencies were not up to the critical task of
armed uprising seemed
presence. The heavy-handedness of the divining Soviet intentions.' In response
futile. In 1956 the CIA's
Radio Free Europe had
KGB prompted many defections, including Director Helms stated that he was 'not
encouraged the
the high-ranking spy Ladislav Bittman, happy about those two weeks' when he
Hungarians to fight by
deputy director of disinformation. The could not locate Soviet troops. Helms added
false promises of saddest image of the failure of the 'Prague that 'the record would have been better if
American help; this Spring' is of the young student, Jan Palach, West Germany had been the target rather
mistake was not repeated who burnt himself to death on Wenceslaus than Czechoslovakia.' This seems small
in the case of Square. For many Czechs this symbol of comfort.
Czechoslovakia in 1968. sacrifice reflected the gloom into which the Possibly one reason for the CIA's failure
country had been plunged after the Warsaw to detect the build-up to the Soviet invasion
Pact takeover. of Czechoslovakia was that the Agency was
The CIA was criticized for not having too busy in other spheres of the world,
anticipated the Czech invasion. The 1976 especially in Indochina and in the United
Pike report on the CIA found that the States' own backyard, Latin America. As
Agency had actually 'lost the Russian Army the events in Guatemala in 1954 had shown,
for two weeks' prior to the invasion, despite the United States was well prepared to
all the expensive gadgetry which it had at intervene in Central and South America
its command, as well as the Eastern spy against any threat to its own interests or any
network. The first that President Johnson suggestion of the spread of communism.
130
IM
BACKYARD POLICIES
131
KGB/CIA
possible.
132
! '
BACKYARD POLICIES
drive the United States and ITT into a state the US embassy's military attache in Chile, swoop over the
presidential palace during
of frenzied panic, and subseguently CIA and General Camillo Valenzuala, a Chilean
the coup of 1 1 September
director Helms received the following in- army colonel. S50,000 was offered by the
1973. Allende himself died
structions from Nixon: CIA for the abduction of Schneider, as well in the coup, which
as tear gas and submachine guns. After two followed months of
One in 1 chance perhaps but save Chile
, disastrous attempts the conspirators finally mounting economic and
Worth spending succeeded inremoving Schneider on political pressure,
Not concerned risks involved 23 October. The actual kidnap itself was orchestrated by the CIA.
133
KGB/CIA
134
BACKYARD POLICIES
never a significant threat of Soviet military sporadic guerrilla attacks, in the face of by The lack of
riot police.
presence in Chile; the export of Allende 's arbitrary imprisonment and torture. At- democracy has
radicalized opposition in
revolution was limited and its value as a tempts to resurrect a democratic opposition
Chile.
model more limited still.' Another Senate have been blocked by Pinochet's dedication
Committe found that the CIA had been to dictatorship. In 1986 guerrillas of the
responsible for 'weakening and, for the pre- Movement of the Revolutionary Left came
sent time at least, an end to constitutional very close to assassinating Pinochet in a
government in Chile.' well-planned ambush, which suggested
At an international level, the United States they might be more competent and better
became the object of widespread criticism. organized than previously suspected. It is
While Pinochet's coup merely confirmed the still possible that the overthrow of Allende
suspicions of left-wing opponents of West- and democracy might in the end bring Chile
em democracy, many of America's allies the sort of revolutionary regime that the CIA
were shocked by the CIA's covert activities. most hoped to avoid.
135
KGB/CIA
136
BACKYARD POLICIES
Afghanistan at first
consisted largely of a
benign contribution to the
country's development
(left, a Soviet teacher at
Kabul Polytechnic), but
the mounting guerrilla war
led to a massive military
intervention that reduced
much of Afghanistan to a
wasteland of deserted
villages and burnt-out
crops (above, Soviet tanks
parade through the
capital, Kabul).
137
WAR IN AFGHANISTAN
When the Soviet Army moved into Afghanistan in
-sp^
An operation which the Soviet Union act more efficiently and also how it could
would probably claim as a success was the protect the workers against the State, rather
action taken against the fledgling Polish free than being dominated by the State. To-
trade union Solidamosc (Solidarity). Like gether with other shipyard workers Lech
Hungary, Poland had tried to modify the Walesa founded the trade union Solidarity,
Poznan shipworkers
effects of Stalinism; the the aims of which were to remain inde-
had rebelled in 1956, and although this pendent of State intervention and to bargain
rebellion was quelled, it did have limited with the government over workers' rights.
success in that a marginally more liberal By the summer of 1981 Solidarity had grown
regime was brought to power under a new in strength to encompass over two million
leader, Wladyslaw Gomulka. In 1971, after a members, some of whom were also mem-
further period of discord, Gomulka was bers of Poland's Communist Party, includ-
replaced by Edward Gierek. During the ing Walesa's deputy, Bogdan Lis.
Gierek era, an obscure shipworker in the As with both the Hungarian and Czech
Baltic seaport of Gdynia,Lech Walesa, was experiments, for a period censorship was
becoming increasingly disaffected with the relaxed. Film-maker Andrei Wajda was
State-run trade union structure within allowed to make a film for general release
Poland. He began exploring ways in which about the founding of the union, and the
1
work of poet Czeslaw Milosz, for years
140
BACKYARD POLICIES
141
KGB/CIA
~v/L|
^WSCi U
142
BACKYARD POLICIES
143
SPYING IN
THE
SEVENTIES
During the 1970s, the fate of the CIA and the clumsiness and major intelligence setbacks.
KGB diverged. The American organization In 1962, for example, Colonel Oleg
ran into a storm of public criticism as its Penkovsky of Soviet military intelligence
most sordid operations were brought out was arrested after he had been passing
into the daylight, while under the leadership secrets to Britain's MI6 for almost two years.
of Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov, the KGB There was also the defection of Anatoli
seemed to go from strength to strength. Golitsyn, a KGB agent working in Finland,
When Andropov took over the KGB in who revealed the names of many Soviet
1967, the inefficiency of the massive organi- agents in the West. And inside the Soviet
zation was well attested. Denied control Union, the rising dissident movement was
over Communist Party members by Khrush- badly mishandled, with the staging of show
chev's reforms, from 1958 the KGB had been trials such as that of Sinyavsky and Daniel
extensively restaffed with careerists from which turned into effective propaganda for
Komsomol, the communist youth organiza- the anti-Soviet movement, highlighting the
tion. Aleksander Shelepin, who became crude injustice of Soviet repression.
chairman of the KGB in 1958, was the former Andropov had fought as a partisan be-
secretary of the Komsomol central commit- hind German lines in World War II and in
tee. The staff shake-up carried out by 1956 he had been Soviet ambassador to
Shelepin filled the organization with people Hungary, although he had no diplomatic
who had no experience of the secret experience. It was widely believed that he
service, and efficiency apparently suffered became head of the KGB because of his
under him and his successor, Vladimir actions in Hungary at the time of the
Yefimovich Semichastny. It was a time of uprising; he was involved in the arrange-
144
SPYING IN THE SEVENTIES
145
Despite the secretiveness
of Soviet society, the KGB
has a relatively high
profile. Its old
headquarters in
Dzerzhinsky Square
(above) is a prominent
landmark in central
Moscow, and KGB troops
(right) are clearly identified
by their distinctive military
uniforms.
146
Kremlin. Part of the Center is made up of the security in general, with powers of surveil-
remains of the notorious Lubyanka prison. lance over both Soviet citizens and for-
To join the KGB, one is summoned; eigners m the Soviet Union. Much of its
applications are not seriously considered. work involves trying to compromise or
Most members are nominated by other KGB otherwise recruit foreign journalists or
officers orchosen from relatives of officers. embassy staff. The use of sexual blackmail
Three of the KGB s four Chief Directorates
' as a technique increased under Andropov.
are devoted to domestic affairs. In this the In 1968 the British ambassador to Moscow,
KGB differs sharply from the CIA, which is Sir Geoffrey Harrison, was seduced by his
not legally entitled to carry out operations chambermaid. On realizing the implications
inside the United States (although it has Harrison confessed the matter to his
been known to do so). The Second Chief superiors at the Foreign Office and was
Directorate is responsible for internal recalled. Interestingly, Harrison allowed
147
KGB/CIA
148
SPYING IN THE SEVENTIES
I |
achieve a reconciliation
with Sakharov, possibly
keen to use his talents in
developingtheirown
version of 'star wars'
technology.
