LAMARCKISM

• It is the name given to the theory

proposed by Jean Baptiste Lamarck
(1744-1829), the French Zoologist. It is
also known as the 'theory of inheritance
D U
of acquired characters'.
I N
organic evolution in the
A B
• Lamarck has explained his ideas on
book

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Philosophica Zoologique, published in

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1809. He recognised the fundamental
continuity underlying the diversity in
animals. His theory is the result of his
systematic studies and is based on the
following three main ideas.
Postulates :
• Theory of ‘elan vital’: The internal force of life tend to increase the size of
an organism by growth in organs and systems.

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• Theory of environmental pressure and spontaneous formation of
organs: Changes in the environment create a new need in the organism for
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adapting to that change, failing which the organism cannot survive. New

environmental pressure. A B
organs and systems are formed because of the need that arise due to

I M
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• Theory of Use and Disuse of Organs: The appearance of new needs forces
the organism to put a particular part of its body into more frequent use or
less frequent use. Lamarck believed that any part of the body that is put into
more frequent use, tends to develop stronger and better while any part of the
body, which is put into less or no use, tends to gradually disappear.
Organs developed on use:
• Lengthening of neck in Giraffe
• Development of strong biceps muscles in Blacksmiths
• Increase in visual sense in humans and other primates (Trichromatic, sterioscopic

lower animals.
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vision in primates as opposed to the non sterioscopic monochromatic vision in

Organs weakened on disuse:

I N
A B
• Appendix as a vestigial organ in human body
• Decrease in olfactory sense in primates due to arboreal lifestyle

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• Loss of visual sense in bats and other nocturnal animals
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Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characters: According to Lamarck the
characters acquired by an organism are transmitted by heredity to the next generation.
In every generation, fresh characters are acquired. With the result, after many
generations, the changes accumulate to the extent that the species becomes modified
into a new one.
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A B
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Experements against Lamarckism:
• Mutilation experiment: August Weismann a German biologist tested the Lamarck's
theory by cutting off the tails of the mice generation after generation. If Lamarck's
theory was correct, the subsequent generations should have developed shorter tails.
No such shortening of tails was observed.

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• Boring of ears and nose: It is a common practice in many primitive and
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contemporary societies. But no such alterations in body are transmitted to next
generation.
A B
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• Wearing of iron shoes by females in China: It is a practice to reduce the size of

with small feet.

HI
feet in women by wearing small sized iron shoes. But their children are not born

Experements in favour of Lamarckism:

• F.B.Sumner’s experiment: He reared white rats at high temperature and found that
rats developed larger bodies and long tails and the acquired characters were
transmitted to the next generation .
McDougall’s experiment: He trained white rats to come out through a maze fitted
with electric wiring so that when a rat committed mistake it got a shock. When such
trained rats were mated, it was claimed that the later generations were committing
lesser mistakes.
Evidence from Epigenetics, a study by Duke university

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• Agouti trait is under the control of a transposon that produces pheomelanin (Red-
Yellow). Methyl rich diets methylate the region and inactivates it, leading to

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brown color in mice, whereas those not fed upon such diet developed yellow fur.

thus supporting Lamarckism.

A B
• These are acquired characters and are observed to get inherited by the offspring,

Criticism:
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confirmation H
• Most of the experiments done in favor of Lamarckism were either biased or lacked

• Lamarckism considers variations as the product as evolution whereas modern

theories considers variations as the raw material for evolution that are further acted
up on by the natural selection.
• He could not explain how the internal urge leads to variations.
DARWINISM

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DARWINISM
• It is the theory proposed by Charles Darwin. It is also known as the theory of
natural selection. He formulated this theory along with another English biologist,
Alfred Russel Wallace in the year 1858.

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• This theory is the result of enormous amount of natural history collected by

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Charles Darwin on different species of plants and animals, during his voyage on
I
A B
the ship - H.M.S Beagle which lasted for about 5 years.
• Darwin has given a vivid explanation of his ideas on evolution in the book 'On the
Origin of Species by means of M
H I
of natural selection is based on
Natural Selection' published in 1859. The theory
the following principles.
Over Production
• Darwin found that all organisms have a natural capacity to produce a greater
number of offspring than that survive. However, only few survive due to
low susceptibility to biotic and abiotic factors, or Delicate nature and low viability or
Defects that affect survival
Struggle for Existence
• Intraspecific struggle – among the members of the same species

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• Interspecific struggle- among the members of the different species
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• Struggle against the nature / Environment
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A B
Variations: The differences that an organism shows from its parent or from its
related species are called variations.

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• Individual variations: These are the minor differences that appear in the offspring
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of the same parents of a species. Darwin Considered them to be the major cause of
evolution
• Sport/Sudden variations: Sudden appearance of new characters that are not
found in either of the two parents. He considered them to be of secondary
significance, but they are now considered as mutations and opined as the raw
material for evolution.
• Variations due to use and disuse: He mentioned that the wing muscles of duck
became weak due to disuse and udders of cattle and goat developed due to frequent
milking
• Variations that arise due to hybridisation.
Survival of the fittest

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• Only those organisms, which have favourable variations, are at a specific advantage

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over others. An organism will be fittest for survival due to

• Reproductive capacity
A B
• Capacity of adaptation and predation and

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Drawbacks and criticism of Darwinism

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• In certain animals, some organs have developed beyond the stage of usefulness.
E.g., Antlers of deer, tusks of elephants etc. These organs instead of providing
usefulness to the possessors, offer hindrance in their daily life.
• According to the theory of natural selection, only the useful organs are selected in
the struggle for existence. The vestigial organs serve no function, yet they are
preserved generation after generation.
SYNTHETIC THEORY OF EVOLUTION/
POST DARWINIAN / NEODARWINISM

• Synthetic theory is a post Darwinian theory of organic evolution. It is a synthesis

of Darwinism and population genetics.
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• The modern synthetic theory of evolution is the result of the work of a number of
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scientists namely T. Dobzhansky, R.A. Fisher, J.B.S. Haldane, Sewall Wright,

A
Ernst Mayr, and G.L. Stebbins. B
theory.
I M
• Stebbins in his book, Process of Organic Evolution, discussed the synthetic

H
• It includes the following factors (1) Gene mutations (2) Variation
(Recombination) (3) Heredity, (4) Natural selection and (5) Isolation leading to
inbreeding.
• In addition, three accessory factors affect the working of these five basic factors;
ØMigration of individuals from one population to another.
ØHybridization between races or closely related species both increase the amount
of genetic variability available to a population.
ØGenetic drift: The effect of chance acting on gene frequencies in small
populations.
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Neo-Darwinism is the "modern synthesis" of Darwinian evolution through natural
I
A B
selection with Mendelian genetics. The modern evolutionary synthesis, now
generally referred to as the synthetic view of evolution / the modern synthesis /

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Neo-Darwinism. However, some have described such usage as incorrect.

HI
E.g., Ernst Mayr stated that "the term Neo-Darwinism for the synthetic theory is
wrong. Despite such objections, publications such as Encyclopædia
Britannica use this term to refer to current evolutionary theory. Richard
Dawkins and Stephen Jay Gould use the term in their writings and lectures.
NATURAL SELECTION:
Stabilizing selection, directional selection, disruptive selection and relaxed selection
discussed in 9.3 (Hardy-Weinberg law)
BASED ON MAGNITUDE OF SELECTION:

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Density dependent selection: We have seen that mimetic forms get selective
advantage, but it depends on density. The mimic must be at a lower density than the

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distasteful butterfly to have that selective advantage.

A B
Frequency dependent selection: Bird predators have a search image for the prey.
Most distributed prey will become the target of heavy attack by birds because the

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search image is that of the most frequent type.
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Group selection or Kin selection or altruistic selection: In Baboons dominant
males lead the troupe and challenge the predator. Such leader is often killed in
encounter. Despite its best genotype, the leader dies. Selection operate here not at
individual level but at group level.
ECOLOGICAL BASIS OF SELECTION:
• R-selection: r refers to biotic potential, the max capacity of the individual to
reproduce. In plentiful environments selection favours the individuals with high
biotic potential and low individuation.

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• K-Selection: K refers to carrying capacity of the environment. In scarce
environment selection favours the individuals with less reproductive potentiality
and high individuation.
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DOLLO'S LAW OF IRREVERSIBILITY
A B
I M
(also known as Dollo's law and Dollo's
by French-born Belgian paleontologist
principle) is a hypothesis proposed in 1893
Louis Dollo which states that evolution is not
reversible. This hypothesisH was first stated by Dollo in this way: "An organism is
unable to return, even partially, to a previous stage already realized in the ranks of its
ancestors.” According to this hypothesis a structure or organ that has been lost or
discarded through the process of evolution will not reappear in exactly the same form
in that line of organisms.
According to Richard Dawkins, the law is "just a statement about the statistical
improbability of following exactly the same evolutionary trajectory twice in either
direction." Stephen Gould viewed the idea less strictly, suggesting that
"irreversibility" forecloses certain evolutionary pathways once broad forms
have emerged: For example, once you adopt the ordinary body plan of a reptile,

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hundreds of options are forever closed, and future possibilities must unfold within
the limits of inherited design.
I N
MOSAIC EVOLUTION:
A B
(or modular evolution) is the concept that evolutionary change takes place in
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some body parts or systems without simultaneous changes in other parts. Another
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definition is the "evolution of characters at various rates both within and between
species". Its place in evolutionary theory comes under long-term trends or
macroevolution. By its very nature, the evidence for this idea comes mainly from
palaeontology. It is not claimed that this pattern is universal, but there are now a
wide range of examples from many different taxa. Some examples:
• Eg., Hominid evolution: the early evolution of bipedalism in Australopithecines,
and its modification of the pelvic girdle took place well before there was any
significant change in the skull, or brain size.
• Note: Can write any example from 1.6 chapter Preferably Javaman

(more evolved) features.

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(Pithecanthropus) having both ape like (less evolved) features & Human like

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COMPETITIVE EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE / N
GAUSE’S LAW :
A B
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This principle is sometimes referred to as Gause's law of competitive exclusion or
I
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just Gause's law. This law states that two species competing for the same resources
cannot coexist if other ecological factors are constant. When one species has even
the slightest advantage or edge over another, then the one with the advantage will
dominate in the long term. One of the two competitors will always overcome the
other, leading to either the extinction of this competitor or an evolutionary or
behavioral shift towards a different ecological niche. The principle has been
paraphrased into the maxim "complete competitors cannot coexist".
Alternative outcomes when two species Become complete competitors:
• Divergence or adaptive radiation where the resulting groups become different
from each other and occupy different niches. (Can elaborate on adaptive radiation)
(or)

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• One of them may become extinct (Excluded due to competition)

I N
COPE'S RULE:
A B
in I
M
Postulated by the American paleontologist
population lineages tend to increase
rule has been demonstratedH
Edward Drinker Cope, states that
in body size over evolutionary time. While the
many instances, it does not hold true at all taxonomic
levels, or in all clades. Larger body size is associated with increased fitness for a
number of reasons, although there are also some disadvantages both on an
individual and on a clade level: clades comprising larger individuals are more prone
to extinction, which may act to limit the maximum size of organisms.
Reasons for exceptions: Though large body size in general provides a survival
advantage, very large body size is a factor that makes a species vulnerable to
extinction. As they require more resources for survival and any scarcity of
resources drive them to extinction.
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ADAPTIVE RADIATION / DIVERGENCE: The most common pattern,

A B
divergent evolution, occurs when two or more new species form from a common
ancestor and then become more different through time.

