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Another random document with
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foreign frigates used 18-pounders. A 24-pound shot is naturally more
effective than an 18-pound shot from the same type of gun.
But not only was the Constitution heavily armed. She was built of
timbers of about the size of those used in line-of-battle ships, and so
was much stronger than other frigates. As a matter of fact, she so
outclassed the frigates of the British Navy that several line-of-battle
ships were cut down until, technically, they became frigates, in order
that they might meet her on more favourable terms.

A SUBMARINE

The Constitution was a more graceful ship than the Victory, as

frigates, as a class, were more graceful than all line-of-battle ships.
They required more speed, and so had finer lines. Their sides were
not so high, their bows less bluff, their sterns more finely designed.
Line-of-battle ships were hardly more than floating wooden forts,
carrying as many guns as possible. Frigates were fine ships, having
all the qualities of fine ships, and carrying modified batteries.
So regularly did the Constitution defeat other frigates, and so
simply was she able to refuse battle with superior forces, that the
British Navy profited by her advantages and built similar ships. But
the end of the era of sail was approaching, and before much could
be done in the further perfection of ships of this kind, new warships
propelled by steam had come into being, throwing into the discard
both the line-of-battle ships and the frigates of an earlier day.
Following the War of 1812 there were no engagements of great
importance in which warships played a part until the Crimean War, in
1855. During this period both steam and iron had been utilized by
the designers of warships, and navies had made the first of the great
steps that changed the fleets of the world from the wooden sailing
ships of Trafalgar to the steel monsters of Jutland.
Typical warships of the most improved design just prior to the
Crimean War were not greatly dissimilar from the line-of-battle ships
and frigates of the War of 1812 except that they used steam as well
as sails. They were larger, it is true. Such a ship was the British
Duke of Wellington. She was 240 feet long, 60 feet wide, and
displaced 5,830 tons. Her engines were of 2,000 horse power, and
her speed under power was a trifle less than ten knots (nautical
miles per hour). She carried 131 guns on four decks. This
arrangement of guns was similar to that formerly used on line-of-
battle ships, which sometimes carried guns on the upper deck as
well as on the three gun-decks below. She was, then, one of the line-
of-battle ships of her day, although this term was changed about this
time to “ships-of-the-line.” Other somewhat smaller ships, propelled
by steam and sails and with guns placed similarly to those of the
earlier frigates, had come to be called “steam frigates,” or sometimes
still were called frigates. The Hartford, Admiral Farragut’s flagship at
the Battle of Mobile Bay in the American Civil War, was of this type.
 A MODERN DESTROYER
This type of ship was originally designed to protect the
larger ships from torpedo boats, but now that duty has
been eliminated by the elimination of torpedo boats, and
destroyers have many uses with the fleets to which they
belong.

At about this time, too, explosive shells were introduced, and as

these were far more formidable than the solid shot of earlier times,
naval men set about protecting ships in order to reduce the
effectiveness of this new form of attack.
Iron had been introduced a few years earlier as a ship-building
material, and so iron, naturally enough, was used as armour on
some of the ships sent to Crimea, for wooden ships of the line had
been badly battered by the guns of the Russians when a combined
naval force of British and French ships had attacked a fort near
Sebastopol. Both the British and the French instantly began to build
armoured ships for use in the Crimean War. The British ships were
not completed in time, but three of the French ships went very
successfully through an engagement with a Russian fort in 1855.
These ships were, of course, awkward, heavy, and slow, but they
did prove the value of armour, and so both the French and the British
went to work placing armour on wooden ships and building ships of
new design.
In 1859 an iron frigate called the Warrior, a ship 380 feet long,
displacing 8,800 tons, was begun by the British. A wide strip of
armour 4½ inches thick was placed on each side. This armour strip
was 213 feet long and was wide enough to extend from a little below
the water line to the upper deck. Both bow and stern were
unprotected. This ship was, in appearance, merely an enlargement
of the wooden steam frigates that had preceded her, but she made
the surprising speed, under power, of 14 knots an hour.
While she was being built a new type of cannon was perfected
which gave greater power with less weight and she was armed with
these improved guns, each of which was of seven-inch bore and
weighed between six and seven tons.
Then came the American Civil War and a still newer type of
armoured ship was invented. This was the ship with a turret, and the
first of these was the Monitor. She was designed by Captain
Ericsson, the same man who perfected the screw propeller, and the
turret, the most important feature of this ship, is the original one from
which the highly perfected turrets of to-day have developed.
The idea of mounting guns in turrets had been suggested before,
as a result of the experience gained in the Crimean War, but
Ericsson, when he designed the Monitor, was the first to put the idea
into practice.
 A MODERN SUPER-DREADNAUGHT
Which carries the heaviest type of guns, and is protected by
heavy armour. Its speed is less than that of cruisers.