KGB/CIA
Alexander Podrabinek,
member of a committee
mvestigatingtheuseof
psychiatric treatment
against opponents of the
Soviet regime, is arrested
by the secret police in
When cases did come to court, evidence a military formation. This is typical of the
was competently presented and the letter of KGB's concern to image inside
improve its
Soviet law apparently observed to minimize the Soviet Union. To the same end, feature
the grounds for criticism. Increasingly the films were promoted in which KGB agents
most prominent dissidents either chose to played an heroic role, sometimes almost in
live in the West or were deported there and the James Bond mold.
by 1980 the movement within the Soviet The supposedly glamorous side of the
Union was far weaker than it had been a KGB's business, external espionage, is
decade earlier. handled by the First Chief Directorate. Its
The third section of the KGB operating various tasks include standard intelligence
within the Soviet Union was the Border gathering, the penetration of foreign
Guards Chief Directorate. It is another major governments and security services, support
distinction between the KGB and the CIA movements and liaison
for friendly guerrilla
that the Soviet organization is for a large with the security services of the East
where the CIA is entirely
part military, European 'satellite states' and Cuba. The
The KGB includes not only the
civilian. 11th Department of the First Chief Direc-
Border Guards but also various special torate is specifically responsible for contacts
forces that operate in close liaison with the with these 'friendly' security services, and
Soviet Army. These include troops sta- offers them training and equipment.
tioned in various frontier areas that speak Although some KGB agents abroad are
the language of the country across the 'illegals'living unobtrusive lives under
border, offering clear advantages for certain assumed names, like George Lonsdale or
types of military intervention. By the 1970s, Rudolf Abel, and others are double agents
the traditional hostility between the Soviet like Philby, the vast majority are openly
Army and the secret police that had charac- attached to Soviet embassies or other Soviet
terized Stalin's time had mostly dis- organizations like the airline Aeroflot or
appeared. Andropov was careful to en- press agencies. This is not very different
courage co-operation between the KGB and from the way the CIA or MI6 operates, but
the Army, both in intelligence and in active the numbers of KGB agents are consider-
operations, and his successor Vitali ably higher. A French security official once
Fedorchuck ordered that KGB staff officers stated: 'Of approximately 1000 Soviet bloc
should normally wear uniform - they were representatives in France in 1971, 600 were
not to be seen as a secret police force but as professional espionage officers; to maintain
150
SPYING IN THE SEVENTIES
complete surveillance over so large a group ligence sources estimated that 36 percent of
is an enormous, if not impossible, task.' all Soviet officials stationed in Western
sive and espionage activities against the disinformation plant, guaranteed to occupy espionage. The Moscow
Narodny Bank in the City
United Kingdom' and a further 15 diplo- the time of security officers and thus distract
of London and the Soviet
mats, who at that time were out of the them from carrying out more serious work.
trade mission building
country,were also to join their comrades on Journalists have often been used as spies or
housed some of the 105
the journey home. The expulsion of the to mount disinformation campaigns. One of spies exposed in 1971
diplomats stemmed from the defection of the most highly successful was Vitali when Oleg Lyalin, a KGB
Oleg Lyalin, a KGB officer who had posed as Yevgennevich Lui, otherwise known as officer attached to the
a member of the Soviet trade mission to Victor Louis, who worked for the London mission, defected.
PRIVATE
3a -33
esMfi
151
KGB/CIA
above: Yasser Arafat, Evening Newsm the 1950s. Others can only zation (PLO) or indirectly as in Latin
chairman of the PLO, has be recognized by behavior not to be ex- America, where the Cuban security ser-
survived two decades of pected of a journalist. When Pravda vices have been the intermediary. The
struggle against Israel and Soviet Union has always denied aiding
assigned its chief foreign correspondent,
against Palestinian rivals.
Vladimir Gregorovich, to the Philippines in 'terronsts,' however, an attitude many of its
The Soviet Union's
1974, it was seen as 'rather an obscure enemies regard with extreme skepticism.
support for the PLO is
152
SPYING IIM THE SEVENTIES
153
THEPLO
•*"—•—
ABOVE, LEFT AND FAR LEFT:
PLO undergo
recruits
one of their
training at
desert camps. The KGB
encouraged this sort of
military preparation,
designed for guerrilla raids
across the Israeli border
or for a confrontation with
Israel in conventional war.
Soviet principles of
warfare and Soviet
equipment proved totally
inadequate, however, in
Defense Force.
KGB/CIA
multifarious activities. It was said that accused of illegal operations and the un-
at some stage of every KGB operation, controlled exercise of power. The first blow
Andropov knew exactly what was going on. forthe Agency came in 1973 when director
He used his powerful instrument to create a Richard Helms, who since his appointment
strong political base for himself within the in 1966 had presided over a series of con-
Soviet system. One of the mam preoccupa- troversial operations in Laos, Cambodia,
tions of the domestic side of the KGB under
' ' South Vietnam, Chile and elsewhere, was
Andropov was to attack corruption in the actually fired from office rather than leaving
Communist Party itself. Khrushchev's suc- voluntarily. The firing of Helms did not
cess in excluding the KGB from power over spring from a US love of justice and worry
party members was largely reversed. Some about these overseas missions, many of
of the anti-corruption campaigns were which had ended in disaster, however. It
spectacular, especially in Azerbaijan in was ordered by President Richard Nixon
1969 and in Georgia in 1971. By 1980, Soviet who was embroiled in one of the largest
leader Leonid Brezhnev and his close circle domestic scandals ever to hit the United
below: A false passport of friends and relatives were under attack States - Watergate. Watergate was sur-
belongingto Hi ich Ramon from the KGB for corruption. It is not sur- prisingly one of the few murky areas where
Sanchez, better known as
prising that Andropov, a member of the Helms refused to allow the Agency to be-
the international terrorist
ruling Politburo since 1973, should have come involved. As a consequence, he was
'Carlos.' Perhaps Carlos's
emerged as Soviet leader in 1982, after summoned to Camp David by Nixon and
most spectacular action
Brezhnev's death. informed that his services as director of the
was the kidnapping of 11
If the KGB exerted itself to attack the CIA were no longer required. Subsequently
OPEC ministers,
representing all the major politically powerful in the Soviet Union in he was offered the post of ambassador to
Arab oil states, in the 1970s, the CIA by contrast found itself Iran.Some commentators allege that Helms
December 1975. under attack by American politicians, was offered the position out of fear, as Nixon
C \ 2 135848 w '
F L A C
I I N I F L A C O N
I I I
Idontidad |
•
on Card
'
i e l s mi
L TE/iO
•atus
OIGITO PULGA.R
THUMB PRiNT
156
was worried that Helms might release in- above: Within seconds of
formation about the Watergate break-in. this photo being taken,
Others have suggested that Helms black- Pope John Paul was shot
II
157
above: James R journalist on the Indianapolis Times, after
Schlesinger was briefly
which the war broke out and Helms served
director of the CIA
as a Navy lieutenant commander attached
between the departure of
to the OSS. Helms stayed on after the war in
Richard Helms in February
1973 and the arrival of the CIA, a rapidly rising star. By 1959 he was
William Colby the following in a senior enough position to have full
July. Another notable US knowledge of the CIA's efforts to have
politician to serve a short Castro assassinated. At a 1975 Senate Intel-
spellas CIA chief was ligence Committee hearing Helms said of
George Bush, who filled the matter that he fully believed in those
the post for three months attempts, some involving Mafia leaders, and
in 1976.
that the CIA was 'acting within the scope of
its authority.'
was not a widely shared conviction,
This
however, as revelations about CIA activities
tumbled out in the mid-1970s. Under
right: President Nixon William Colby, who succeeded to the
dismissed CIA director directorship of the Agency in July 1973,
Helms in 1973 before agents were instructed to reveal all they
meeting his own downfall
knew about past CIA operations that might
in the Watergate scandal.
be illegal or were previously unacknow-
Watergate in turn led to a
ledged. In the mood generated by Water-
hostile public investigation
of the CIA, especially
gate, when the lifting of the secrecy sur-
by a
Senate committee chaired rounding government seemed the highest
by Senator Frank Church. public duty, the Senate's Church Commit -
158
SPYING IN THE SEVENTIES
tee and the Rockefeller Commission dug tees.With the election of Jimmy Carter as
unsparingly into the Agency's darkest President in 1976, the humiliation of the
corners. It was revealed that under Presi- Agency was soon complete. Carter ap-
dent Nixon, the CIA had operated exten- pointed Admiral Stansfield Turner to head
sively m the United States, penetrating the the CIA in 1977, with a specific brief to
anti-Vietnam War movement and other curtail and control its activities. The number
radical organizations, and carrying out a of operatives was cut from several thousand
wide range of other activities connected to just 300. Covert operations were reduced
with surveillance and intelligence gather- to two or three a year and the International
ing, in direct violation of the law which Activists Division (a special covert action
restncted operations to foreign targets.