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• Homologous organs: Organs having common basic structure, Anatomy, Genetics
H
and Embryology indicating that they have a common ancestry but adapted for
different functions , that indicate divergence.
• E.g., Forelimbs of human ( For grasping), patagium of bat (For flying), forelimbs
of animals (For walking and running), Flippers of a seal (For swimming)
ADAPTIVE PRIMATE RADIATION

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CONVERGENCE:
The evolution of species descended from different ancestors to become
superficially similar because they are adapting to the same environment is
called convergent evolution.

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Analogous organs: Analogy refers to similarity in function due to convergence

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but not common ancestry, structure, anatomy and Genetics. E.g., Wings of
insects, bats and birds.
PARALLEL EVOLUTION:
A B
I M
Parallel evolution refers to the independent evolution of similar traits in
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different but equivalent habitats. It occurs in geographically separated but
equivalent habitats. Parallel evolution gives morphological resemblance to two
species. Both unrelated and distantly-related species may undergo parallel
evolution in equivalent habitats as the environmental influence on the species is
similar.
Convergent evolution
Occurs within a particular
habitat.
Two distinct species evolve
analogous traits
Occurs in unrelated species
A BOccurs in unrelated or distantly
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sharks. H
Body shape of Dolphins and
Parallel evolution
Occurs in different but
equivalent habitats
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Two distinct species evolve
D
N
similar traits.
I
related species
E.g., Though old-world monkeys
and new world monkeys were
split long time ago, they evolved
in a very similar manner.
1. Adaptive primate radiation. (2019, 10M)
2. Adaptive radiation in the concept of evolution(2012,12m)
3. Critically examine Darwin’s theory of evolution in
understanding evolution. (2015,15)
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4. Discuss how Neo Darwinism integrated the fields of
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Genetics and Evolution (2013,20)
5. Synthetic theory of Evolution (15M, 2011,2010)
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6. Elucidate how Darwin and Post-Darwin theories of
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evolution resulted in the development of Synthetic theory
of evolution. (15M,2020)
Q. Explain how the natural selection acts on variations leading to evolution.
• Mutation can be defined as sudden heritable change in gene sequence that alters
gene function. Mutations occur randomly. Some of them can be favorable and the
others can be unfavorable or lethal (E.g., Thalassemia).
• Natural selection acts on mutations so that the favorable mutations are selected.

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E.g., skin color, nose shape, Allen’s rule, Bergman’s rule, lactase gene, type of

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alcohol dehydrogenase, colour blindness, sickle cell anemia etc.

A B
• NOTE: Elaborate on examples to make it 150/200 words
• Thus mutations & variations are necessary for the natural selection to act upon.

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Therefore, Mutations can be considered as the most important of all evolutionary

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forces. Mutations are the raw material for evolution.
• If the individuals having the selected mutations get migrated, isolated and
undergo inbreeding it makes the individuals in the group similar to each other
and the group different from the other groups leading to speciation. (Formation of
new species).
1.4 Human Evolution and emergence of Man:
(a) Biological and Cultural factors in human
evolution.

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(b) Theories of Organic Evolution (Pre-

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Darwinian, Darwinian and PostDarwinian).
B
(c) Synthetic theory of evolution; Brief outline
A
M
of terms and concepts of evolutionary biology
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(Doll's rule, Cope's rule, Gause's rule,
parallelism, convergence, adaptive radiation,
and mosaic evolution).
 1.5. PRIMATE BEHAVIOUR
7. Illustrate with examples the various types of locomotion patterns among the non-
human primates. (15M,2020)
Primate locomotion can be classified on behavioral grounds into four major types:
Vertical clinging and leaping, quadrupedalism, brachiation, and bipedalism.

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• The differences between the four major categories lie principally in the degree to

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which the forelimbs and hind limbs are used to climb, swing, jump, and run.

A B
• Vertical clinging and leaping is primarily of the hind limbs, as is bipedalism,
• Brachiation is performed exclusively with the forelimbs.

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• Quadrupedalism involves both forelimbs and hind limbs, of course, although

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not to an equal extent.
• Some quadrupeds are hind limb-dominated; in others, the forelimb and the hind
limb are equally important.
• The hind limb-dominated primates, such as the langurs and colobus monkeys,
employ a large element of leaping in their movements, a less-notable feature of
the more generalized quadrupeds such as guenons.
• In the quadrupedal, one subtype is slow climbing, devoid of elements of leaping or
jumping. The species in this category are lorises and pottos, all of which are arboreal
and nocturnal.
• The classifications of locomotion into categories is a somewhat artificial procedure.
• A chimpanzee shows a variety of different gaits according to the circumstances of the

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environment: quadrupedalism (knuckle walking), climbing, bipedalism, and

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brachiation. This holds true also for the langurs and colobus monkeys, which are

•
designated semibrachiators.
A B
Changes in climate and geography during the evolutionary history of primates:

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Many chimpanzees now living in woodland-savanna conditions in Africa, where the

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trees are widely spaced and generally unsuitable for the classic climbing style of forest-
living chimpanzees, have adopted a largely ground-living life. Gorillas and
chimpanzees are first and foremost knuckle walkers, but, given an environment like
that of a zoo with a cage specially designed with lots of overhead bars and ropes,
they will brachiate fairly frequently.
The best single indicator of gait, one that has the added advantage
of being strictly quantitative, is the Intermembral index.

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2b. Discuss different forms of primate social organization. (2022, 15M)
There are seven types of primate social organisations identified in the literature
• Solitary primate systems: Individuals conduct activities like foraging or
offspring care independently from one another.

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orangutans, galagos, lorises, some species of lemurs, some tarsiers

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• Pair-bonded systems, are small social units consisting of one adult male and

titi monkeys, owl monkeys,

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one adult female, and their immature offspring.

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• One-female-multi-male groups are composed of one reproductive adult

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female and two or more adult male partners in the group. This social system
promotes cooperative breeding (or alloparenting), where the non-breeding
individuals assist in providing care for the off-spring produced by the main
breeding female.
species of tamarin and marmoset
• One-male-multi-female groups are usually characterised by a single resident
male who defends a group of adult females against males from outside the group.
A takeover by a new resident male could lead to infanticide to bring females
back into estrous, which allows mating opportunities to occur sooner for the new
resident male.
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some species of gorillas, colobine and guenon species,
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• Multi-male-multi-female social systems are characterised by associations

A B
between larger numbers of individuals forming groups.
species of macaques, baboons, capuchins,
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• Fission fusion societies demonstrate a high degree of fluidity by fission and
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fusion as the group moves across a landscape.
humans, chimpanzees, bonobos,
• Multilevel societies, sometimes referred to as hierarchical or modular societies,
are the largest and most complex form of primate social organisation.
baboons, geladas,
8. Jane Goodall’s contributions in studying primate behaviour. (10M,2020)

Human beings have been worshiping nature for centuries – spirituality is indeed
something often cited as what differentiates us from other animals. Jane Goodall
began to unravel the mysteries of our closest living relatives in the animal kingdom –

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wild chimpanzees – and discovered that chimpanzee communities have individual

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cultures, and many may even have a sense of spirituality.
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A B
Culture is typically thought of as group standardization of practices.

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Chimpanzees have indeed been observed performing common practices, traditions,

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and rituals.
In 1964, Dr. Goodall shaped an early theory of non-human culture based on her
observations. In Cultures in Chimpanzees, Gombe researchers wrote that they have
observed 39 different behavioral patterns among chimpanzee groups in across
Africa Related to tool usage, courtship, and grooming. The researchers believe these
differences across chimpanzee groups are not due to ecological factors.
Chimpanzees show “standardization, durability, diffusion,
and tradition in both subsistence and non-subsistence
activities, as revealed by decades of longitudinal study”
(Culture in Nonhuman Primates).
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Sensing things that are intangible:
I
A B
Dr. Goodall observed and wrote about the dances since her
earliest days in Gombe. Many chimpanzees have been
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observed performing dances by the waterfall. It seems like a
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chimpanzee way of expressing amazement toward a force of
nature.
1.5. PRIMATE TAXONOMY / LIVING MAJOR
PRIMATES / EVOLUTIONARY TRENDS

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1.5. PRIMATE ADAPTATIONS ARBOREAL AND TERRESTRIAL / PRIMATE
CHARACTERISTICS

• Opposable thumb that assist in grasping and manipulation behaviors, an adaptation to

arboreal lifestyle.

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• Flat nails instead of claws, with dermatoglyphs (fingerprints) on fingers and toes.

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• Relative reduction in the olfactory sensory system (smaller snouts) as compared to
other mammalian orders.
A B
• Tendency toward smaller litter size, longer gestation times, and extended period of

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juvenile growth, to sum-up, increased period of maternal investment and care.

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• Increased reliance on visual sensation
ØEyes are large and exhibit a high degree of frontation, or placement toward the
front of the face.
ØFrontation increases overlap of visual fields, increasing binocular vision, each
sends visual information to both hemispheres of the brain, enhancing depth.
perception and producing stereoscopic vision.
• Relatively large brains.
• Reduced number of teeth.
• Progressive development of truncal uprightness leading to habitual bipedalism.
• Freely mobile digits.
• Well-marked power grip and precision grip.
• Increased eye – hand coordination.
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•
I N
Decrease in the size of olfactory centre of the brain.
•
• High brain and body ratio.
A B
Highly developed and convoluted brain with much wrinkled cortex.

•
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Presence of simple stomach.
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•
•
•
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Presence of 2 pectorally located mammary glands.
Testes descending into scrotum.
Increase in the gestation period from 45 days to 9 months as in humans.
• Increased period of infant dependency.
• Year-round sexuality with the absence of a specific breeding season.
• Increase in the life span.
1.5. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF MAN AND APES
Character Apes Humans
Sexual Well-marked. Males are Less-marked.
dimorphism bigger than females

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N
Hair texture Coarse or woolly Fine

B I
Density of Dense
ASparse

Hair colour Different colours IM Black, Brown

body hair

H white or

Foramen Situated at the rarer side Situated centrally at

magnum of the base of the skull. the base of the skull
Cranial capacity 128 -500cc in different 1300-1450cc
apes
Proportion of face Face is more developed Cranium is more developed than face
and cranium than cranium
Jaw bones Always prognathic
U
Usually no prognathism, Alveolar
D
I N prognathism is found in few races.
Orbits Smaller
Supra orbital ridges Prominent
A B Larger
Less prominent or absent in few races
Frontal bone
I M
Less developed More developed
Frontal eminences Absent
Forehead H
Receding
Two frontal eminences are found.
Straight
Zygomatic process Well developed Moderately developed
Nose Flat and broad Prominent and elongated
Nasal bridge Less prominent More prominent
Nostrils Visible in the frontal view Not visible in the frontal view
Mandible Large and massive without Less massive with chin
chin
Canines More developed and longer Moderate sized and almost at the
than the other teeth
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same level as other teeth
D
Midline diastema Observed
I N Absent
Teeth size
Dental arch
Large
U Shaped
A B Small
Elliptical
Cerebral
I M
hemi Occipital lobes are relatively Occipital lobes are relatively
spheres
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lager when compared to the
other lobes
smaller when compared to the other
lobes
shape of the Having no curves , straight Having 4 curves, Cervical curve,
vertebral column Thoracic curve, Lumbar curve and
sacral curve
 D U
I N
A B
I M
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Comparison with respect to the structure of Pelvic girdle :