The Monitor was a strange-appearing ship. The fact that she was
said by the Confederates to be a “cheese box on a raft” gives some
idea of her appearance. She was 170 feet long, 41½ feet wide, and
displaced about 1,200 tons, but her appearance was unique. Her
deck was but two feet above the water and from bow to stern she
was as smooth as a paved street except for a tiny pilot house near
the bow and a huge round “cheese box” amidships. This cheese box
was the turret and in it were mounted two 11-inch Dahlgren guns, the
Monitor’s only battery. The turret was about twenty-two feet in
diameter and the sides of it were of iron eight inches thick. This was
built up of eight thicknesses of one-inch plates bolted together. The
broad smooth deck was covered with three inches of iron and the
low sides with five inches. This strange vessel was completed just in
time to be sent to Hampton Roads in order to protect the wooden
ships of the Union Navy from the ferocious and effective onslaughts
of the Merrimac, a Confederate ironclad that had just sunk the
Cumberland and set fire to the Congress. This ship had been the
wooden frigate Merrimac which had been partly burned when the
Union forces had abandoned the Norfolk Navy Yard. The
Confederates had raised her, repaired her, cut her sides down
almost to the water line, and had built a huge deck house amidships.
This deck house, in which the cannon were mounted, had sloping
walls which were covered with railroad rails. Harking back to the time
of Greece, they affixed a huge ram to her bow, and then sent her
forth against the Union ships in Hampton Roads. Their shells
ricochetted from her armoured sides like hail from a tin roof. All the
cannon the helpless Cumberland could bring to bear disturbed her
not at all, and slowly bearing down upon her wooden adversary she
buried her ram in the Cumberland’s hull. Slowly the old sailing ship
filled and sank, her guns still firing and her shells still glancing
harmlessly from the Merrimac’s armour of rails. The Confederate
ship then turned her attention to the Congress, shelled her and set
her on fire, and then calmly returned to her base none the worse,
save for a few dents in her armour.
But during the night that followed the Monitor appeared, having
slowly made her way down the coast from New York. The next day
the Merrimac came out to finish her work of destruction, when the
Monitor, a tiny ship beside her great opponent, steamed slowly
toward the approaching ironclad. A duel memorable in naval annals
followed—the first battle between ironclad ships.
As the two ships approached each other the Monitor’s turret slowly
revolved. The black muzzles of the two guns came to bear on her
great antagonist. A double blast from them, and the Merrimac reeled
from the shock, but the turning turret had carried the gun muzzles on
around, away from the fire of the Confederate ship. As the turret
revolved the gun crew, with feverish haste, loaded again, and once
more the muzzles faced the Merrimac. All this time the Confederate
had been raining shells at her little opponent, but they glanced
harmlessly from the deck or barely dented the iron walls of the turret.
The Merrimac tried to ram, but the Monitor out-manœuvred her and
the battle continued. A shell struck the Monitor’s pilot house and the
commander was temporarily blinded, but the fight continued. At last,
however, the Merrimac withdrew. The fight, perhaps, was a draw, but
can more properly be called a victory for the Monitor—the first ship
to mount a turret, for the Merrimac never again faced a Union ship,
and later in the war was sunk by her own men to keep her from
falling into the hands of their enemies.