its unit)was reduced to a shadow of its former
Operation Chaos, the codename for this importance. The whole emphasis of the
domestic espionage, had been organized by CIA's work was shifted to electronic
James Angleton, whose career was broken espionage, using the latest and best tech-
by the revelations. All the now familiar nology. The 'old hands' with their often
truths about the attempted assassinations ramshackle clandestine operations
of foreignheads of state and destabilization mounted with loosely supervised multi-
of democratically-elected governments million dollar budgets were definitely out.
shocked the American public, who had By the end of the 1970s, the CIA budget was
heard their political leaders deny such facts only 40 percent of the start of the
its level at
many times over m the past. Helms himself decade and workforce had been
its total
159
From the earliest days of espionage, secrecy
and disguise have played a role of para-
mount importance, points taken a little too
seriously at Truman's 'cloak and dagger'
party of 1946. It is, after all, a fairly sensible
premise that if one wishes to seek informa-
tion from someone who does not want to
giveit, then inevitably devious methods will
160
TOOLS OF THE TRADE
MI5 HUNT
POISON
BROLLY
KILLER'
MRS ANNARCL
MARKOV—bein R very
bravr and talking to
By John Stevens and Patrick McGowan At the end of the 90-minute post mortem exunir.-
Dr Rufus Compton. Honie Office pathologist,
MI5 AND
Scotland Yard's Anti Ter-
Qtion
able tu say for certain what caused Mr Mar-
rorist Branch this afternoon joined kov's death.
forces in investigating: the death of And Commander James Nevill, head of the Anti-
Terrorist Branch, said after the examination: "It
(ieorjfe Markov the Bulgarian defec- has not revealed the cause of death it does not
tor who died a week after he was jab- aeem to be from natural causes at this stage."
Said Commander Nevill "We are dealing with
bed with the point of a possibly pois- it
:
161
KGB/CIA
above: A gun for firing have been carried out by the Bulgarian
poison pellets, perhaps secret service. In July 1973 a Bulgarian exile
the kind of weapon used to Boris Arnoff disappeared from his home in
kill Markov. The barrel Aarhus, Denmark. Shortly afterward he
would have been removed
appeared before a court in Sofia, the capital
and concealed inside the
of Bulgaria, charged with anti-State acti-
umbrella, with a special
vity. He was sentenced to 15 years im-
firing mechanism.
prisonment and actually died in pnson a
couple of months after this sentence com-
menced. A warning article was then pub-
lished in the Bulgaria Communist Youth
magazine Narodna Mladeh which briefly
detailed the crimes that this so-called traitor
had carried out. The article also stated that
'the same fate awaitsanyone who forgets
the ideals of the fatherland.'
In August 1978 Vladimir Kostov, a Bul-
garian exile domiciled in Paris, was leaving
right: A ring with a secret
the metro with his wife when he felt a sharp
cavity, used by espionage pain in his thigh. A high fever followed,
agents for carrying which after three days, eventually burned
microfilm or, conceivably, itself out and allowed Kostov to recover.
a cyanide capsule. After the Markov case had been publicized,
Kostov went for a medical examination. The
a high-temperature furnace and precision results of an X-ray revealed a small metal
drillingequipment. The conclusion of the object. London detectives flew to Pans and
inquest was that Markov had been killed by in their presence a surgeon removed the
the introduction of poison into his blood- particle of metal from the thigh. When the
stream by means of this pellet. The particle was placed under a microscope it
murderer was never traced. was seen to be identical to the object which
The Markov story brought other similar had contained the poison that killed
cases to light, most of which are believed to Markov. On further examination scientists
162
TOOLS OF THE TRADE
the questions to be asked, and the subject is Two types of lie detector:
then wired up. A corrugated rubber tube is the Voice Stress Analyzer
placed around the chest to measure breath- (left) and the more
elaborate polygraph
ing, a blood pressure cuff is fixed around the
machine (above) that
arm, and a hand-held device is put in the
measures changes in
hand to register any changes of electrical
heartbeat rate, respiration
resistance of the skin, due to perspiration. and the surface of the skin.
All responses are traced by means of a The use of lie detectors is
graph. An initial series of control questions highly controversial, with
are asked to which it is known that the many critics claimingthey
subject is giving the right answers, and then are neither accurate nor
the real tests start. The graph should reliable.
163
KGB/CIA
commercial life and it is known that many of Medical Research. The United States
the world's major banks use the machine for claimed that the Soviet Union was also
testing employee security status. practicing mind control, and cited dazed
Control of the mind has fascinated both victims of the Stalin show trials as evidence,
agencies, though hard evidence of Soviet as well as confused prisoners returning
involvement in these tests is hard to come home from the Korean War. A CIA memo
by. The first CIA attempt to discover the from the chief of medical staff dated January
ultimate mind- control drug started in 1950 1952 states: 'there is ample evidence in the
and was called Bluebird; other names fol- reports of innumerable interrogations that
LSD or Acid' became lowed such as Mkultra. When Richard the communists were utilizing drugs,
Helms was deputy director of plans he sug- physical duress, electnc shock and possibly
world famous as a drug
used by young people in gested to director Allen Dulles that S300.000 hypnosis against their enemies. We are
the late 1960s to expand be put toward funding research in chemical
consciousness' and and biological matenals. Dulles approved
achieve a mystical the project and it was put under the control
experience. Psychologist of chemist Sidney Gottlieb. Universities'
Timothy Leary (below) chemistry labs, hospitals and research
advocated the drug's use
bodies were all used in the search and a
as a universal palliative,
number of front organizations were also set
and his disciples were
up. These included the Society for the In-
soon dishing out the pills
(right). But the CIA had
vestigation of Human Ecology, the Scienti-
examined other possible fic Engineering Institute and also two
uses of LSD over a decade funding organizations, the Josiah Macy Jnr
earlier. Foundation and the Geschickter Fund for
164
TOOLS OF THE TRADE
graduate student who talked like that, I'd and died instantly on the pavement. Any
throw him out.' police investigation was forbidden. The
Sensory deprivation was also tested. The Olsen family only found out the truth about
patient was immobilized by the same what had gone on in 1975 when the Rocke-
poison which South American Indians use feller Committee revealed the true circum-
to tip their arrows. Then he was cut off from stances of Olsen 's death. The actual LSD
all external stimulus for a long period of projects - codenamed Mkultra - did not
time. The experiment was later recorded as stop until 1963. Other experiments with
a failure, but other versions of sensory narcotics and poisons continued. These
deprivation have been used in interrogation included experiments in germ warfare and
since, especially in Northern Ireland in 1971 also experiments with bacteria based on
when British security forces tried out the tropical diseases.
method on interned Irish Catholics.
The National Institute of Mental Health's
Addiction Research Center at Lexington,
Kentucky, also became involved in the
CIA's experiments. Under its director Dr
Harris Isabell the Center tested scopo-
lamine, rivea seed and bufonteme as well as
the now infamous lysergic acid diethy-
lamide, otherwise known as LSD. During
one early experiment with LSD Isabell
recorded the effects on seven subjects of a
trip lasting for 77 days. Isabell's report,
among others, convinced the CIA that the
drug was the one which it wanted to work
with and encouraged the Agency to carry
out further experiments at the University of
Illinois Medical School, the University of
Oklahoma, the Mount Sinai Hospital and
Columbia University, New York. Gottlieb
instructed Mount Sinai to carry out experi-
ments on behalf of the Agency, in the areas
of behavior disturbance, changes of sex
patterns and the creation of dependence.
Some of these tests were the precursors for
Gottlieb's experiments to find a drug to alter
the behavior of Fidel Castro.