Ilium Long and elongated Short

Pelvic girdle as a whole Narrow and elongated Short and broad

D
Comparison with respect to the structure of fore limbsU
I N
Function
B
Locomotory organs
Curved A
Manipulative organs

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Phalanges Straight
Thumb
H I
Less developed Well developed, opposable
and suitable for power grip
Length of fore limbs in Longer Shorter
relation to hind limbs
 D U
I N
A B
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Comparison between man and apes with respect to the
structure of hind limbs :

Femur Short, thick and curved Long, Slender and straight

Heel Less developed

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More developed
I N
Great toe
A B
Opposable , suitable to Not opposable

M and have
make the foot
I
Hpower grip
prehensile

Function Locomotory and Only locomotory organ

grasping organ
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1.5. EVOLUTIONARY SIGNIFICANCE OF ERECT POSTURE AND
BIPEDALISM.
• Erect posture and bipedalism are unique to humans
• Climate change could be an important reason.
• Man is believed to have originated in Africa.
• Several million years ago, Africa began to lose some
of its forests & vast grasslands grew.
• To look over a long distance in the grass land man
had to stand erect. Humans also could have tried to stand erect to look dominant
and large when compared to other animals.
Evidences of bipedal locomotion:
Laetoli footprints: These fossil footprints were discovered
in Tanzania, East Africa and date to 3.6 million years ago.
They are believed to be the footprints of Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy).
They are the first direct evidence that our ancestors were walking upright by 3.6
million years ago.
Skeletal changes due to erect posture:
S shaped vertebral column.

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A B
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 Consequences of erect posture:
1. Erect posture → Change in the shape and
position of pelvic girdle → Birth canal became
narrow → young one not fully developed at the
time of birth → Prolonged childcare →

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Social institution Marriage → Family, Kinship

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etc.
B
2. Erect posture → Hands became manipulative
A
I M → Culture & Civilization. (Cooking,

H Domicile, Wearing clothes, technology etc.)

3. Erect posture → Change in the shape of neck,
Position of larynx & Hyoid bone , L shaped
vocal tract etc. → Language.
Conclusion: Thus, erect posture of humans
paved the path to various social institutions.
Q. The losses and gains of erect posture
One of the most distinctive human characteristics is erect posture which has its own
advantages and disadvantages.
Gains of erect posture:

culture possible.
D U
• It frees the hands for carrying tools and infants, which made many aspects of

I N
• It improves our ability to radiate heat into the surroundings.

A B
• It allowed our ancestors to see over the tall grasses.
• It allows us to travel long distances with consumption of lesser energy.

I M
• It made language possible by changing the shape and position of hyoid bone and
larynx.
Losses of erect posture:
H
Osteological malfunction:
• Even with much modification, some features of the human skeleton remain poorly
adapted to bipedalism, leading to negative implications.
• The lower back and knee joints are plagued by osteological malfunction, lower
back pain being a leading cause of lost working days.
• Because the joints bear more weight, Arthritis has been an obstacle since

U
hominids became bipedal. scientists have discovered the traces of Arthritis in the
vertebrae of prehistoric hunter-gatherers.
N D
BI
Obstetrical dilemma and narrow birth canal:
• In humans, the head size of foetuses is a tight fit for the mother’s bony birth
A
canal. According to the obstetrical hypothesis, we need a wide pelvis to bear
M
HI
big-brained babies but a narrow one to walk or run efficiently which limited the
size of birth canal. Because of this, human babies are born at an earlier
developmental stage, before their bodies have developed enough to walk around.
Conclusion: Despite having a few disadvantages, erect posture paved the way
for culture and civilisation, which made man unique in the animal kingdom.
 OLD WORLD VS NEW WORLD MONKEYS

• The New World is one of the names used for the Western Hemisphere,

D U
specifically the Americas, certain Atlantic and Pacific oceanic islands to
which the closest continental shelf is that of the Americas (such as

I N
Bermuda), and sometimes Oceania (Australasia).

A B
• The term originated in the early 16th century, shortly after America was
discovered by European explorers, expanding the geographical horizon of

I M
the people of the European Middle Ages, who had thought of the world as
H
consisting of Europe, Asia, and Africa only: collectively now referred to as
the Old World. The Americas were also referred to as the "fourth part of the
world". Monkeys of the old world are called the old-world monkeys and
Monkeys of the new world are called the new world monkeys.
New World Monkeys Old World Monkeys
Small to medium sized primates Medium to large sized primates
Scientific name for New World Scientific name for Old World monkeys is
Monkeys is Platyrrhini which means Catarrhines which means “narrow nosed”.
“flat nosed”. Nostrils face sideways
U
Nostrils face downwards.
D
I N
Prehensile tail (used like a 5th leg) Non-grasping tails

– exception: Howler Monkey

A B
Lack tri chromatic vision (mono vision) Tri chromatic vision (color vision)

I M
Thumb sits in line with other fingers Opposable thumbs
12 premolars
Primary tree dwellers
H 8 premolars
More varied habitat from rainforest to desert.
Mostly on the ground.
Form more monogamous pair bonds & Less monogamous
both male and female show substantial
paternal care of young
Monkeys, Woolly Marmosets, Tamarins, Baboons, Guenons, Macaques, Mangabeys,

D U
Howler Monkeys, Spider, Titi Monkey, Patas, Colobus, Langurs, Leaf-monkey,
Capuchins, Squirrel Monkeys, etc.
I N
Proboscis etc.
Native to South and central America
A BNative to Africa, Asia & Europe

Dental formula - 2133/2133

I M Dental formula - 2123/2123

Simple stomach H Complex stomach, capable of leaf digestion

Claws Flat nails on fingers and toes.
TERTIARY AND QUATERNARY FOSSIL PRIMATES:
1) Archaeozoic era 2) Proterozoic era. 3) Paleozoic era
4) Mesozoic era 5) Cenozoic era
A) Tertiary period: Tertiary period is divided into the following epochs.
• Paleocene
D U
• Eocene
I N
• Oligocene.
A B
• Miocene (23 -5.3 MYA)
I M
H
• Pliocene (5.3 – 1.8 MYA)
B) Quaternary period: Quaternary period is divided into the following epochs.
• Pleistocene (1.8M – 11000 YA)
• Holocene. (11000 YA till present)
Paleocene primates:
• Carpolestidae, Phenocolemuridae, Plesiadapidae families were found in north
America, France and Europe.
• No stereoscopic vision.
• Can be put under prosimians.
D U
N
Eocene Primates:

BI
• Adapidae, Anaptomorphidae , Microsyopidae, Omomyidae, Tarsiidae, families
were found

MA
I
• Larger brain, bigger eyes, More frontation of eyes, stereoscopic vision.
• Reduced snout.
H
• Foramen magnum shifted towards the center of the base of the skull.
• Erect while sitting and hopping.
• Hindlimbs longer than forelimbs.
• Can be put under prosimians.
Oligocene Primates:
Most of the remains were found in Africa, especially Egypt. The Egyptian verities
includes,
• Parapithecus (between prosimian and Anthropoidea)
• Propliopithecus
• Micropithecus
• Oligopithecus D U
• Aelopithecu
I N
• Aegyptopithecus
A B
Can be put under Anthropoidea
Miocene-pliocene: I M
H
The fossil primates of Miocene and Pliocene are considered together because there
seems to be a continuity of certain lineages of Anthropoidea during these epochs.
• Can be considered as Hominoids
• Remains were found in various parts of Asia, Europe and Africa.
• Pliopithecus, Dryopithecus, Sivapithecus, Ramapithecus, Kenyapithecus,
Gigantopithecus, Oreopithecus,
Dryopithecus:
Found in Europe, Africa, Asia (India and China)
• Dryopithecus pattern of dentition: Five cusps, three on cheek side, and two on
tongue side. They are well separated and look like Y. They are ape like and larger
the modern man.
D U
Plio-pleistocene hominids:
I N
A B
1. Australopithecines, Gracile and robust forms.

I M
2. Homo erectus: Africa (Paranthropus), Europe (Homo erectus heidelbergensis),

H
Asia (Homo erectus javanicus & Homo erectus pekinensis.
3. Neanderthal Man- La-Chapelle-auxsaints (Classical type), Mt. Carmel
(Progressive type).
4. Rhodesian man.
5. Homo sapiens - Cromagnon, Grimaldi and Chancelede.
Holocene:

Officially, the current epoch is called the Holocene, which began 11,700 years ago
after the last major ice age. However, the Anthropocene Epoch is an unofficial unit

D U
of geologic time, used to describe the most recent period in Earth’s history when
human activity started to have a significant impact on the planet’s climate and
I N
ecosystems. The word Anthropocene is derived from the Greek words anthropo, for

and chemist Paul Crutzen in 2000. A B

“man,” and cene for “new,” coined and made popular by biologist Eugene Stormer

I M Trend and Primate Taxonomy;

H and Terrestrial) Primate Taxonomy; Primate
1.5 Characteristics of Primates;
Primate Adaptations; (Arboreal
Evolutionary

Behaviour; Tertiary and Quaternary fossil primates; Living Major Primates;

Comparative Anatomy of Man and Apes; Skeletal changes due to erect posture and
its implications.
1.2 PALAEO - ANTHROPOLOGICAL EVIDENCES FROM INDIA WITH
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO SIWALIKS AND NARMADA BASIN
(RAMAPITHECUS, SIVAPITHECUS AND NARMADA MAN).
RAMA PITHECUS
There are at least two dozen fossils specimens that have been identified as belong
to Ramapithecus. Most of these specimens consist of teeth and jaws and they
principally come from two areas – the Siwalik Hills in India and Fort Ternan in
Kenya.
The first discovery of Ramapithecus fossils was made by G.E. Lewis in 1932 in
the Siwalik hills regions of India. He assigned one of the fossils, an upper jaw, to a
new genus and species he named Ramapithecus brevirostris.
The generic name simply means Rama’s ape’ Rama being the mythical prince who
is the hero of Indian epic poem. The species name that Lewis chose was more
meaningful for it is the Latin word for ‘short snouted’.
ANATOMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RAMAPITHECUS
Ø Incisors and canine are inserted vertically and no prognathism as in apes.
Ø Little or no canine diastema.
Ø The canines of the Ramapithecus are not projected.
Ø The dental arcade is rounded.
Ø The palate of the Ramapithecus is arched as in man.
Ø Flattened and thick enameled premolars and molars that appear to be adapted
for heavy chewing and processing of hard food stuffs.
Ø The molars possess the Dryopithecus Y-5 cusps pattern. ( 5 cusps, 3 on buccal
side, 2 on lingual side, they are well separated, and the teeth look like Y )
Ø Slightly divergent tooth rows. The tooth rows have been identified as
parabolic by some and V-shape by some others.
Ø Reduction of size of third molar as compared to first and second molar.
Ø The ratio between the sizes of front tooth (incisors and canine) and those of
cheek teeth (premolars and molars) is roughly the same as humans.
Ø Large inferior torus on mandible.
Ø Short maxilla that would indicate a placement of the chewing muscles that
increase the chewing pressure brought to bear on the food being eaten.
Ø Facial profile is orthognathous, indicating that it did not use teeth as weapons
and therefore must have used hands for hunting and defense, suggesting that
it is an erect biped and therefore assumed earlier as an ancestor of
Australopithecus and thus humans.