A BATTLE CRUISER
A ship carrying the heaviest of guns but lacking the heavy armour
of the dreadnaughts. Its speed is greatly superior to that of
dreadnaughts.
 Following this engagement many ships similar to both the Monitor
and the Merrimac were built to take part in the Civil War. And others
of other designs were constructed. The war ended, however, with no
further important steps having been made in the design of warships.
Following the Civil War the Navy of the United States fell into
decay for twenty years, but European nations continued the building
of ironclad and, later, steelclad warships. In these, many
experiments were made with turrets and side armour but little of
permanent value resulted.
Guns were perfected, it is true, and the old muzzle-loading
smooth-bores of Civil War and earlier times were succeeded by
breech-loading rifles. These new guns, too, became more and more
powerful and more and more accurate. Still, however, the accuracy
of gunfire was not greatly improved, although it improved slowly.
The newer ships gradually eliminated sails and came to depend
exclusively on their engines, just as passenger ships did during this
same period, and the engines increased in power and reliability until,
in the early ’nineties, many of the world’s cruisers were capable of a
speed of more than twenty knots an hour.
Turrets had become revolving armoured turntables carrying one or
two guns, and these had been placed on an equally heavily
armoured “barbette” or circular steel base through which shells and
ammunition were hoisted into the turret. Side armour grew heavier
and heavier, and a “protective deck,” somewhat above the water line,
was built in. This deck was of comparatively thin steel armour, and
as it approached the side of the ship it was bent down so that it was
attached to the sides at or below the water line, thus placing over the
all-important boilers, engine rooms, and magazines the protection
that they needed from the enemy’s shells. During this period, guns
were such that an enemy’s projectile would probably strike the side
of the ship, and this deck, therefore, did not have to be designed to
prevent the entrance of shells striking it except at a small angle.
Consequently, the light armour used was sufficient. Later, at the
Battle of Jutland (in 1916) and elsewhere, these decks were easily
penetrated by shells fired at such a distance that they fell at a very
steep angle.

A SCOUT CRUISER
This ship is one of the Omaha class, built after the World War for
the U. S. Navy.

Shortly before the Spanish-American War, a new type of warship

began to appear, and it created much interest because of its
supposed ability to annihilate other types of ships. This new type
was the torpedo boat. It was small and was very fast, for that day,
being capable of twenty-one or twenty-two knots and sometimes a
little more. It was a fragile affair, but it carried the newly perfected
Whitehead torpedo. “Torpedoes” had been used during the Civil War,
but in reality they were nothing but mines, set off by a trigger or by
contact, and capable of use only when they could be set in the path
of a ship, or by being fastened at the end of a long pole could be
thrust against a ship, below the water line, by another craft. Some
success attended their use during the Civil War, but they were not
numerous or widely successful.
The Whitehead torpedo, however, was a new development. It
consisted of three parts: first, the “war head,” or foremost section,
filled with high explosive which was set off when its sharp nose came
in contact with a solid object; second, a round steel compressed-air
tank, which took up the midship section; and third, the section to
which were attached propellers, vertical and horizontal rudders, and
in which there was a powerful engine operated by the compressed
air of the midship section. This torpedo could be plunged into the
water from a “torpedo tube” and its engine would propel it for four or
five hundred yards, while it was kept in a direct line and at an even
depth beneath the surface by its automatic rudders.
A torpedo boat, then, small, fast, and capable of making a
comparatively high speed, did seem to be a dangerous warship. But
during the Spanish-American War two Spanish torpedo boats, the
Furor and the Pluton, were smothered by the fire of the American
ships—notably the Vixen, which was only a converted yacht—at the
Battle of Santiago, and later another type of ship called the “torpedo-
boat destroyer” was designed. This new type completely eliminated
the torpedo boat.
The heavier warships had grown into weird collections of turrets.
Turrets carried 12-inch guns, and 8-inch guns, and 6-inch guns, and
all of these were sometimes placed on a single ship. Turrets were
forward and aft and on both sides, sometimes as many as eight of
them. But the 12-inch guns outranged the 8-inch guns, and the 8-
inch guns outranged the 6-inch guns, and so the British, seeing the
fallacy of these numerous guns of various sizes, decided to build a
ship armed only with the heaviest type of naval guns in use and with
small guns to withstand torpedo attacks. Thus the Dreadnaught
came to be designed. She was the first “all-big-gun” ship, and
immediately she changed the design of all line-of-battle ships, or, as
they had come to be called by this time, battleships. Incidentally, so
great was the effect that the Dreadnaught had, that all the great
battleships to-day are called “dreadnaughts,” or, now that they have
increased so much in size, “super-dreadnaughts.”
 AN AIRPLANE VIEW OF THE U. S. S. LANGLEY
An airplane carrier. In order to build the great flying
deck the funnel had to be led to the port side, where it
projects only slightly above the deck.