At Fort Derrick the Agency experimented
with germ warfare. Further experimenta-
tion, carried out in 1953, involved the test-
ing of LSD. Seventy micrograms were put
into a bottle of Cointreau, a glass of which
was given to an unsuspecting civilian, Dr The Soviet Union also became obsessed above: An LSD trip in
Frank Olsen. After a while the drug started with mind- conditioning drugs and treat- progress. was agreed by
It
to take an effect on Olsen who became very ments. As well as being involved in assas- users of the drug that
all it
165
ATELLITE SURVEILLANCE
A USAF Atlas-Agena
space-booster blasts a
VELA nuclear detection
satellite into orbit (below),
point where two contacts will look if they cans of Yardley talcum powder, complete
are instructed that any information is en with false bottoms, as part of their com-
route. The famous MI6 agent Colonel Oleg munications network.
Penkovsky used a radiator in a Moscow Electronics plays a major part in the in-
building as his drop. Frank Bossard, a Soviet telligence game, and some of the tricks
agent of the 1950s who was active in the devised to conceal a 'bug' are highly in-
British Ministry of Aviation, used a ruined genious. In May 1960 Henry Cabot Lodge,
wall and on other occasions a tree. Another US ambassador to the UN, presented to the
spy, Jean Paul Soupert, a Swiss-born National Security Council a wooden carving
chemical engineer recruited by the East of the Great Seal of the United States which
Germans to act in Belgium, used mobile had been presented to the US embassy in
dead letter boxes. Soupert managed to Moscow by Russian guests. The generous
conceal microfilm in toothpaste tubes, bath gift turned out to be a concealment case for
sponges and even chocolate boxes. The an electronic listening device.
notorious British Portland Spy Ring used New intakes to the CIA are trained at
169
KGB/CIA
Camp Peary in Virginia, nicknamed 'the jobs (breaking and entering) and encryp-
farm.'While at the farm trainees undergo a tion. The area of bugging has now become
rigorous set of tests designed to evaluate extremely sophisticated with the use of
the caliber of the agent and also to assess powerful supercomputers, though there are
his mental and physical capabilities. Firstly still occasions when the concealed tape-
they are taught a form of unarmed combat recorder can prove invaluable. Most
derived from ju-jitsu, karate, aikido and security services use a common bug known
Bugging has become other martial arts. As part of this physical as an 'infinity bug.' This can be placed
almost an art, pursued training the agents are instructed as to anywhere in a suspect's home, pick up all
with great subtlety. The where the vulnerable positions on the body types of-activity, and then directly relay this
handcarved Great Seal of are and how to act efficiently and quietly. information to a nearby listening post. The
the United States (right),
The agents also learn about bugging, bag bugs are minute, about the size of an olive in
presented to the US
a cocktail glass, and are highly efficient. But
ambassador in Moscow by
they are mainly used in low-key intelligence
the Soviet Union, turned
operations. These bugs also used to be
out to contain a listening
placed within telephones to eavesdrop on
device. Telephone
bugging (below) was telephone conversations, but it is now
commonplace until phone thought that telephone tapping has become
tapping virtually took its so sophisticated that little physical pre-
place. A host of devices sence is needed. In Britain and the United
have been found planted States telephone tapping is carried out at
in Western embassies exchange level, where the engineer simply
behind the Iron Curtain re-routes the lines which have been ordered
(below right, a microphone
to be tapped. The Kray computers can
discovered in the Danish
translate the digital message from the tele-
embassy Warsaw;
in
170
TOOLS OF THE TRADE
171
CURRENT
CONFLICTS
The 1980s have brought no let up in the spy president in January 1981 was to begin the
wars between East and West. President rebuilding of the CIA. One of his election
Ronald Reagan, who took office in 1981, campaign promises had been to provide
introduced a new tough US foreign policy our government with the capability to help
that overturned the efforts toward detente influence international events vital to our
and liberalism of the previous decade. The national security interests, a capability
Soviet 'menace' was to be sternly con- which the United States alone among major
fronted and communism resisted wherever powers has denied itself. Covert action was
'
it raised its head. There was a consequent back on the agenda. Reagan appointed a
resurgence of covert operations and new director of the CIA, William Casey, to
counter-espionage, once more established replace Stansfield Turner. Casey, a million-
as important elements of US policy. For the aire and a former OSS man, had run the new
Soviet Union, technological secrets became president's election campaign. His close
the prime target of espionage, as the West's links with Reagan promised the Agency
lead in such areas as computers and elec- support from the top. Casey saw his first
tronics grew, and Reagan banned the trans- tasks as building up the strength of the CIA
fer of newtechnology to the East. Reve- and also increasing its budget. One Con-
lations about undercover activities by the gressional inteDigence committee member
CIA the KGB and other of the world s secret
, ' said of Casey: 'He would mount a covert
services remained a startlingly prominent operation in the Vatican if he could.' Such
feature of the news. The spy business is still was the new director's zeal for the job.
big busiii- There were plenty of areas for a revived
One of Reagan's first acts on becoming CIA to work in, notably the supply of arms to
172
CURRENT CONFLICTS
173
WAR IN EL SALVADOR
On 22 January 1980 unarmed demonstrators were
massacred on the steps of the cathedral in the capital
of El Salvador; two months later, the popular
Archbishop Oscar Romero was killed by a right-wing
death squad while he was celebrating mass. These
two events precipitated civil war between an alliance
of left and center opposition groups on one side and
government forces and right-wingers on the other.
The CIA quickly became involved, assisting
government counter-insurgency efforts against what
they depicted as a communist attack on a free world
regime. The new Sandmista government in
neighboring Nicaragua was accused of aiding the
rebels in El Salvador, and this was turned into a public
justification for President Reagan's backing of the
Nicaraguan Contras. The Salvadorean air base at
llopango became the center for CIA air operations
over Nicaragua in support of the Contras. The fates of
El Salvador and Nicaragua seemed inextricably linked
in the struggle for Central America.
CURRENT CONFLICTS
WHAMOS MTITWDII
GRIHQQS COHTKA £
N.
above: Ex-dictator
Somoza in exile after his
defeat. He lasted little
over a year before being
assassinated by a bazooka
attack in Paraguay in
September 1980.
efforts to invade
Nicaragua and overthrow
the Sandinista regime.
176
' y
CURRENT CONFLICTS
approve SI 9. 5 million for the CIA to create a
was much hated in Nicaragua,
commando force to lead a broad anti- even by
Sandmista
those who opposed the Sandinistas' Marxist
front. The CIA was also in- policies. It was an unlikely
structed to conduct covert instrument for the
operations establishment of a 'free and
against 'Cuban supply lines within independent
government.' Other exiled opponents
Nicaragua. of the
Sandinistas were pressured by
The material for the formation of what the United
States into co-operating
were to become known as the 'Contras' with the ex-
lay National Guardsmen, but this
in members of Somoza's
National Guard
fundamental
who had taken refuge m Honduras and in
split m the anti-Sandmista movement was
never closed.
the southern United States after
the dic- From early 1981, the
tator's defeat. The National Guard CIA set up military
had been training camps in Florida
the basis of the Somoza dictatorship and California to
and create the anti-Sandinista military
force By
A young guerrilla
left: of
theERP revolutionary
army in El Salvador,
keeping guard with his
M16 automatic rifle
captured from
government forces. The
United States accused
Nicaragua of aiding the
guerrillas in El Salvador
and spreading subversion
throughout the region.
zjr
177
KGB/CIA
above: The CIA mounted the middle of the year General Vernon aircraftflown by American pilots, and the
repeated spy flights over Walters, former deputy director of the mining of Nicaraguan coastal waters in an
Nicaragua to monitor Agency, had arranged the unification of attempted blockade. The revelation of the
military developments and fragmented bands of ex-National Guards- mining operation, which led to a successful
pass on vital information
men for the purpose of raiding Nicaragua action by the Nicaraguan government
to the Contras. This photo
from vantage points in Honduras. Funding against the United States in the World Court
shows developments at
Sandino airfield, with the
was also arranged for the Miami-based at The Hague, was one of a number of dis-
runway being lengthened Nicaraguan Democratic Union (UDN) led by turbing reports that eventually brought
and anti-aircraft defenses Franciso Cardenal, and the UDN was bribed about a clampdown on CIA activities. Other
installed. The United into joining forces with the newly estab- factors included evidence of the direct in-
States insisted that this lished military front. This new organization volvement of Americans in military opera-
was a prelude to the was named the Nicaraguan Democratic tions inside Nicaragua, and tales of the
introduction of high- Force (FDN). But the CIA failed to persuade corruption, inefficiency and criminal acti-
performance Soviet Eden Pastora Gomez, a disaffected ex- vities of Contra leaders. In June 1984 Con-
aircraft into Nicaragua,
Sandinista, to link his Costa Rica-based gress blocked President Reagan's reguest
and warned that such a
Democratic Revolutionary Alliance (ARDE) for extra funding for the Contras, effectively
move would be
to the FDN. To a man such as Pastora, stopping further CIA military support.
unacceptable.lnfact.no
Soviet fighters
the National Guardsmen were totally Hostility to the CIA operation was re-
materialized. unacceptable allies. inforced the following October when a CIA
In 1982, the Contra war against the manual for subversion was leaked to the
Sandinistas hotted up. With funding mount- press by a Contra leader, Edgar Chamorro,
ing to some S60 million between 1982 and who was opposed to the more extreme ex-
1983, the FDN was turned into an army at National Guard officers of the FDN.