DEBATES ON PHYLOGENETIC POSITION OF RAMAPITHECUS

• Ramapithecus, fossil primate dating from the Middle and Late Miocene
epochs (about 16.6 million to 5.3 million years ago).
• For a time in the 1960s and ’70s, Ramapithecus was thought to be a distinct
genus that was the first direct ancestor of modern humans (Homo sapiens)
before it became regarded as that of the orangutan ancestor, Sivapithecus.
• The first Ramapithecus fossils (fragments of an upper jaw and some teeth) were
discovered in 1932 in fossil deposits in the Siwālik hills of northern India.
• No significance was attached to those fossils until 1960, when American
anthropologist Elwyn Simons of Yale University began studying them and fit the
jaw fragments together.
• Based on his observations of the shape of the jaw and of the morphology of the
teeth—which he thought were transitional between those of apes and humans,
Simons advanced the theory that Ramapithecus represented the first step in
the evolutionary divergence of apes and humans. I.e., first direct ancestor of
humans.
• Simons’s theory was strongly supported by his student English-born American
anthropologist David Pilbeam and soon gained wide acceptance among
anthropologists.
• The age of the fossils (about 14 million years) fit well with the then-prevailing
notion that the ape-human split had occurred at least 15 million years ago.
• The first challenge to the theory came in the late 1960s from American
biochemist Allan Wilson and American anthropologist Vincent Sarich
concluded that the ape-human divergence must have occurred much later than
Ramapithecus. (It is now thought that the final split took place some 6 million
to 8 million years ago.) based on the degree of similarity in albumin proteins
between apes and humans.
• Wilson and Sarich’s argument was initially dismissed by anthropologists,
but biochemical and fossil evidence mounted in favour of it.
• Finally, in 1976, Pilbeam discovered a complete Ramapithecus jaw, not far
from the initial fossil find, that had a distinctive V shape and thus differed
markedly from the parabolic shape of the jaws of members of the human
lineage. He soon repudiated his belief in Ramapithecus as a human
ancestor, and the theory was largely abandoned by the early 1980s.
Ramapithecus fossils subsequently were found to resemble those of the
fossil primate genus Sivapithecus, which is now regarded as ancestor of the
orangutan; the belief also grew that Ramapithecus probably should be
included in the Sivapithecus genus. – Encyclopaedia Britannica.

The only real difference between the remains is that fossils originally
assigned as Ramapithecus are smaller, possibly because of sexual
dimorphism with Ramapithecus being females, although ideas that it
being a smaller species of Sivapithecus have also been considered.
 Arch shaped jaw in man

Earlier fossil of
fragmented jaw
appeared to be
similar to that of
man

U shaped jaw in
Rama pithecus
similar to apes
SIVAPITHECUS (SHIVA'S APE)
Name: Sivapithecus.
Named By: Pilgrim - 1910.
Synonyms: Ramapithecus.
Classification: Chordata, Mammalia, Primates, Anthropodea, hominoidea,
Hominidae, Ponginae.
Diet: Herbivore.
Size: 1.5 meters tall when bipedal.
Known locations: China, India, Nepal, Pakistan & Turkey.
Time period: Serravallian to Messinian of the Miocene.
Fossil representation: Partial, fragmented remains of numerous individuals.
Distribution: Although best known from the Sivalik Hills, Sivapithecus seems to
have had a much broader geographical distribution.
• Sivapithecus is considered to be ancestor to the orangutan, although some parts
of the body appear to be more chimpanzee-like.
• The body proportions and particularly the form of the wrists supports the idea
that Sivapithecus spent a greater amount of time on the ground than in the trees.
• Despite this, skull remains, and subsequent reconstructions based upon these
have revealed that Sivapithecus was much more orangutan-like in its facial
appearance.
• There is also a real possibility that aside from being an ancestor to modern
orangutans, Sivapithecus was also related to the giant ape Gigantopithecus, the
larger species of which were easily double the size of Sivapithecus.
• In 1982, David Pilbeam published a description of a significant fossil find,
formed by a large part of the face and jaw of a Sivapithecus. The specimen bore
many similarities to the orangutan skull and strengthened the theory
that Sivapithecus was closely related to orangutans.
Description
Sivapithecus was about 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) in body length, similar in size to a modern
orangutan. In most respects, it would have resembled a chimpanzee, but its face was
closer to that of an orangutan. The shape of its wrists and general body proportions
suggest that it spent a significant amount of its time on the ground, as well as in trees.
It had large canine teeth, and heavy molars, suggesting a diet of relatively tough food,
such as seeds and savannah grasses.
Species: Currently three species are generally recognized:
• Sivapithecus indicus fossils date from about 12.5 million to 10.5 million years ago.
• Sivapithecus parvada described in 1988, this species is significantly larger and
dated to about 10 million years ago.
• Sivapithecus sivalensis lived from 9.5 million to 8.5 million years ago. It was found
at the Pathovar plateau in Pakistan as well as in parts of India. The animal was about
the size of a chimpanzee but had the facial morphology of an orangutan; it ate soft
fruit (detected in the tooth wear pattern) and was probably mainly arboreal.
NARMADA MAN
Phylogenetic position:
Phylum- Chordata,
Class- Mammalia,
Order- Primates,
Suborder-Anthropoidea,
Infra order- Catarrhini,
Superfamily- Hominoidea,
Family-Hominidae,
Subfamily- homininae,
Genus- Homoerectus
Species- narmadensis
• December 5, 1982. On the banks of the Narmada at Madhya Pradesh’s
Hathnora village, geologist Arun Sonakia discovered Narmada man.
• The discovery proved the presence of early humans in the subcontinent.
• “Unlike Africa, where stone tools were found along with human skeletons, all
over India we were finding prehistoric stone tools, but there was no fossil
evidence.”
• Narmada fossil was a skull cap with a little bit of orbital roof,”
• Narmada Human, initially named Narmada Man, belongs to the category of
Homo erectus, preceding Homo sapiens sapiens.
• Handaxes and cleavers, typical of the prehistoric Acheulian technological
tradition that was dominant in Middle Pleistocene times in India were found
in association with the fossil.
• Associated fossils like cattle, buffalo, elephant—include some species that are
now extinct, but they are reliable “index fossils” of the late Middle
Pleistocene.
• Narmada fossil could be 500,000 to 600,000 years old,” says Sonakia.
• The French investigator, Dr. de Lumley, recognized that the cranial capacity
of these Early and Middle Pleistocene specimens averages 1,000 cm3, but
estimates for the Narmada cranial vault fell between 1,155 and 1,421 cm3,
indicating that it is an “evolved Homo erectus.”
• The fossil could be of an individual aged between 25 and 30 years.
• Many believe the fossil could be of a female.
• Homo erectus had successfully adapted to savannah grasslands, domesticated
fire, did group hunting and used stone tools.
 Why did we not get more fossils from India?
• Developmental projects such as dams on the Narmada, mining and oil drilling
activities, intensive agriculture and population pressure have taken a toll on
fossil study. “Hundreds of paleoanthropological and stone age sites are getting
destroyed across the subcontinent,” says Chauhan.
• The country does not even have a national palaeontology institute. Guidance,
experience and trained expertise are also lacking.
• Soil conditions like high salinity and warm and humid climate could be a
reason for quick disintegration of fossils
2b. What are the arguments for excluding Narmada man from Homo erectus
category? (2022,15M)
• In Sonakia’s description, published in 1984 in the Records of the Geological
Survey of India, he assigned “Narmada Man” to the hominid taxon Homo
erectus narmadensis.
• Its antiquity is based upon the direct association of the calvaria with stone tools,
mainly hand axes and cleavers, typical of the prehistoric Acheulian technological
tradition that was dominant in Middle Pleistocene times in India. The fossilized
animal remains in the deposit—cattle, buffalo, elephant—include some species that
are now extinct, but they are reliable “index fossils” of the late Middle Pleistocene.
Radiometric dating methods are not feasible, so the age of the specimen is a
relative dating estimate based upon its lithic and faunal associations.
• By 1988, The French investigator, Dr. Marie-Antoinette de Lumley, recognized
that some physical features of the calvaria were not typically those found in Homo
erectus fossils from southeast Asia, China, and Africa.
• For example, the cranial capacity of these Early and Middle Pleistocene
specimens averages 1,000 cm3 but estimates for the Narmada cranial vault fell
between 1,155 and 1,421 cm3, values within the range of anatomically archaic
Homo sapiens. Dr. de Lumley christened Narmada Man as an “evolved
Homo erectus.”
• American investigator, Dr. Kenneth A. R. Kennedy, broadened de Lumley’s
observations by an extensive examination of the calvaria using measurements,
morphological analyses, and statistical procedures that support the thesis that
Narmada Man (actually a young adult female) merited reassignment as an
early Homo sapiens.
• The archaeological data do not rule out the possibility that Homo erectus had
inhabited the Indian subcontinent, but fossil remains of this species have not
been recovered. The importance of the Narmada calvaria is that it demonstrates
that the Acheulian tool tradition in Indian subcontinent was practiced by early
sapiens
1. Sivapithecus Ramapithecus debate (2023, 10M)
2. Narmada man (2020,10M)
3. Phylogenetic position and morphological features of Ramapithecus. (2021, 2019)
4. Describe the salient features of sivapithecus. ( 2018, 15M )
5. Describe the salient features of Ramapithecus. ( 2017, 15M )
6. “Siwalik deposits show a variety of Neogene fossil primates”. Critically examine.
(2023, 20M)
Neogene Period, the second of three divisions of the Cenozoic Era. The Neogene
Period encompasses the interval between 23 million and 2.6 million years ago and
includes the Miocene (23 million to 5.3 million years ago) and the Pliocene (5.3
million to 2.6 million years ago) epochs. Hence can write about Sivapithecus and
Rama pithecus.
Other Neogene fossil primates in Siwalik deposites include,
• Indopithecus giganteus (Indian ape) is an extinct species of large ape that lived in
the late Miocene of the Siwalik Hills in northern India. Although frequently
assigned to the more well-known genus Gigantopithecus, recent authors consider
it to be a distinct genus in its own right. They weighed about 15 kg and lived from
9 to 7 million years ago.
• Indraloris is a fossil primate from the Miocene of India and Pakistan in the
family Sivaladapidae. Two species are now
recognized: I. himalayensis from Haritalyangar, India (about 9 million years old)
and I. kamlialensis from the Pothohar Plateau, Pakistan (15.2 million years
old).
• Sivaladapis is an extinct, adapiform primate genus that belongs to the family
Sivaladapidae. Two species of Sivaladapis are currently recognized, S.
nagrii and S. palaeindicus. Sivaladapis is considered one of the latest surviving
genera of adapiform primates, existing well into the Miocene of South Asia. They
had long snouts, small eyes, and large ears. lived from 12 to 8 million years ago.
7. Delineate the salient characteristics of 'Narmada Man' and examine its
phylogenetic significance (2016, 15M)
8. Describe the palaeo-anthropological fossil finds from Siwalik hills.
Examine the contribution of Siwalik fossils to paleoanthropological
knowledge (2015,15M)
9. Describe the evolutionary significance of the fossil finds of the Narmada
Basin. (2014,15 M)
10. Examine the debates related to Ramapithecus (2013,10M)
11. Narmada man (2012, 12 M)
 1.6. AUSTRALOPITHECINES
• Australopiths are the first hominids that has SRGAP2 gene that increased length
and ability of neurons in the brain.
• Robinson classified Australopithecines into two groups : one genus is that of
U
Australopithecus (Gracile forms) and the other genus is that of Paranthropus
D
N
(Robust forms).