The Dreadnaught was built in 1906. She is 490 feet long, 92 feet
wide, and displaces 17,900 tons. From this will be seen the
enormous increase in size that ships had gone through since the
introduction of steel. She carried ten 12-inch guns, mounted in five
turrets, and in addition to these, originally carried no other guns save
twenty-four 12-pounder rapid-fire guns. She could steam at 21½
knots an hour, and the distance she could go without replenishing
her supply of coal was 5,800 miles.
 This ship, as I have suggested, revolutionized modern battleship
design, and, since she first appeared, the leading naval powers have
built ships of her type as their first line of defense. It is true that her
secondary battery was found to be inadequate and that later
dreadnaughts and super-dreadnaughts have increased the size of
the guns in this minor battery, but they still retain the huge and
powerful battery of big guns of a uniform size.
Dreadnaughts have enlarged their guns from 12-inch to 14-inch
and at last to 16-inch, which, under the Disarmament Treaty signed
at Washington in 1921, is the limit in size, and some of the newest
ships have their guns mounted three in a turret instead of one or two,
but the characteristic that made the Dreadnaught a dreadnaught is
still a characteristic of all present-day first-line battleships.
Other types have come into existence, but unfortunately I have no
space in which to discuss them. Battle cruisers are fast ships of
tremendous size—they are the largest of modern warships—which
carry little armour but are armed with huge batteries of the heaviest
guns and are capable of enormous speed. They can make from 28
to 35 knots an hour—a speed that can be equalled only by
destroyers. There are submarines, those slinking creatures that
infested the North Sea, the Atlantic, and the Mediterranean during
the World War. The hours I have spent on duty in the English
Channel and the Bay of Biscay, leaning on the bridge rail, scanning
every wave and every bit of wreckage, helping to pick up
occasionally the crew of a torpedoed steamer, searching night and
day for the submarines sent out from Kiel and Zeebrugge, have not
made of submarines a type of warship for which I have any love. But
I realize that, despite the aversion I grew to have for them, they are
marvellous structures, capable of amazing feats, and capable, too, of
better, or at least not such vicious, uses as those to which the
Germans put them.
But the warships of to-day—they are of almost innumerable
designs and sizes and uses. A modern fleet is no longer able to
maintain itself with fighting ships alone. Supply ships, hospital ships,
airplane carriers, colliers, gunboats, fleet submarines, ordinary
submarines, destroyers, scout cruisers, battle cruisers,
dreadnaughts, super-dreadnaughts—these are some of the types
that only an encyclopædia of naval information could adequately
describe.
 CHAPTER VIII
PORTS AND PORT EQUIPMENT