About 150 CIA opera-
least 10,000 strong. Chamorro revealed the existence of an 89-
tives were reckoned to be active in their page booklet entitled Psychological Opera-
support, and they were involved in much tions in Guerrilla Warfare. The booklet
more than training. CIA men organized advocated assassination, kidnapping,
commando raids on Nicaraguan ports from blackmail,mob violence and murder.
US vessels, bombing attacks and logistic Chamorro revealed that the booklet had
rig for Contras inside Nicaragua using been written for the Contras by the CIA; this
178
CURRENT CONFLICTS
179
KGB/CIA
180
CURRENT CONFLICTS
knowledge of the
operation, while his
National Security Advisor
Vice Admiral John
Poindexter (below) was
one of those to take the rap.
181
KGB/CIA
bomb attack in April 1983 Beirut, Lebanon, was badly damaged in a sidered too involved in the scandal to be
that killed 60 people, suicide bomb attack by an Islamic extre- confirmed in the post. William H Webster,
including at least seven mist. Among the 60 people killed were at the FBI chief, was eventually shifted across
CIA operatives. least seven CIA men, including the station to head the CIA. Meanwhile the Contra war
chief Robert Ames. Even worse followed. In continued to cause massive suffering in
March 1984, Ames' replacement, William Nicaragua, but without showing any signs
Buckley, was kidnapped outside his Beirut of weakening the Sandinista regime. If any-
appartment and held along with other thing, the acts of aggression carried out by
hostages by an Iranian-backed group. The the Contras against civilian as well as mili-
US Administration and the CIA were frantic tary targets caused opposing factions to
to get Buckley and the other hostages re- unite in the country's defense.
182
. 3
CURRENT CONFLICTS
THE WALL STREET JOURNAL TUESDAY, AUGUST 5, 1986 21 left: An advertisement for
job applicants to take up a
POSITIONS AVAILABLE POSITIONS AVAILABLE POSITIONS AVAILABLE POSITIONS AVAILABLE career in the CIA. Ten
years earlier very few
graduates would have
thought of joiningthe
achieved public
had once more
respectability as
necessary to the defense
INTELLIGENCE of US interests.
Nevertheless, CIA
recruitment campaigns on
American campuses did
183
KGB/CIA
The late 1970s and early 1980s saw a designed to pick up US communications
concerted drive by the KGB to gam the while the Soviets' San Francisco
traffic,
latestWestern technological secrets. The consulate can pick up information from both
Soviets had the capacity to develop com- 'Silicon Valley' and Mare Island, a US
puters but were unable to produce their nuclear submarine base. The men chosen
own microchip. They were heavily de- for the KGB's US activities are, in the words
pendent on anything the West would ex- of FBI officer Theodore Gardiner, 'the cream
port, and when the West decided that cer- of the crop.' The one-time head of the KGB
tain developments were too militarily inWashington, Dmitry Yakushkm, has been
sensitive to export to the Soviet Union, the grandson of a general of the
identified as the
Soviets had to depend on illegal methods of December 1917 revolution. The New York
obtaining the technology they needed. KGB chief, Vladimir Kazkov, is an ex-head
In 1981 the FBI estimated that 35 percent of the First Department. Moscow. The
of official Soviet representatives working Soviet embassy in Washington provides a
within the United States were officers of the useful idea of how the KGB operates within
KGB or the GRU (military intelligence). the United States. A general operations
Principal areas of activity include Washing- section provides vital contact with the GRU
ton, New York and San Francisco, where and is actively involved in recruiting possi-
each Soviet installation has been chosen to ble US agents. A lot of time is spent hanging
maximize electronic surveillance. The around in bars which proliferate near mili-
Washington-based Soviet embassy used to tary bases. Up-market clubs are joined an m
boast one huge high-frequency antenna on effort to gain access to highly classified
its roof, part of which pointed toward the information; also libraries are combed for
Pentagon and the White House, the other important but unclassified information
toward Langley Virginia. The Soviets have which exists m the fields of science and
deliberately chosen Chesapeake Bay as technology. Money is the main impetus in
base since it is right next
their recreational recruitment rather than the ideals that
door to the Annapolis military microwave motivated an earlier generation. Former CIA
relay station. The Riverdale, New York, officer Harry Rositzke claims: The average
residential complex has on its roof a com- American soberly regards money as the sole
plex array of electronic gadgetry specifically means of ensunng personal freedom and
independence This attitude towards
. . .
184
CURRENT CONFLICTS
Commerce and Customs. It was an agent Forty-seven were expelled from France, above: The US embassy
from Commerce who first became sus- four from Britain, four from Italy, 18 from building in Moscow.
picious about Maluta's activities, mainly Iran and three from the United States. The Among the problems
through the activities of another alleged Belgians expelled Yevgeny Mikhailov, encountered by staff there
smuggler, Werner Bruchhausen, a West director-general of a Belgian/Soviet trade was at one time the
German millionaire. Bruchhausen had been company, in 1983. Further expulsions, bombardment of the
implicated in various cases involving the especially by the United States, continued building with ultra
violation of US export controls; it was into the second half of the 1980s,
frequency radiation as
provoking
alleged that Bruchhausen had been actively part of a Soviet bugging
tit-for-tat expulsion of Western diplomats
operation, leadingto a
involved in re-exporting US technology to from Moscow.
serious health risk.
the Soviet bloc. Bruchhausen's chief US In 1986 the United States was stunned to
associate was Anatoly Maluta. The Com- discover that a former CIA agent, Edward
merce officials checked up on Maluta and Lee Howard, had defected to Moscow. US
discovered that among the orders that newspapers claimed that a US contact m
Maluta had on his books was a reguest for Moscow had already been killed because of
four microwave and antenna systems. information leaked by Howard. The CIA and
Initially Maluta claimed that the US Army's the FBI came under fierce attack in the
Communications Command and Army In- United States for allowing Howard to slip
telligence school at Fort Huachuca had out of the country. It had been known for at
placed these orders, but the claim was least two years that Howard was a KGB spy,
strongly denied by the Army. Commerce thanks to information received from the
later discovered that the orders were des- Soviet defector Vitaly Yurchenko. Howard
tined for the Soviet Union through a com- had managed to leave his Santa Fe home by
plex array of cover companies and intricate simply putting a dummy in his car which
European smuggling routes. Maluta was lulled the FBI watchers into a false sense of
sentenced to five years imprisonment for his security, thus giving Howard the freedom to
activities. escape from his house through a back exit.
In the early 1980s over 90 Soviet agents Further Soviet spying activities in the
were expelled from their base countries for United States came to light with the 1986
varying degrees of intelligence-gathering. capture of Gennadi Zakharov. Zakharov was
185
KGB/CIA
preceded a summit meeting between Presi- propping up the South African apartheid
dent Reagan and Gorbachev at Reykjavik, regime by giving the South African govern-
Iceland, and through 1986 and the start of ment information on the exiled African
1987 there was a strong interplay of on the National Congress (ANC). The ANC has
one hand moves toward detente and an been a proscribed organization within
arms agreement between the superpowers, South Africa since 1960, but has continued
and on the other a ruthless pursuit of the to operate underground, giving support to
espionage and counter-espionage war. A the black struggle within South Africa. Its
focus for the spy war was the building of leader, Nelson Mandela, has languished in
new embassies in Moscow and Washing- prison since 1962. The main excuse used by
186
CURRENT CONFLICTS
HK AFRICAN
says ro
vomSi
AND m GAM:
r
fg+l — . W fw mm CAJff
9*1 m
*
>
the South African authorities for banning also banned the export of technology to
the ANC was that the organization was South Africa but Administration officials
communist and made up of terrorists. To be have admitted that quantities of electronic
found guilty of belonging to the ANC can equipment, including antennas and inter-
lead to long imprisonment and even torture. ception receivers, were shipped to South
Right-wingers within the Reagan Admini- Africa via Britain and West Germany.
stration seized upon the allegations that the In 1984 the British and representatives
ANC was dominated by communists and from the NSA attended a high-level meeting
used this as an excuse to pass on informa- at Britain's GCHQ. At this meeting the two
tion about the organization to Pretoria. This sides reviewed previous intelligence
policy is a complete reversal of the Carter assignments and future targets, and later
Administration's ban on any information- South African military intelligence officers
sharing with Pretoria. Publicly Carter had were ushered into the room. The United
187
KGB/CIA
States and Britain requested that South British intelligence forces have joined up is
Africa continue to monitor Soviet and in the troubled province of Northern Ireland.