B I
Australopithecus afarensis:

the location where some of the M

A
• The word Australopithecus means ‘southern ape’. The word afarensis is based on

H
Afar Depression in Ethiopia, I first fossils for this species were discovered – the
Africa.
• ‘Lucy’ Australopithecus afarensis skull, ‘Lucy’AL 288-1 – a partial skeleton
discovered in 1974 by Donald Johanson in Hadar, Ethiopia.
• Age: This species lived between 3.9 and 2.8 million years ago.
• Laetoli footprints: These fossil footprints were discovered in Tanzania, East Africa
and date to 3.6 million years ago. The footprints are of major significance as they are
the first direct evidence that our ancestors were walking upright by 3.6 million years
ago.

about 1,500 kilometres away.

D U
• Distribution: Fossils have been found at Hadar in Ethiopia and Laetoli in Tanzania,

I N
• Australopithecus afarensis is usually considered to be a direct ancestor of humans,

Key physical features A B

later species of Australopithecus and all species in the Paranthropus genus.

I M
• Rib cage was cone-shaped like those of apes.
H
• Brain was small, averaging approximately 430 cubic centimetres and comprised about
1.3% of their body weight
• Many cranial features were quite ape-like, including a low, sloping forehead, a
projecting face, and prominent brow ridges above the eyes.
• The spinal cord emerged from the central part of the skull base rather than from the
back.
• Males had a bony ridge (a sagittal crest) on top of their skull.
• Jaws and teeth were intermediate between those of humans and apes.
• Jaws were relatively long and narrow.
• Front incisor teeth were quite wide.
•
D U
Canine teeth were pointed and were longer than the other teeth. Canine size was

I N
intermediate between that of apes and humans. Like apes, males had much larger

•
canines than females.
A B
A gap (diastema) was often present between the canines and adjacent teeth.
•
M
back molar teeth were moderate in size and were human-like in having a ‘Y-5’
I
•
cusp pattern. 5 cusps
H
Pelvis was human-like as it was short and wide, but it lacked the refinements that
enable humans to walk with a striding gait.
• Limbs displayed human-like features that indicate an ability to walk on two legs.
• Powerful arms with long forearms. Short thigh bones. Long curved finger and
toe bones for climbing.
Lifestyle & Culture:
• This species probably used simple tools that may have included sticks and
other non-durable plant materials found in the immediate surroundings.

stones were shaped or modified in any way.

D U
Stones may also have been used as tools, but there is no evidence that

Environment and diet:

I N
A B
• Some populations lived in savannah or woodland; others lived in denser
forests beside lakes.
I M
H
• Microscopic analysis of their tooth enamel shows that they mostly ate
fruits and leaves rather than seeds and other hard plant material.
• Their cone-shaped rib cage indicates they had large bellies adapted to a
relatively low quality and high bulk diet.
 PARANTHROPUS ROBUSTUS (ROBUST FORM)

• In Middle Pleistocene deposits of Kromdraai (south Africa) fossil remains of

two individuals were found , to which Broom gave the scientific name
Paranthropus robustus in the year 1938.
• It was represented by a part of skull, parts of some long bones like humerus and
ulna, some carpal and tarsal bones, etc.
• The cranial capacity is estimated at 600 c.c. Of the other characters the cheek
bones are projecting forward,
• Diastema is present,
• High degree of prognathism is noticed.
• SK 48 fossil specimen is a semi-complete cranium.
• The post canine teeth are very large, including obvious molarization of the
premolars.
• Large zygomatics are present, along with a flat face.
• SK 48 exhibits a relatively anteriorly placed sagittal crest.
• A large face relative to the neurocranium
• It has also been noted that SK 48 is more ape-like than Australopithecus africanus.
• Typical of robust australopithecines, P. robustus had a head shaped a bit like a
Gorilla's with a more massive built jaw and teeth in comparison to hominins.
•
D U
The teeth of these primates were larger and thicker than any gracile australopithecine

I N
found, due to the morphological differences, Broom originally designated his find as

•
Australopithecus robustus.
A B
P. robustus males may have stood only 1.2m (4 feet) tall and weighed 54 kg (120 lb)

I M
while females stood just under 1 meter (3 feet 2 inches) tall and weighed only 40 kg

• H
(90 lb), indicating a large sexual dimorphism.
The molar teeth size resembled gorilla's a bit more than a human's.
• The average brain size of P. robustus measured to only 410 and 530 cc, about as
large as a chimpanzee's.
• More recent research suggests that this taxon was more of a dietary generalist.
1.6. HOMOERECTUS
What the name means: Homo, is a Latin word meaning ‘human’ or ‘man’ and is the
genus or group name of this species. The second word, species’ name is erectus
indicate this species’ ability to stand and walk with an upright or erect stance.

D
HOMOERECTUS IN AFRICA (PARANTHROPUS) – Discussed under U
australopithecus
I N
HOMOERECTUS IN EUROPE /
A B
M
HOMO HEIDELBERGENSIS (THE MAUER JAW)

HI
Discovered In 1907 by Dr. Otto Schoetensack discovered a massive human lower
jaw at village of Mauer near Heidelberg in Germany. Complete lower jaw with all
its teeth in place was discovered.
Associated Findings are that of an ancient elephant , horse, a wild boar, a bison, an
elk, a wild cat, red deer, Etruscan rhinoceros, etc.
The geological age of the deposit is lower Pleistocene.
Jaw:
• The jaw is very large and massive, and it gives a very powerful appearance.
• Heidelberg jaw closely resembles the jaw of the gibbon.
Dentition:
• The alveolar border is parabolic in shape. In the apes it is U-shaped.
U
• No diastema is present and as such the dental series is regular and continuous as in
D
modern man.
I N
A B
• The teeth are of quite ordinary size.
• The canine is small, and it does not project beyond the level of the other teeth. In

M
other words, it is not more developed than in modern man.
I
H
• The premolars are normal in size and modern in conformation.
• The lower first molars bear five cusps.
• The Heidelberg dimensions and characters of the molars are very often found in
modern man also.
• Thus, it is seen that the jaw shows some remarkable simian features while the
dentition is altogether human.
Skull:
Smaller and more separated brow ridges
Higher cranial vault
Skull bones were thick
D U
Face:
I N
Less prognathism
Incipient chin A B
I M
Flat and broad nose
Limbs: H
Limbs were those like humans with modern arm leg proportions.
Bones were thicker suggesting physically demanding lifestyle
HOMOERECTUS IN ASIA, HOMO ERECTUS JAVANICUS / JAVAMAN /
PITHECANTHROPUS ERECTUS & PEKING MAN / SINANTHROPUS ERECTUS
HOMOERECTUS PEKINENSIS

The name Pithecanthropus erectus which means 'ape man with erect posture' is
justified.
D U
N
Thomas Huxley, a stern supporter of Darwin, published a book entitled 'Evidence as to
I
Man's Place in Nature' in 1863. In which he demonstrated the similarities between man and
B
A
the great apes. Since then, the scientists were looking for 'missing links' between the apes

M
and humans.

HI
When Eugene Dubois made the famous discovery of the java man in 1891, it was
considered to be the 'missing link'. At that time three plausible explanations as regards
position of Pithecanthropus erectus were put forward by different scientists.
Phylogenetic position of Peking man: Initially D. Black named it Sinanthropus
pekinensis later the name was changed to Homoerectus pekinensis. Franz Weidenreich has
argued that Pekingman was a direct ancestor of modern Homo sapiens.
Debates on phylogenetics position of Java man:
1. Pithecanthropus stands in the direct line of evolution of modern man, being truly
intermediate between man and the apes.
Ape Java man Man

D U
2. Pithecanthropus stands on a side branch that rises from the main human stem. The

I N
side branch could not grow more and thus it became extinct.
Homohabilis
A B
Java man (became extinct)
Peking man Man

I M
3. Pithecanthropus is no more than a highly evolved giant ape related to the gibbon.
Physical features:
H
Though pithecanthropus shows a mixture of anthropoid ape and humanoid characters,
its erect posture, its brain formation, its other characteristics are more human than
simian. Now the Pithecanthropines are included under Homo. The Homo erectus
represent a stage of hominid evolution beyond Australopithecines.
Characters Sinanthropus Pithecanthropus
Discovery At Choukoutien, 37 miles south- The bank of River Solo in
west of Peking in China. Java in Indonesia by Dr.
Eugene Dubois in the year
1891.
Geological time
Fossil date
Middle Pleistocene
Around 700,000 years ago
D U
Middle Pleistocene
1 million – 700,000 years ago.
Size and form
I N
Large in size but the form is more Smaller, same form
or less same.
A B
I M
Maximum length Average 19.4 cm Average 18.5
of skull
H
Breadth of Skull Varies between 13.7 cm & 14.3 cm Average 13.0 cm.

Cranial index 72.2 dolichocephalic 70.0 dolichocephalic

Vault skull Higher ( 11.5 cm) Lower (10.5 cm)
Cranial capacity Average 1075 cc average 860 cc
Madian keel Present Present
Supraorbital Heavy projecting Heavy and
region and continuous.
Forehead is
continuous. The
furrow is
D U
separated from the
I Npresent

A B
supraorbital region
Flattening of Seen
I MSeen
skull at the
parietal region H
Occipital region Narrow and Broad and
elongated rounded
Frontal sinus Very small Large
Palate Rough Smooth
Lower jaw Massive Massive
Chin Absent Absent
Molars Smaller in size not as in Larger in size.
pithecanthropus U
D Smaller in size
Lower canines Smaller in size
I N
and incisors
Dental arcade Parabolic
A B Parabolic
Culture and
lifestyle
Sinanthropus man
antlers ofH
M
deerIas tools and they made
used pieces of the Java man used tools like
hand axe and cleaver, along
very crude implements like choppers, with bones of big animals
scrapers, cores, etc, of chipped stone. indicating habitual tool
Tools like hand axe and cleaver were making and hunting ability
also found at the sites.
Though Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus are two different
varieties of the same stock, Pithecanthropus seems to represent
a more primitive type with
• Smaller cranial capacity,
D U
N
• More marked platycephally,
I
• Larger frontal sinus,
A B
• Greater flattening of the frontal region,
I M
• Earlier fusion of cranial suture,
H
• More heavily constructed mandible, smooth palate,
• Presence of diastema in between the canine and the lateral
incisor, etc
Homo erectus Lifestyle
Culture:
• The oldest known stone tools used by Homo erectus were made in China about one
million years ago.
• These tools were simple choppers and flakes (Mode 1 technology).
U
• Tools gradually became smaller over time and came to include a greater variety of
D
designs.
I N
A B
• More complex bifacial tools (Mode 2 technology) like those made by Homo
heidelbergensis people from Eurasia made a limited appearance in parts of northern

M
China. This may indicate a brief period of contact between these different peoples.
I
H
• Relatively few stone tools have been found in east Asia compared with western
Asia, Africa and Europe but tools made from non-durable materials such as bamboo
may have been manufactured instead.
• Burnt stones and animal bones, charcoal and ash deposits indicate these people may
have used fire about 500,000 years ago but it is difficult to prove whether this use
was controlled.
Environment and diet:
China underwent significant climatic changes during the period at
Zhoukoudian/Choukoutien (Peking man site in China) was occupied. These
changes included three cold glacial periods with harsh, winter temperatures. The
U
cooling and drying that occurred in these glacial periods brought an expansion of
D
N
open habitats, with grasslands and mixed steppes. These environments favoured
I
large grazing animals, which would have been hunted by Homo erectus.
B
A
Java, on the other hand, had a warmer climate.
M
The remains of meals have been
These show that they ateH
I found at some Homo erectus sites in China.
large amounts of meat supplemented with plant foods
and, in general, had a diet similar to that of early modern humans.
First direct evidence that Homo erectus used fire was found at Swartkrans, in the
form of charred animal bones.
 D U
I N
1.6. NEANDERTHAL MAN –

A B
LA-CHAPELLE-AUX-SAINTS (CLASSICAL
TYPE), MT. CARMEL (PROGRESSIVE TYPE)
I M
H
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CLASSICAL AND
PROGRESSIVE NEANDERTHALS
• The third stage, that is the stage of Neanderthal, is represented by the Neanderthal

D U
man, who lived in Europe, North Africa. The Near East and parts of Asia during
the period from about 100,000 to 35.000 years ago. The Neanderthal stage is a

I N
stage intermediate between the stages of Homo erectus and modern man.