N OT all of the story of the sea is in the story of ships. Ships have
always required shelter from the stress of sea, where repairs
could be made, where cargoes could be loaded and unloaded,
where crews and passengers could be taken on board or put ashore.
In ancient times a river’s mouth might have been sufficient, or a
natural indentation in the coast line where a small protected body of
water lay in the lee of a jutting headland. Sometimes a small bay,
almost completely surrounded by land, and still deep enough for
ships to ride at anchor, served as a harbour of refuge. Sometimes
islands might be found that protected a small arm of the sea.
All such places along the Mediterranean coast early became
known to navigation, for the early sailor was inclined to skirt the
shore, fearful of the perils of the open sea. At first these sheltered
spots were left, of course, as Nature had made them. Perhaps a bar
at the mouth made entry difficult; perhaps the prevailing winds drove
piled-up seas into the broad mouths of others; perhaps marshes
surrounded others still, and in such cases these harbours were less
used than those without such disadvantages.
But wherever a fine harbour existed there grew up a port, for
ships, except those meant for war, have no uses save to carry the
goods and passengers that originate ashore. If, on some one of
these finer harbours, a port sprang up, and if a rich interior country
was easy of access from it, because of a navigable river, perhaps, or
because caravan routes converged there, or an easy defile through
some mountain range led to some rich valley not too far distant,
these ports became important. They grew in size because the ease
of land or inland transportation permitted the people of the interior to
bring their goods for sale. Because of their increased size they
attracted the makers of cloth, of leather goods, of glass, of metal
ware and cutlery, and of all the great list of goods that go to make up
commerce. These artisans came to important ports because the
ease of distribution made it simpler for them to sell their wares.

A MAP OF THE PORT OF NEW YORK

The Lower Bay has not yet been developed, but about
the Upper Bay and along the Hudson and East rivers
hundreds of piers are in everyday use. While New York
is a huge port and while it can continue to grow for many
years it has numerous disadvantages, one of the chief of
which is the absence of a belt line railroad.

At first, the ships being small, they could be drawn up on the

beach, but as trade increased it was found advisable to build
warehouses and sea walls, so that goods could be stored and easily
loaded and unloaded. The port having become important, it became
vital to protect it from pirates and other enemies, so walls were built
about it on the landward side, and sometimes sea walls were built on
the water side, in which a narrow entrance was left open during the
day and closed with a heavy chain or a floating barricade at night.
These sea walls were often as important to shield the ports from
storms as to protect them from enemies. Thus the early ports
developed, and within these walls were not only all the traders with
their goods, but shipyards and those who supplied ships with
cordage, lumber, and sails, as well.
This simple type of port was the rule down to long after the Middle
Ages. As a matter of fact, the great complete structure of the modern
port has been developed within very recent times—principally since
the introduction of steam.
Naturally enough such cities as Venice and Genoa, in their
heyday, about or a little after the year 1200, were no longer simple
ports, but by comparison with even minor ports of to-day they were
simple places.
With the development of steam, however, ports became more and
more complex. The increased size of ships, the great investments
that demanded no loss of time in loading and unloading, the vast
increase in the amount of freight and the number of passengers
handled—all these, and many other reasons, compelled ports to add
complexity to complexity, until the person unfamiliar with the great
doings of a busy modern port stands aghast at the vast collection of
quays and docks, jetties and sea walls, steam tugs and canal boats,
ferryboats and barges, floating grain elevators and great suction
dredges, ocean liners and ocean tramps, and a great variety of
complicated equipment in the shape of shipyards, coal pockets,
factories, warehouses, railroad terminals, and many other things too
numerous to mention.
 A MAP OF THE PORT OF LIVERPOOL
While Liverpool is much smaller, so far as mere area is
concerned, than New York, it handles about the same
amount of freight. Freight ships load and unload in the
tidal basins while passenger steamers use floating landing
stages.