Cuban activity in Angola and Mozambique, Mainly under the pretext of Nato member-
as well as Soviet submarine activity around ship the intelligence forces have combined
the Cape of Good Hope. The South Africans to provide an extremely sophisticated array
were also asked if they could provide in- of listening devices the length and breadth
formation on Soviet activity south of the of both Northern Ireland and the neutral
Sahara and Soviet support for the South- Irish Republic. The CIA also helps the
west African Peoples' Organization British government out with information
(SWAPO) in Namibia, against whom South about suspected members of the Provi-
Africa has been involved in a long and sional Irish Republican Army (IRA).
Security operations in Northern Ireland
right: Oliver Tambo. the have brought out sharp rivalries between
exiled president of the the British secret services. As befits its
ANC. The South African internal security role, MI5 has mostly
intelligence services were handled the province, in collaboration with
anxious for information on the Special Branch of the Royal Ulster Con-
Tambo from the CIA, and stabulary (RUC). But in the mid-1970s. MI6
were prepared to monitor was also involved in intelligence operations
Soviet military activity in
there, and in 1979 ex-MI6 chief Sir Maurice
southern Africa as a quid
Oldfield was made security co-ordmator for
pro quo.
Northern Ireland. As we have already said,
rumors of Sir Maurice's homosexual in-
discretions were reportedly circulated by
MI5 to get him removed from the job. MI5
always preferred a free hand, and it may also
have been behind the removal of another
intruder on the scene, the Deputy Chief
Constable of Manchester. John Stalker. This
188
CURRENT CONFLICTS
Party, Hugh Gaitskell, had been assas- left: Relatives and friends
sinated by the KGB in 1963 to allow Wilson protest at the deaths of
to assume the leadership. three Northern Ireland
The British government of Margaret Catholics killed by the
Thatcher went to extraordinary lengths to No
security forces.
189
KGB/CIA
right: Former M 15
operative Peter Wright
whose book Spycatcher
contained some startling
allegations about the
British secret service.
Armstrong, a member of the Joint Intelli- come increasingly absorbed with their own
gence Committee, was briefed to defend importance and fail to recognize that they
the government line, and at one point in the should be first and foremost directed by the
case was forced to admit that, if not lying, government which they serve and not
he may at least have been 'economical with embark on autonomous mini-wars against
the truth.' countries or individuals which meet with
In fact that phrase 'economical with the their displeasure. When they carry out
truth' can be used to describe the clande- activities which are not in line with policies
stine nature of the operations of all intel- of the government of the day they should be
ligence agencies. In some cases they work totally answerable for these operations and
for the good of the nation and act in a res- never be allowed to shield behind the catch-
ponsible and i
manner. In other all phrase of 'activities carried out in the
190
1 5
132-3 Dulles, Allen 38, 39, 49, 55, 57, also Cambodia, Laos, LonNol777, 119
Page numbers in italics refer to 58,60,66,83-4,164 Vietnam Lonrho company 97
illustrations Caetano, Marcello93 John Foster 38, 39,52,
Dulles, International Federation of Free Lonsdale, Gordon 73, 74, 150
Cambodia 777 55,59,100,108 Trade Unions 40 Lotz, Wolfgang 102, 702
Abel, Rudolf 49-50, 50, 72, 150 CIA intervention 106, 1 16, 1 19 Dzerzhmsky. Feliks 73, 28 Iran 156,182 Louis, Victor 151-2
Abramson, Dr Harold 165 Cameron, DrEwen 164 Dzerzhmsky Square 73, 145, 746 embassy in 704-5 Low, Robert 27, 37
Acheson, Dean 29, 32 Canada 50, 68 intervention in 50, 52, 55, 103, LSD 61, 764-5, 165
aerial surveillance 3, 24, 44, 45- spy ring in 12, 15 East Germany 80, 126 105 Lumumba, Patrice 82-6, 83, 85-6
6,46-7,48-50,62,63,66, Canon Collins Trust 90 Eastern Europe 24, 71, 742-3 Savak police 55, 103 Lyalin.Oleg 151
166 Cardenal, Francisco 178 CIA and 22, 39 US arms deal with 181
Afghanistan 737-9 Carlos', terrorist 153, 756 Soviet control 17,23,126, US hostages in 103 McCarthy, Senator Joe 29, 30,
CIAarmsaidtol36. 138, 172- Carter, Pres. James 103, 159, 150 Irish Republican Army 152, 753, 30-37
'
3 759,173,176,187 Egypt 26, 27, 28, 100 188 McCloy,John29
Soviet intervention 136-8 Casey, William 172-3,182 Eisenhower, Pres. D D 38, 39, 45. Irwin, John, 1183 McCone. John A 66, 66, 113, 132
African National Congress 89, Castro, Fidel 60-62, 67-2,64-5, 45, 48, 49, 56, 58. 60, 64. Isabell, Dr Harris 165 McDowell, Robert 22-3
186-7, 188 66,131,165 86, 106, 108 Israel100, 102, 152,182 McFarlane, Robert 182
Agca, Mohammed Ali 1 53 Castro, Raul 60, 64 electronic surveillance 184 secret service see Mossad McGoff,John89
Air America 115, 121,180 Center for International Studies Ermenji, Abas 26, 27,35 Italy 18, 20, 20, 24 Maclean, Donald 15, 76,37, 70,
Air Asia Company 115 (MIT) 39 1948 election 18,20,20-27 70-71
Albanian operation 22-4, 26-9, Chamorro, Edgar 178, 180 Faroukh. King 100 incorporation 132.133 Mafia 64, 158
32, 32, 35, 35, 36-7 Chebnkov, Viktor 183 FBi 64, 131, 182, 184, 186 Maheu, Robert 64
Alessandrl, Jorge 132-3 Chile 133-5 rivalry with OSS 7 Jacobsen, David 182 Makins,SirR57
Allende.Salvadore 131-2. 132-3, CIA intervention 131-3, 135 role of 9, 12 Jaruzelski. Gen. Wojeiech 747, Malenkov, Georgi 42
135 China, CIA in 80, 106 Fecteau, Richard 106 143 Maleter,Gen.Pall28, 145
Ames. Robert 182 Christian Aid 90 Fedorchuck, Vitali 150 Jellicoe,Lord 26, 27 Malinin, Gen. Mikhail 128
Amin, Hafizullah 136, 136 Churchill. Winston 52, 53 Felfe, Heinz 80 Jepsen, Senator Robert 90 Malta 27, 28, 28, 32
Andropov, Yuri 7 1,72, 129, 144- CIA Ford, Pres. Gerald 90. 94 John Paul II, Pope 153, 757 Maluta.Anatoly 184-5, 186
5,745,147,148,153,754, aerial surveillance 24, 45-6, Forrestal,James8, 20 Johnson, Pres. Lyndon B 130 Mandela, Nelson 186, 787
156, 183 48-50 Frasheri, Midhat 26, 28 Joyce, Robert 26 Markov, Georgi 160-62, 767
Angleton, James J 20, 28, 29, 37. anti-communist propaganda Frei, Eduardo 132 Masaryk.Jan 17, 77
44,71,159 3940, 40-47, 44, 89 Josef 80-81, 151
Frolik, Karmal, Babrakl36 Matjani, Hamil36, 37