Germany. A B
• In 1856 a skull cap and some long bones were discovered at Neanderthal, in

I M
• Since that time, subsequent discoveries of large number of skeletal materials
H
were made in different parts of Europe.
• Hooton has divided them into two divisions, Conservative Neanderthals and
Progressive Neanderthals.
• The Conservative -type shows the classical Neanderthaloid characters. The
progressive variety makes a close approach to Modern man.
 Classical Neanderthal Progressive Neanderthal
Specimen LA-CHAPPELLE-AUX-SAINTS MOUNT CARMEL
Discovery Small cave next to a graveyard in Discovered from two
location a tiny French town of La adjoining caves in Mount
Chapelle-aux-Saints, France
D U
Carmel range in Israel. In

I N 1931-32.
Cranial
Capacity
A B
1524-1640cc for males; 1270-
1425cc for females
1524-1640cc for males; 1270-
1425cc for females

I M
Low skull with flat crown High crown in some mid-east

H forms
Occipital Bun(chignon) observed Lack of Occipital Bun
Mid facial (maxillary) Less or moderate prognathism
prognathism
 Large nasal aperture. Broad nose Large nasal aperture
(platyrrhine)
Dentition Anterior dentition larger than Anterior dentition larger
modern Homo sapiens
D U
than modern Homo
sapiens

I N
B
No canine diastema No canine diastema
Dental
formula
2123

M A 2123

H I
Lack of chin
Well-developed continues brow
Lack of chin
Less distinct or lack of
ridges forming a heavy rounded brow ridges
torus
Post cranial Over 5 feet tall Over 5feet tall, Tallest specimen
Morphology being 6feet 5inchs
Short arms relative to trunk size Short arms relative to trunk size
Thick ribs with barrel shaped
D U
Thick ribs with barrel shaped
chest
I N chest

bones
A B
Robust, slightly curved long Less stout, less curvature of long
bones

I M
Feet similar to modern Homo Feet similar to modern Homo
sapiens
H
Large thick kneecaps
sapiens
Less robust kneecaps
Broad scapula Broad scapula
Broad long pelvic bone Broad long pelvic bone
3c. Should we still distinguish between classical and progressive
Neanderthals? Discuss the controversy surrounding Neanderthal’s position
in Human evolution. (2022,15M)

D U
• Neanderthals had pronounced brow ridges as well as other protrusions of the

I N
skull not generally seen in modern humans. They were more muscular than

A B
modern humans. They had flatter, broader noses than modern humans. They
had receding chins. Their brains were somewhat larger than those of modern
humans.
I M
H
• These characteristics are most strongly displayed in specimens from Europe,
so-called Classic (La Chapelle-aux-Saints) Neanderthals and were less
pronounced in the Neanderthals of the Middle East, known as Progressive
Neanderthals.
• This does not necessarily mean that Progressive Neanderthals
were less different from modern humans than were the
‘Classics'. The progressive varieties lived much earlier than the

D U
classical one. The more massive build of Neanderthals, and

I N
other features such as flatter noses, especially of the Classic

A B
form, has been interpreted as an adaptation to the harsh glacial
climates of Ice Age Europe.
I M
• Study done by Bradley D. M., (2005) suggests generous
H
intermingling of Classic and Progressive types. Thus, the
classification of Neanderthals in to classical and progressive
may be futile.
Culture and lifestyle of Neanderthals:
Language: A well-preserved one on Neanderthal Kebara 2, Israel was largely similar
to that of living humans. This only implied Neanderthals were anatomically capable
of speech.

D U
Diet: Neanderthals obtained protein in their diet from animal sources. Evidence
based on isotope studies shows that Neanderthals ate primarily meat.
I N
Tools: Associated with Mousterian culture, represented by flake tools such as side
scrapers and points.
A B
M
Social organisation: They were primarily hunters and gatherers living in nomadic
bands or groups.
HI
WHAT HAPPENED TO THE NEANDERTHALS? DEBATES RELATED TO
NEANDERTHALS
Neanderthals persisted for hundreds of thousands of years in extremely harsh
conditions. They shared Europe for 10,000 years with Homo sapiens. Today they no
longer exist. Beyond these facts the fate of Neanderthals has generated much debate.
Two main theories
Theory 1: Neanderthals were a sub-species of Homo sapiens rather than a separate
species and hence their scientific name is Homo neanderthalensis.
They interbred with Homo sapiens sapiens. Interbreeding diluted Neanderthal DNA
because there were significantly more Homo sapiens sapiens.

D U
Proponents of this theory cite the following as evidence:

I N
• Analysis of the Neanderthal genome published in 2010 and its comparison with the

A B
genomes of five modern humans revealed that Europeans and Asians share about 1-
4% of their DNA with Neanderthals and Africans don’t share DNA with
Neanderthals.
I M
H
• Homo sapiens left Africa somewhere between 100,000 and 60,000 years ago, and
encountered a Europe already colonized by Neanderthals. Eventually, the two
interbred.
• Lluis Quintana-Murci discovered that a single gene in Neanderthals responsible for
milder immune response helped homo sapiens adapt to their new environment and the
pathogens there.
• Since Europe had a colder climate, a subtler inflammatory response was
sufficient, However, in Africa, pathogens are more robust and so a faster
immune response was required to ensure survival. Though they may respond
better to pathogens, having an African immune system does have a downside, a
higher risk of an autoimmune disorders.
D U
• Sometime after, around 40,000 years ago, Neanderthals vanished from the
I N
Earth. Today 20% of the world population carries Neanderthal genes within
them.
A B
M
This suggests that modern humans bred with Neanderthals after they left Africa

HI
but before they spread to Asia and Europe. The most likely location is the
Levant, where both species co-existed for thousands of years at various times
between 50-90,000 years ago.
3b. “Europeans are closer to Neanderthals”. Critically discuss in view of
African origin of humankind. (2019,15)
Theory 2: They were essentially replaced by Homo sapiens. In this case,
Neanderthals are a separate species from Homo sapiens. This model does allow for
peripheral interbreeding but no significant genetic input from Neanderthals to
modern Europeans.
Proponents of this theory cite the following as evidence:

D U
• Studies of Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA (first extracted in 1997) show that it

I N
lies outside the range of modern human mt. DNA.

and facial protrusion.

A B
• Neanderthals are different from Homo sapiens in brow ridges, chins, forehead

I
Why did they become extinct?
M
H
Perhaps their extinction was a combination of two or more of the following factors:
• Neanderthal reproductive success and survival rates appear poor compared to
Homo sapiens. Most Neanderthal remains are of individuals rarely over 30 years
old and over half are children. Slightly better rates of reproductive success and
childhood survival over 10,000 years could have made Homo sapiens to replace
Neanderthals.
• Neanderthal metabolic rates appeared to be much higher than
modern humans so would have required more food to survive
U
which would put pressure on populations that needed large
D
amounts of food.
I N
A B
• Claims that Neanderthals could not run as well as modern humans
over long distances probably because their heal bones are longer

I
than modern humans'. M
H
HOMO RHODESIENSIS / RHODESIAN MAN /
THE KABWE SKULL/BROKEN HILL SKULL

PHYLOGENETIC POSITION
Kingdom - Animalia, Phylum - Chordata,
D U
N
Class - Mammalia, Order - Primates, Suborder - Anthropoidea
I
A B
Superfamily-Hominoidea, Family-Hominidae,
Subfamily-Homininae, Genus-Homo, Species –rhodensis

I M man) is an extinct hominin species of

H from the fossil Kabwe skull.
Homo rhodesiensis (Rhodesian
the genus Homo, Described
Homo rhodesiensis is now regarded by some scientists as another name
for Homo heidelbergensis.
Discovery:
• Kabwe 1, also called the Broken Hill skull, was assigned by Arthur Smith
Woodward in 1921 as the type specimen for Homo rhodesiensis.
• The cranium was found in a lead and zinc mine in Broken Hill, Northern
Rhodesia (now Kabwe, Zambia) in 1921 by Tom Zwiglaar, a Swiss miner.

D U
• In addition to the cranium, an upper jaw from another individual, a sacrum,

I N
a tibia, and two femur fragments were also found.

A B
• The skull was dubbed "Rhodesian Man" at the time of the find but is now
commonly referred to as the Broken Hill skull or the Kabwe cranium.

I M
Time span: Rhodesian Man is dated to be between 125,000 and 300,000 years

H
old. Estimated to have lived around 200,000 years ago.
Physical features:
• Cranial capacity has been estimated at 1,230 cm³
• The skull is from an extremely robust individual has the comparatively largest
brow-ridges of any known hominid remains and massive maxillae.
It was described as having a broad face similar to Homo neanderthalensis (i.e.
large nose and thick protruding brow ridges) and has been interpreted as an
"African Neanderthal". However,

U
When regarding the skulls’ extreme robustness, recent research has pointed to

D
several features intermediate between modern Homo sapiens and Neanderthal.
N
BI
According to Tim White, it is probable that Rhodesian Man was the ancestor
of Homo sapiens idaltu (Herto Man), which itself was the ancestor of Homo
sapiens sapiens.
MA
HI
Post cranial features: Femur and Tibia were very similar to modern man
Present location: Broken hill skull is one of the treasures in the collections cared
for by the Natural History Museum, London. There is a replica in the Museum
in Livingstone, Zambia.
MEN OF LATE PLEISTOCENE, HOMO SAPIENS
GRIMALDI
Discovery: The remains were discovered in the cave called the Grotte des Enfants,
in the village of Grimaldi on the Mediterranean coastal region.

was stained with red ochre.