Ships do not make a port. Even a fine harbour will not do that
alone. New York is to-day one of the very greatest of the world’s
great ports, but had Nature erected a barrier of insurmountable
mountains around it, even though the harbour and the entrance from
the sea had been left exactly as they are now, it would have been an
inconsequential place, important, perhaps, as a naval base, but
unimportant as a centre of trade, for communication with the interior
would have been rendered difficult or impossible, so that the wheat
of the great Northwest, the iron and steel of Pittsburgh, the
manufactured products of a thousand centres would have found their
way to Baltimore or Philadelphia or Boston or to some other port
easier of access.
Thus a port depends on two things—first, ease of access to the
sea; second, ease of access to a productive hinterland.
Nor can a port become highly important if its trade is all in one
direction. If it imports but does not export, ships can come loaded but
must go away empty, and to do that they must charge very high and
possibly prohibitive rates for the freight they bring. If the port exports
but does not import, then ships must come empty before they can
secure their cargoes, and the result is the same. A healthy port,
then, must have a constant and steady stream of freight bound in
both directions. Montreal would be a more important port than it is if
it served a hinterland that bought in larger quantities the goods
manufactured in Europe, for Montreal could export very nearly all the
wheat that ships could take from her harbour. But her imports are so
much less than her possible exports that ships cannot afford to come
in sufficient numbers to carry away all that she could send,
especially as the wheat can be, and a large part of it is, diverted to
Philadelphia, New York, Boston, and Portland.
Imagine a rich country, producing goods in large quantities which
are salable in foreign lands, and anxious and willing to buy, in equal
quantities, the goods of these foreign lands. Imagine such a country
without a single harbour—with, perhaps, a long unbroken coast of
sandy beach on which relentless surges pound the whole year
through. Would such a country long remain without a port? Not so.
No matter how difficult and costly the task might be, a port would be
built upon that very coast. A harbour would be dredged. Great sea
walls would be erected. Vast warehouses, great quays and docks,
busy railroad terminals would soon be in operation, and where
Nature had made no harbour, man would have one.
But Nature is seldom so unkind. All around the world are natural
harbours which need only the clever hand of man to become busy
with the transfer of goods. Some, of course, have more natural
advantages than others. Some are almost entirely the work of man,
as others are almost entirely the work of Nature, but their natural
advantages must be many ere it is worth the time of man to improve
them.

A MAP OF THE PORT OF RIO DE JANEIRO

Rio Bay is probably the finest in the world, but mountains
paralleling the coast form a handicap to the easy transportation of
goods inland.

The natural advantages of a port, however, are of the greatest

value when they combine many things far distant from the port itself
with the natural advantages of the harbour, its surroundings, and its
outlet.
To cite New York once more, among its great advantages are
these: First, a fine harbour, with ease of access to the sea yet with
thorough protection from its storms. Second, suitable land
surrounding the harbour, on which factories, warehouses, piers, and
shipyards can be erected. Third, a great and navigable river leading
into a rich country. Fourth, a fine canal connecting the upper reaches
of that river with a far greater land, rich in people of great purchasing
and producing power, rich in mines, in farms, in factories. Fifth,
routes leading overland into the interior along which great railroads
have been built that reach with their network ten thousand centres
that otherwise could not buy the goods imported to New York or sell
their own either there or beyond the seas. These five things have
created at the mouth of the Hudson one of the greatest seaports of
all time. Without any one of them New York could not be the port it is,
but of the five, the first two are the least important, for a harbour
could be made, and had the surrounding land been a marsh it could
have been built into dry land. Without the trade of the great land to
the West, however, New York could not have been the port that it is
to-day.
But an account of all the factors that go to make a port would take
one far afield, so with only this inconsequential statement in
reference to the vast economic structure that lies behind a port, I
shall confine myself directly to the port itself and to its environs, its
equipment, and its activities.
No two ports are identical, but the major ports of the world divide
themselves more or less readily into types which I may be permitted
to call the European and the American types, inaccurate as those
classifications may be. I shall describe, in more or less detail, these
two types, and add to this something from other ports that fall less
readily under these two inaccurate classifications.
To begin with it needs to be said that mere size has little bearing
on a port’s ability to handle large quantities of freight. By comparison
with the area of the port of New York the area of the port of Liverpool
is limited, New York being perhaps six times larger. Across the
Mersey from Liverpool are the Birkenhead Docks, which, so far as
mere area is concerned, are hardly larger than the Cumminipaw
Terminal of the Central Railroad of New Jersey which lies across the
Hudson from the Battery. The port of New York, including the New
Jersey side of the Hudson and the Bay, has a developed waterfront