Anglo-Iranian Oil Company 52 Church Committee on 135, Fuchs. Klaus 74, 14-15.70 Kasavubu,Joseph82.83,84 May, Alan Nunn 15,70
Angola 89, 91-4, 95, 97-8 158-9 Kazkov, Vladimir 184 Menant. Guy 24
FNLA 93, 94, 97, 98, 98-9 critictsmsof 144, 156, 158-9, Gaitskell, Hugh 189 Keenan, George 18,41 Menwith Hill telephone tapping
GRAE91,92,93 185 'Galia'. Soviet agent 147-8 Kendall, Donald 132 base 69, 170
MPLA 92, 93, 94, 97, 98, 99 distrust of MI5/MI6 72 Gardiner, Theodore 184 Kennedy, Pres. J F 62, 64, 65, 67, Merchant, Livingston 83
UNITA97,92,93,94,97,98, involvements see Afghanistan, Gates, Robert 182 67,112-13,773,114,131 Middle East, CIA in 100, 102-3,
98-9 Albania, Cambodia, Chile, Gdansk, Poland 70 KGB. 68, 70, 144/189 105, 173
US intervention 91, 94, 97 China, Cuba, Eastern Gehlen, Reinhard 44, 79, 79, 80 and Poland 143 Mihailovic, Drazha 23
154
Arafat, Yasser 152, Europe, Germany, germ warfare 165 and terrorists 152-3 Mikhailov, Yevgeny 185
Arbenz Guzman, Jacobo 56, 56. Guatemala, Iran, Italy, Laos, Germany, CIA connection 78-9 Andropov chairman 144-5 Milosz, Czeslaw 140
57-8, 58 Nicaragua, Salvador, South Giancana, Sam 64, 64 CIA activity an aid 105 Mobutu, Col. Joseph 84. 85, 86,
Armas, Col Carlos 57-9, 59 Africa, Vietnam Edward 140
Giereck, directorates 147-8, 150. 151 86,91,94
Armstrong, Sir Robert 189-90 detectors 163
lie Gjura,Adem36 establishment 42, 44 Mossad44,100,102, 702
assassination plots 83, 84, 85, mind control drugs 164-5 Goldberg, Arthur 40, 47 in Afghanistan 136-8 Mossadegh, Mohammed 52, 53-
86, 160-63 move to Langley 66. 66 Golitsyn, Anatoli 73, 144 in Czechoslovakia 129-30 4,55
atomic weapons development Office of Policy Coordination Gomulka.Wladyslaw, 17, 140 in Hungary 128 Mozambique 89, 91, 188
12,15,75,29 20, 21, 26-9 passim, 32, Gorbachev, Mikhail 137, 183, liedetectors 163 Mulder, Connie 89, 90
Australian intelligence service 35-8 passim organization 783, 186 mind conditioning 165
68, 168-9 20,38 Gottlieb. Sidney 84. 164. 165 organization and role 145, Nagy, Imre 727, 128
16,21
origins 6, Gouzenko, Igor 12, 15 147, 148, 150-53 passim, Namibia 188
Baader-Meinhoff gang 152 Pike Report on 130 Gramsch, Ernest 79 156, 184 narcoticstradingll5
Batista, Fulgencio 60, 60 recruitment/training 170, 183 Gray, Gordon 83 spies in Britain 69-71 Nasser, Jamal Abdul 52, 100,
Bay of Pigs 65-6 responsibilities 12, 16-17, 21, Greece 24, 25, 32, 35 technological targets 172, 707, 102
Bell, William Holden 184 39, 147 Gregorovich, Vladimir 152 184-5, 186 Neto, Agostinho 97
Beria, Lavrenti 12, 17,40-42, 42 Rockefeller Commission on Grenada, invasion of 780 Khalie,Gen.Mahmoudl02 New Zealand 68
Berlin 70-77, 18, 78-79,78 135,159,165 Guatamala 57, 60 KhmerSerai 116, 119 newspaper propaganda 89, 135
Berlin Wall 3, 76, 76-7 Transport 115
Civil Air CIA in 50, 56-9, 130 Khomeni, Ayatollah 103, 704, /Vewswee/tmagazine 180
CIA tunnel in 77, 78 90
Clarke, Senator Dick Guevara, Che 60, 64. 131 182 Nhu.NgoDinh 108, 109-10
Glienicker Bridge 50, 57, 76, Clemens, Hans 78, 80 Guillaume,Gunther80 Khrushchev, Nikita 40, 42, 43, Nicaragua 177-8, 778, 182
749 Cline, DrRay44 44,62,115,128,144.156 CIA activity 57, 143,173-4,
Bevin, Ernest 24 Colby, William 109, J79. 125, Cuban crisis 62, 67 177,178,778-9,180
Richard 64. 65, 84. 9
Bissell, 158 Hare, Alan 28 destalinization speech 44 Contrasml74, 776, 177-8,
Bittman, Ladislav 130 Gen. Lawton 108
Collins, Harrison, Sir Geoffrey 147-8, 748 reforms 44, 144. 156 779,180-81,182
Blake, George 71-2, 73, 73 communication techniques 168- 26
Hayter, William U-2 plane and 45, 48 Sandinistas 152, 173-4, 176,
Blunt, Anthony 12, 70-71, 77, 73 71,768-77 Hayakawa, Samuel 90 King, Col. J C 60 180, 182
Bossard, Frank 169 communism, threat of in Central Hazey,Jackll2 Kirkpatrick, Jeanne 180 Nixon, Pres. R M 49, 132, 732,
Botha, PieterW 90, 90 America 56-9 Heath, Edward 151 Kissinger. Henry 94, 94, 119, 732 133,156-7,159
Braden,Tom40 Congo 84-6 Hebb, Donald 164 Knoppe,Wolf78 North, Lt Col Oliver 180, 780,
Brandt, Willy 80 intervention 82-6, 91, 94, 97 Heckscher, Henry 132 Korry, Edward 132-3 182
Brezhnev, Leonid 156, 757 Congress for Cultural Freedom Helms, Senator Jesse 188 Kostov, Vladimir 162 Northern Ireland 165. 188-9, 789
Britain 24, 52, 97, 100 39 Helms, Richard 38, 65, 65, 130, Kroger, Peter and Helen 72-3 Novotny, Antonin 129
agents in 69-71; see also Cuba 131 133,156-8,758159,164 Kryeziu, Said 26, 27
Blake, Blunt, Burgess etc African activity 89, 94, 97, 98 Hillenkoetter.Adm. Roscoe 16, Kupi,Abas26,27,35 O'Connell, James 64
and Southern Africa 97 CIA and 50, 60-62, 64-7 77,18,20,31 Kuron, Jack 143 O'Donnell, Justin 85
GCHQ 68, 69, 69, 70, 72, 74, missile sites 62, 63,66 Hiss, Alger 29 Oldfield, Sir Maurice 74, 74, 188
89,163.187-8 Soviet influence 150 Ho Chi Minn 106, 706, 108 Labor organizations 39-40, 140 Olsen, Dr Frank 165
intelligence network 68-72 Czechoslovakia 17, 126, 140 Holbrook, Maj. James R 148 Lae Kong, Captain 112 Organization of African Unity 92,
MI5 68, 70, 72, 73, 74, 188-91 intelligence service 80 Holland, spy incident in 80 Lansdale.Col. Edward 108, 709 93
MI6 6, 24, 27, 32, 35, 37,70- Soviet invades 129-30, 729- Hollis, Sir Roger 73. 74, 189 Laos 106, 773, 778 Ortega, Daniel 773,176
74 pass/m 75, 144. 151. 30 Honduras 57, 177-8, 182 CIA in 112-15, 774,121,181 Owen, Will, MP 80
188 Hong Kong, GCHQ base in 68 Lebanon, US embassy 182, 782
relations with US 68, 70, 72 Danilov, Nicholas 186, 786 Hoover, J Edgar 7 Leary. Timothy 764 Pacific Engineering Coy 1 1
spies expelled by 151, 185 de Neufville, Lawrence 29 Houghton, Harry 73 Liao Ho-shu 80, 80 Pahlavi, Moahammed Reza Shah
Brown, Winthrop 112, 114 Devlin, Lawrence 82-5, 86 Houston, Lawrence 50 liberation movements 152 52,55,55,103,703,105.
Bruchhausen, Werner 185 Diaz, Col Carlos 58-9 Howard, Edward Lee 185 lie detector see polygraph 182
Buckley, William 182 Diem, NgoDmh 108-10, 770 Hoxha.Enver 22. 24. 27, 29, 32, Lindsay, Frank 28, 37 Pakistan 136-7
Bukovsky, Vladimir 148 Dien Bien Phu battle 108, 708-9 37 Linowsky, Polish agent 78 Palach,Janl30
Bulgaria 126 Dobrynin,Ambassador 130 HsuTsu-tsai80 Lippmann, Walter 115 Palestine Liberation Organization
secret service 160, 162 Donovan, James 50 Hungary 126, 140, 144 Lis, Bogdan 140 152,752,154,754-5
Burgess, Guy 37, 70,70-71 Donovan. William J 6-7, 7 1956 revolt 126, 727-8, 128 listening bases 55, 68, 1 03, 703 Pan Congress 89
Africanist
191
9, 186-7 187 63(both).96. 113(top).