D U
Woman of about 30 years of age and of a boy of about 15. The skeleton of the latter

I N
Associated Finds: In the same site were found artifacts of Aurignacian type. The

important tools. A B
flints were worked on both the sides. Knives, scrapers, gravers. saws, etc, were the

I M
Age. The geological age is late Pleistocene.
Description
H
• The skulls are long, narrow and high.
• They are hyperdolichocephalic.
• The female had a cranial index of 68.5 and the boy 69.2.
• The head height is about 11.5 cm.
• The cranial capacity of the female skull was 1265 c.c and that of the boy was
1455 c.c. (according to Keith).
• The skulls present an elliptical contour.
• The regions of parietal bosses are flattened.
•
•
The face is large but short.
D U
Below the cheek bones it is very narrow. Thus, the head might be called
disharmonic.
I N
•
•
The chin is poorly developed.
A B
The alveolar margin of the lower jaw projects forward (as in Negroes).
•
I M
The teeth are large. The upper molars have 4 cusps and the lower have 5 cusps.
• H
The dental characters recall those of the Australian. Thus, in the majority of the
characters the skulls show affinities to the Negroids.
• Affinity: The Grimaldi man is comparable to the modern Negro or Negroid
types. Prof. Sollas and Prof. Boule pointed out the affinity of the Grimaldi
Negroid to the Bushmen and the Hottentots of South Africa.
 CRO-MAGNON
• Discovery: Discovered in Cro-Magnon rock shelter in les Eyzies, France, where
remains of five human skeletons were discovered.
• The first discovery was made by M. Louis Lartet in 1868. After that several
discoveries were made in different parts of Europe, which reveal widespread
existence of this type of man in Europe.
D U
N
• Age and Culture: Geologically they belong the late Pleistocene period and later
I
A B
than the Grimaldi Negroids. They were also responsible for the beautiful cave
paintings, sculptures, ivory and stone statuettes of female figure and similar other

I M
artistic objects found in different regions of Europe.

H
Description: The 'Old Man of Cro-Magnon' which is the typical of this group
indicates following features.
• The skull is large and massive.
• It is very long (20.3 cm.) in relation to its breadth (15.0 cm.) and thus the skull is
dolichocephalic.
• The vault is high (hypsicephalic).
• The cranial capacity is estimated at 1660 c.c. by Keith and 1590 c.c. by Boule.
• The parietal tuberosities are placed laterally and are markedly projecting.
• The forehead is broad and moderately high. Supraorbital ridges are low and wide.
• The occiput is projecting notably, and it is flattened at the parieto-occipital region.
•
•
The face is very broad, short and flat.

D U
Thus, the long, narrow head is associated with short, broad, flat face, a
disharmonious combination.
I N
•
• A B
The orbits are rectangular in form. The breadth is much greater than height.
The zygomatic region is strong, large and prominent.
•
I M
The nose is long and narrow, leptorrhine.
•
•
The nasal bones are high.
H
The maxillary regions show marked prognathism.
• The palate, which is moderately projected, is shallow and somewhat narrow.
• The lower jaw is strong but not very massive.
• A well-marked chin is present.
• The femur, which is platymeric (Thigh bone being flattened laterally) is strongly
bowed out and it possesses a well- developed linea-aspera.
• The tibia is platycnemic (Lateral flattening of tibia)
• The long bones suggest an athletic physique with strong muscles and a tall stature.

D U
• The height is estimated at 168.4 cm but according to Boule it was 182 cm.
• As regards limb proportions the leg is long as compared with the thigh, and the

I N
forearm is long in relation to arm. According to some this is a Negroid proportion.

A B
• There is evidence to show that the Cro-Magnon people did not become extinct at
the end of Quaternary (Upper Palaeolithic) times but continued to survive through
I M
the Neolithic period up to present day.
H
• Dr. Collignon observed in Dordogne, France, some people showing
characteristics of Cro - Magnon, whom he considered to be the descendant of
the latter. According to Verneau among Guanches of Canary island, the Cro-
Magnon type is well preserved. He even pointed out to the cultural similarities
of the two people.
 CHANCE LADE
Discovery: The discovery was made in a rock shelter near Chance lade in
Dordogne, France, in the year 1888. A human skeleton with its arms folded on its
breast region and the knees just touching the jaw was unearthed. The body was

D
of burial found among many ancient and modern people. U
powdered with red ochre. The posture in which the skeleton was laid suggests method

Description:
I N
A B
• The skull is long and narrow measuring 19.4 cm. in length and 18.75 cm. in breadth
and thus showing a cranial index of 70.9 (dolichocephalic).

I M
• The cranial capacity is estimated at 1530 c.c. by Keith and 1710 by Testut.
H
• The vault ( Roof of the skull) is high.
• The supraorbital ridges are slightly marked.
• The forehead is almost vertical.
• The parietal tuberosities are well marked.
• When looked at from the front a ridge-like elevation along the sagittal plane of
the skull is noticed.
• The face is very long and broad.
• Thus, the skull is said to be harmonic.
• The face appears to be flat due to the prominence of strongly developed cheek-
bones.
D U
N
• The orbits are large, high quadrilateral in shape.
I
• The nose is leptorrhine.

A B
• No sub-nasal prognathism is noticed.

M
• The palate is narrow, The lower jaw is strong but very narrow.
I
• The chin is prominent.
H
• The skeleton materials suggest that the man was old and died between the ages of
55 and 65 years and that he was of short stature (about 5 feet 1 inch).
• The limb bones are strong and massive, which indicate that the man had a strong
muscular body.
• The upper limbs are comparatively longer.
• The femur is bent, The tibia is platymeric.
• The foot is large.
• It resembles that of Neanderthal man in the separation of the first metatarsal of the
great toe from that of the second toe.

U
It is stated that the Cro-Magnon and Chance lade do not differ greatly.
D
N
The Chance lade man resembles the modern Eskimo in the following characters :
I
A B
• Short stature; large, high dolichocephalic head.
• Elevated sagittal region, A very wide and long face

I
• Flat, prominent cheek-bones
M
• Narrow nasal aperture
H
• Powerful masticatory apparatus.
Besides the physical characteristics, there exist some cultural similarities between the
Chance lade and the Eskimo, based on which some authorities are inclined to consider
the chance lade as the ancestor of modern Eskimos.
Africans Europeans Eskimos

D U
I N
A B
I MCromagnon
Grimaldi H Chancelede
Grimaldi Cromagnon Chancelede

D U
I N
Progressive
A B
Neanderthal
I M
Rhodesian
Man H Classical
Neanderthal

HE Pekinensis
 HE Pekinensis
HE. Narmada
Man
HE. Heidel
D U
bergensis
I N Homoerectus

A B Javanicus

I MHomohabilis
Australo H Paranthropus
pithecus Robustus
Africanus
A.afarensis
 A.afarensis

U
D.Africanus
D
Chimp

I N
D.Major A B
Dryopithecus
Sivapithecus/

I M Ramapithecus

H Orangutan
Gorilla
Monkeys
OUT OF AFRICA VERSUS THE MULTIREGIONAL HYPOTHESIS
EXPLAINING HUMAN ORIGIN
• Broadly speaking, there are two competing hypotheses on the origin of modern
humans: the Out-of-Africa hypothesis and the multiregional hypothesis.

D U
• Both agree that Homo erectus originated in Africa and expanded to Eurasia about

N
one million years ago, but they differ in explaining the origin of Homo sapiens
I
sapiens.

A B
• The Out-of-Africa hypothesis proposes that migration out of Africa happened

I M
about 100,000 years ago, in which anatomically modern humans of African origin

H
conquered the world by replacing archaic human populations (Model A).
• The multiregional hypothesis proposes three alternative models.
• Independent multiple origins of Homo sapiens
(Model D) or
• Multiregional evolution
with continuous gene
flow between continental
populations (Model C)
occurred in the million
years since Homo erectus
D U
came out of Africa (the
I N
•
trellis theory). or
A compromised version
A B
of the Out-of-Africa
I M
hypothesis emphasizes
the African origin of most H
human populations but
allows for the possibility
of minor local
contributions (Model B).
MISSING LINKS IN HUMAN EVOLUTION:
• The term was influenced by the pre-Darwinian evolutionary theory of the Great
Chain of Being and the now-outdated notion of linear evolution that simple
organisms are more primitive than complex organisms.

D U
• The later theories of divergence and adaptive radiation does not give much
importance to the concept of missing links rather stresses on the last common
I N
ancestor as evolution is a branching process.

A B
• Missing link is a particular fossil that has not yet been found.

I M
• Missing links are the gaps in fossil record.

H
• Many of the famous discoveries in human evolution are often termed "missing links".
• Among the famous fossil finds credited as the "missing link" in human evolution are:
• Java Man (Homo erectus): Discovered by Eugene Dubois in 1891 in
Indonesia. Originally named Pithecanthropus erectus.
• Piltdown Man: A set of bones found in 1912 thought to be the "missing link"

U
between ape and man. Eventually revealed to be a hoax.
D
N
• Taung Child (Australopithecus africanus): Discovered by Raymond Dart in
1924 in South Africa.
BI
MA
• Homo habilis (described in 1964) has features intermediate
between Australopithecus and Homo erectus, and its classification

HI
in Homo rather than Australopithecus has been questioned.
• Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis): Discovered in 1974 by Donald Johanson
in Ethiopia
• Australopithecus sediba: A series of skeletons discovered in South Africa
between 2008-2010
1. Explain the skeletal changes due to erect posture and their implications.
(2016,15M)
2. Bring out the comparative anatomical features of man and apes. Discuss their
evolutionary significance. (2017, 15M)

U
3. Elucidate the skeletal differences between humans and Chimpanzees (2014,15)
D
N
4. Compare and contrast between Gorilla and man? (2012,20m)
I
A B
5. Man is a primate- discuss (30M, 2011)
6. What are the physical and cultural characteristics of Homo erectus. Discuss in

I M
phylogenetic status. (2021, 20M)

H
7. Describe the culture related to Homo erectus. (2018,15M)
8.Rhodesian Man (2016,10M)
9. Describe the salient characteristics and geographical distribution of Homo
erectus. (2015,20)
10. Asian Homo erectus (2014,10)
11. Neanderthal man(15M, 2011)
1.6 Phylogenetic status, characteristics and geographical distribution of
the following:
(a) Plio-pleistocene hominids in South and East Africa -
Australopithecines.
D U
N
(b) Homo erectus: Africa (Paranthropus), Europe (Homo erectus
I
pekinensis). A B
heidelber-gensis), Asia (Homo erectus javanicus, Homo erectus

I M
(c) Neanderthal Man- La-Chapelle-auxsaints (Classical type), Mt.
H
Carmel (Progressive type).
(d) Rhodesian man. (e) Homo sapiens - Cromagnon, Grimaldi and
Chancelede.
1.8. DATING METHODS
• Dating techniques are procedures used by scientists to determine the age of a
specimen.
• Relative dating methods tell only if one sample is older or younger than
another sample;
D U
I N
• Absolute dating methods provide a date in years.
RELATIVE DATING TECHNIQUES
A B
1. Stratigraphy
I M
• Stratigraphy is the study of layers of rocks, or the objects embedded as layers.
H
• It is based on the assumption that deeper layers were deposited earlier, and
thus are older than more shallow layers.
• River terraces do not follow this principle due to erosional activity and
decreasing water level.
2. Seriation
Archaeologist James Ford used seriation to determine the chronological order of
American Indian pottery styles in the Mississippi Valley. Artifact styles such as
pottery types are seriated by analyzing their abundances through time.
3. Faunal dating: A 100000- 20000
D U
N
Scientists can determine an approximate age for a layer by examining which species
I
A B
or genera of animals are buried in it.
4.Dating based on pollen grains zones:

I M
The kind of pollen found in any geological stratum depends on the kind of vegetation
that existed at the time.
5. Fluorine dating:
H
By comparing the relative amounts of fluorine composition of skeletal remains, one
can determine the rough age. A bone with a higher fluorine composition has been
buried for a longer period of time.
6. PALAEOMAGNETIC DATING:
• The Earth's magnetic north pole can change in orientation (from north to south and
south to north). Approximately 10 polarity reversals (epochs and events) are known
to have occurred during the Quaternary period.

paleomagnetism. It is a relative dating technique.

D U
• The term that refers to such changes in the Earth's magnetic field is

I N
• Archaeomagnetic dating is the study and interpretation of the signatures of

B
the Earth's magnetic field at past times recorded in archaeological materials.

M A
• In general, when clay is heated, the microscopic iron particles (ferromagnet /
Permanent magnet) within it acquire magnetism parallel to the earth's magnetic

H I
field. Once the clay cool below the curie point(the temperature at which certain
materials lose their permanent magnetic properties) , the iron particles maintain that
magnetism until the clay is reheated.
• In conjunction with techniques such as radiometric dating, dendrochronology etc,
the technique can be used to estimate the age of the specimen.
• The main advantage of palaeomagnetism is its greater age range, 4.5 million years.
ABSOLUTE DATING TECHNIQUES:
1. Amino acid racemization dating: It was first conducted by Hare and
Mitterer in 1967 and was popular in the 1970s. It requires a much smaller

D U
sample than radiocarbon dating and has a longer range.

I N
Amino acid racemization is based on the
glycine, a very simple amino acid)A
B principle that amino acids (except

M
exist in two mirror image forms called
I
H die, the L-amino acids are slowly converted into
stereoisomers. Living organisms
proteins. When these organisms
synthesize and incorporate only the L-form into

D-amino acids in a process called racemization. Higher the amount of D form of

amino acids older the sample is.
2. Cation-ratio dating:
It is used to date rock surfaces such as stone artifacts. They do this by
chemically analyzing the varnish that forms on these surfaces. The varnish
contains cations, Cation ratio dating relies on the principle that the cation ratio

D U
(K++Ca2+)/Ti4+ decreases with increasing age of a sample. Recent studies

I
suggest it has potential errors.
N
3. Dendrochronology:
A B
The absolute dating method utilizing tree ring growth is known as
I M
dendrochronology. It is based on the fact that trees produce one growth ring
H
each year. Narrow rings grow in cold and/or dry years, and wide rings grow in
warm years with plenty of moisture. Tree rings are used to date changes in the
climate such as sudden cool or dry periods.
5. Radioactive decay dating / Radiometric dating: It is a group of related
methods for absolute dating of samples.
a. Potassium-argon dating: .Argon-40 is formed in the rocks by the radioactive
decay of potassium-40 (40K). The amount of 40Ar formed is proportional to the

D U
decay rate (half-life ) of 40K, which is 1.3 billion years. This method is

I N
generally only applicable to rocks greater than three million years old.
b. Radiocarbon dating:
A B
M
Introduction: Dating techniques are procedures used by scientists to determine
I
the age of a specimen.
H
Invention: J.R. Arnold, and W.F.Libby invented this dating technique. It is
the best known and widely used dating technique.
Applications: It is used to date Fossils and some archaeological artifacts made
of wood charcoal etc
Principle: Radiocarbon (14C) is a radioactive form of the element carbon . It
decays spontaneously into nitrogen-14 (14N). While a plant or animal is
alive, the ratio of 14C/12C in its body will be nearly the same as the 14C/12C
ratio in the atmosphere. When the organism dies, however, its body stops

D U
incorporating new carbon. The ratio will then begin to change as the 14C in the
dead organism decays into 14N.
I N
A B
Half life of radiocarbon and sensitivity range: The half-life of 14C is 5,730
years. Scientists can estimate how many years have elapsed since an organism
I M
died by comparing the 14C/12C ratio in the remains with the ratio in the
H
atmosphere. This allows them to determine how much 14C has formed since the
death of the organism. The range of conventional radiocarbon dating is 30,000–
40,000 years, but with sensitive instrumentation, this range can be extended to
70,000 years.
c. Uranium series dating :
These techniques rely on the fact that radioactive uranium and thorium isotopes
decay into a series of unstable, radioactive "daughter" isotopes; this process
continues until a stable (non-radioactive) lead isotope is formed. The daughters

D U
have relativealy short half-lives ranging from a few hundred thousand years down to
only a few years. The "parent" isotopes have half-lives of several billion years. This

I N
provides a dating range for the different uranium series of a few thousand years
to 500,000 years.
A B
M
d. Fission tract dating : Some volcanic minerals and glasses, such as obsidian ,
I
H
contain uranium-238 (238U). Over time, these substances become "scratched." The
marks, called tracks, are the damage caused by the fission (splitting) of the
uranium atoms. When an atom of 238U splits, two "daughter" atoms rocket away
from each other, leaving in their way tracks in the material in which they are
embedded.
6. Thermoluminescence (TL) dating:
Scientists in North America developed thermoluminescence dating of rock minerals
in the 1950s and 1960s, and the University of Oxford, developed the
thermoluminescence dating of fired ceramics in the 1960s and 1970s. It is a method
of absolute dating.

D U
N
Principle:

B I
• The microscopic structure of some minerals and ceramics trap nuclear radioactive
energy. This energy separates electrons from the molecules that make up the
minerals or ceramics.

M A
I
• Over time, more such free electrons gets trapped by the imperfections in the

H
microscopic structure of the ceramics.
• In the process of making a ceramic vessel, it must be heated in a kiln to harden it.
• The process of heating the vessel above 500-degree Celsius releases the trapped
electrons (energy) and resets the thermoluminescence clock to zero.
• The process of free electrons being trapped in the imperfections continues.
• When the vessel is heated again for the test purpose, these trapped electrons are
released, creating a flash of light called thermoluminescence.
• When a laser light source is used instead of heat, the process is called optically
stimulated luminescence.

D U
N
Luminescence Profile:

B I
• What an archaeologist would be able to measure using this technique is the last
time the vessel was heated above 500 degrees Celsius, either for making it or for
cooking in it.

M A
I
• The intensity of the light emissions on heating of exposing to Laser can be

H
measured to determine the amount of time that has passed since the vessel was last
heated and the present laboratory heating of the vessel.

Applications: It is a method of choice for dating ceramic and earthen ware pots,
sediments, lava etc.
 D U
B I N
M A
H I
1. Relative dating methods. (2019,10M)
2. Describe the principles of radiocarbon dating. Mention its
limitations. ( 2018, 15M )
D U
3. What are dating methods? Discuss one absolute method
I N
A B
and one relative method in detail. ( 2017, 15M )
4. Carbon14 dating method (2013,10M)

I M
5. Relative dating methods (2012,12m)
H
6. Thermoluminescence (TL) dating (2021, 10m)
7. Paleomagnetic dating
1.1 Meaning, Scope and development of Anthropology.
1.2 Relationships with other disciplines : Social Sciences, behavioural

Humanities.
D U
Sciences, Life Sciences, Medical Sciences, Earth Sciences and

I N
1.3 Main branches of Anthropology, their scope and relevance:
B
(a) Social-cultural Anthropology.
A
M
(b) Biological Anthropology.

HI
(c) Archaeological Anthropology.
(d) Linguistic Anthropology.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF ANTHROPOLOGY
• The first characteristic of anthropology, and perhaps most important of all, is the use
of the comparative method to draw generalizations and through that understand the
human nature.
• Studying people on their own terms in their own places or doing naturalistic fieldwork.
• Cultural relativism as a basic trend.
D U
N
• We recognize is that anthropology is both a science and a humanity.
I
• The centrality of the culture concept.
• Anthropology is holistic.
A B
I M
HOLISM IN ANTHROPOLOGY:
H objective, and holistic study of humankind in all
Q. Anthropology is the systematic,
times and places. Elaborate the argument. (2022,20M)
Definition: Holism is the idea that all properties of a given system (Physical, biological,
chemical, social, etc.) cannot be determined or explained by its component parts alone.
Instead, the system as a whole determines how the parts behave.
Anthropological context: Franz Boas pioneered the approach of historical particularism
that emphasised the Discipline’s Holism, His quest for Holism was directly responsible for
American anthropology going forward, from its European progenitors.
• Holism is the perspective on the human condition that assumes that mind, body,
individuals, society, and the environment interpenetrate, and even define one another.
U
• An easier understanding of holism is to say that the whole is greater than the sum of its
D
N
parts. Individual human organisms are not just x percent genes and y percent culture
I
A B
added together. Rather, human beings are what they are because of mutual shaping of
genes and culture and experiences living in the world produces something new,

I M
something that cannot be reduced to the materials used to construct it.
• Anthropology seeks to describe and interrelate all aspects of human life.
H
• It deals with relationships, for example, between the economy of a population (whether
they are food collectors or producers) and the type of religion, child rearing, or house
types they might have.
• People who produce food may have different opportunities and challenges than those
who collect food, and this will be reflected.
4a. Elaborate the scope of anthropology and elucidate its uniqueness in the field
of other social sciences. (2021)
Introduction: Anthropology is usually classified as a social science along with
disciplines such as sociology, economics, political science and psychology but it has

D U
much in common with natural sciences like biology and geology. The diverse field

I N
of anthropology has broader scope than other social sciences. Anthropologists are

A B
interested in all human beings and their different aspects such as skin colour, kinship
system, religious beliefs, technologies and other aspects of life. It would be apt to

I M
quote an American cultural anthropologist, Alfred. L. Kroeber who described

H
anthropology as “ The most humanistic of the sciences and the most scientific of
the humanities”
Uniqueness of anthropology:
• Studying people on their own terms in their own places or doing naturalistic
fieldwork, one such important field work to quote is Malinowski’s ethnography
on Trobriand islanders.
• The guiding philosophy of modern anthropology is cultural relativism—the
idea that we should seek to understand another person’s beliefs and behaviours
from the perspective of their culture rather than our own.

its distinctive features.

D U
• Anthropology is both a science and a humanity. Biocultural approach is one of

I N
• The centrality of the culture concept.

A B
• Anthropology is holistic and believes that all properties of a given system
(biological, cultural, etc.) cannot be determined by its component parts alone.
I M
Instead, the system as a whole determines how the parts behave, hence
H
considers all aspects of human life in understanding each aspect.

Conclusion: Taking all this into account, it is apt to say that anthropology stands as
a unique subject in the field of other social sciences.
Sociology Anthropology
Studies about Complex societies Studies about primitive societies ( roots)
Focuses on Contemporary Social problems and Focuses on Culture and community
institutions
Humanity / Social science
U
Natural science & Social science (humanity)
D
I N
Macro-level focus – studies how the larger Micro-level focus – studies how individuals,

families, and communities

A B
society and social trends affect individuals, families, and communities engage with the
larger society and social trends

I M
Incorporates economics and statistics to a Incorporates material/physical culture
larger degree
H
Sociologist make use of a broader, larger
(archaeology, biophysical evidence)
Anthropologist make use of a smaller sample
sample size size for immersive and localized data
collection
It is done to solve contemporary social It is done to understand different cultures
problems