Parrott, Thomas 83
Pastora Gomez, Eden 178. 179 Bureau of State Security NSC 16-17, 18,20,29,49,60, 120(below).121(below), 138(2
(BOSS) 87, 89-90 67,779,133.180.182 below), 166(nght), 167(below left
PathetLao 112-15, 115,118
Penkovsky. Col Oleg 144. 145. CIA involvement 87, 89, 94. OSS 6-8. 9, 20, 22, 28, 39, 40, & right). 178, 180(top), 183
32 National Intelligence Service relations with Israel 100,102 14(below), 16(below), 18, 18-
Pepsi Cola Corporation 1
Perkins. Harold 35 (NIS) 90, 187-8 State Dept 8, 9. 18, 26, 29, 38, 19(top),28,29,32,34-35,36,
support for UNITA 94. 97, 98 52,94 39(both),41(below).42(left),
Philby. Kim. 27. 32. 36, 37. 70.
South Korea 32. 106 Uruguay 131, 131 48(top), 49(both). 51 (top), 55, 59,
71. 712. 73. 150
Phillips. David 58, 65 Southern Air Transport 182 61(top).62(top),65(top),66(top),
Phoumi. Gen Nosavan 112,113- South-West African People's V2 rockets 12, 74 70(right),71(top),73(top),75,
Pinochet Ugarte, Gen. Augusto Souvanna Phouma, Prince 1 12, van den Bergh, Gen. Hendrik 87, 90(below). 94, 95(below), 98-99,
Roosevelt. Kermit 52, 55. 100 Stalin,Joseph 8. 70,12,17,23, partisans in WWII 23 Photri: pages 43(below), 44,
Rosenberg. Julius and Ethel 15. 29,37,40-42,42 Yurchenko,Vitalyl85 46(below), 47(below), 65(below),
16 Khrushchev speech against 44 66(below), 76(centre), 77(below),
Rositzke. Harry 184 Yugoslavia and 22 Zacharsky, Polish agent 184 98(both).99(top), 139(all3),
Rosselli, John 64 Stalker, Deputy Chief Constable Zahedi, Gen. Fazollah55 141(below),142,166(top).
Rowlands, Tiny' 97 John 188-9, 189 Zaire 97, 98; see also Congo 181(top)
Royal Ulster Constabulary 188 Stonehouse,John81,87 Zakharov, Gennadi 185-6 The Press Association: page
Suez Canal 52, 100, 700 Zambia 93, 97, 188 74(top left)
Sakharov, Andrei 15, 149 Suharto,TNJ116 Zog, King 23, 24, 26, 26, 27, 28, South African Military
Salazar, Antonio de Oliveira 9 1 Sukarno, Pres. Achmed 64, 1 16 36 Information Bureau: page
97,93 Svoboda, Pres. Ludvik 729 91 (right)
Salvador, El 173-4, 774-5, 176. John Massey Stewart: pages
777 Tambo. Oliver 188, 188 13(below),48(below). 146-147
ClAactivity, 143. 173-4 Taraki, Noor Mohammed 136, Acknowledgments TPS/Central Press: pages
Sampson, Anthony 87 136 The Publisher would like to thank 12(below right), 83(above),
Sanchez, llich Ramirez (Carlos) telephone tapping 68-9, 170 Adrian Gilbert and Reg Grant who 87(below),91(left), 112,
153.756 terrorists 152-3, 154, 182 edited the book, Design 23 who 168(below)
Sandinistas see Nicaragua Thornton, Samuel 119 designed it, Melanie Earnshaw TPS/Fox Photos: pages 7(below),
Sanger. Dr Eugen 102 Tiebel, Erwin 80 who carried out the picture 14(above).76(top)
satellite surveillance 68, 70. 166, Tiedge, Hans-Joachim 79 research and Ron Watson who TPS/Keystone: pages 8(below),
766-7,171 Time magazine 135 compiled the index. We would 9, 11(2 below), 15, 16(top),
Savak, Iranian police 55, 103 Tito,JosipBroz 22, 26 also like to thank the following 17(both), 19(below),24(below),
Savimbi, Jonas 92, 97. 97 Trafficante, Santos 64 picture agencies, institutions and 26(top),27(top),45,53(both).
Schlesmger, James R 758 Truman, Pres. Harry S 7. 8, 8, individuals for supplying the 54(below), 55, 61(below),
Schneider, Gen. Rene 133, 135 20-21.29.52,55,160 illustrations on the pages noted: 64(below),67,70(left),71(nght),
Secord, Gen Richard 181, 182 Tshombe.Moise 82, 83 73(below), 74(top right & below),
Semichastny,VY144, 745 Turkey, air base in 45 Aid to Russian Christians: page 76(below),77(top),81.
sensory deprivation 165 Turner, Adm. Stansfield 159, 172 150 83(below), 86(below), 92-93, 97,
Serov.Gen.IA44, 726,128 Associated Press: pages 12(top 102(both)105(below), 108,
Shcharansky. Anatoly 749 U2 reconnaissance aircraft 44, left), 20, 27(below), 33. 37, 109(top), 1 10,11 l(top),
Shelepm, Aleksander 44, 144 45-6,47-8,48-9,62,66, 40(both), 4 1 (top). 42-43(top). 50, 113(below), 115, 116,
Shevchencko, Arkady 145 166,171 54(top), 56, 72(below), 78(both), 117(below), 126, 127(above),
Sihanouk, Prince Norodom 1 16, UKUSA treaty 68 8084,85.86(top).90(top), 129(below), 130, 132(top). 133.
1 16. 119 United Fruit Company 56, 59 95(top),103(below).105(top), 137(top), 145(below). 148(top),
Smyavsky and Daniel show trial United Nations 84, 91 109(below), lll(below). 114, 151(nght), 157(below), 159,
144 forces of 82. 85 117(bothtop).120(top), 124- 162(below), 168(top), 169(top)
Skondov, Boris 168 United States 152 125(both) 131(below), 136(both), TPS/Three Lions: pages
Smith, Harold 7 British relationship 68. 70, 72 143(top), 156, 157(top), 118(top), 122
Smith. Walter Bedell 37. 37, 38 CIA see main heading 169(below). 170(both), 171(left), TRH: pages 46(top).47(top).
Snepp, Frank 125 FBI see main heading 173,180(below), 181(below), 121(bothtop), 123(top),
Solidarity, Polish trade union foreign policy 18, 22, 29, 82. 182,184,187,190 166(left), 167(top)
140, 141, 143 112.131.159.172 BBC/Bettmann Archive: pages TRH/Robin Adshead: page
Somoza Debayle. Anastasio 173, Joint Chiefs of Staff 22, 62, 65 26(below).30-31(all4), 146(below)
773.176. 776.177 Latin America and 126, 131-3, 51(below),58(below),64(top), US Department of State: page
Souers. Adm. Sidney 8-9 135 101,140,176(below),179(top) 170(top)
Soupert. Jean Paul 169 Moscow embassy 185, 186 Bison Picture Library: pages US National Archives: page
South Africa, Republic of 87. 88- NSA9.68.69 1 0(all 3), 1 1 (top). 62{2 below). 158(below)
192
Celina Bledowska
Celina Bledowska is a freelance journalist who I
specialises in intelligence and related matters. She
has written articles for The Observer and contributed
to The Sunday Times Insight team. Recently she has
worked for British television with stories appearing on
major network programs including Newsnight and
News At Ten. Her collaboration with Jonathan Bloch »
has led to work for news programs and documentary
series. She has a special interest in the workings of The
Official Secrets Act and the concept of
'disinformation.' •
Jonathan Bloch
Jonathan Bloch was born in Cape Town, South Africa
and studied law at the University of Cape Town and the
London School of Economics. Afreelance writer on
intelligenceand foreign affairs he has contributed to
The Observer, Africa Now, The Middle East and New
Internationalist and was a co-author of the collection
Dirty work 2: the CIA in Africa. Alongside his
collaboration with Celina Bledowska he has made a
study of the nature and workings of British intelligence
and covert operations.
An Exeter Book