In D E

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Te ivi ofe is
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Associate Professor

G rin
Dr. Anil Kumar Mishra

uw g
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Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
In D E
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Module: 1

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Lecture: 2

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Index properties and Classification of soil
INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MECHANICS
2
 3

Index properties of soil

Definition:
Index properties are properties of the soil which helps in its identification and engineering application.

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Index properties

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Soil grains properties Soil aggregate properties

In
Specific gravity Atterberg limits
Grain size distribution Relative density
Shape of the particles
 Three-phase diagram 4

Total volume of soil = V = Va + Vw + Vs

Total weight of soil = W = Ww + Ws Water
Volume of void = Vv = Va + Vw Solid particles
Air
Weight of water Ww
Water content = w = 

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Weight of solid Ws

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Volume of void Vv

In artm sso nil ans

Void ratio = e = 

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Volume of solid Vs

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Volume of void Vv
Porosity = n = 
Total volume V Va Air Wa

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Volume of water Vw Vw
Degree of saturation = Sr =   Vw
Water Ww
Volume of void Vv Vw  Va
In V W
Total weight of soil W
Bulk unit weight =  = 
Total volume of soil V Vs
Solid Ws

Weight of soilid Ws
Dry unit weight =  d = 
Total volume V
 5

Relative density of a coarse grained soil indicates the denseness of a soil in its
natural condition.

e max  e
Relative density = RD =
e max  e min
e max = Void ratio of soil at loosest state

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e min = Void ratio of soil at densest state

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e = In-situ void ratio

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Relative density Soil deposit state
(%)

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0-15 Very loose

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15-50 Loose
50-70 Medium
In
70-85 Dense
85-100 Very dense
 6

Inter-relationship between these parameters

Volume of void Vv Vv Vv e
Porosity = n =    
Total volume V Vs  Vw  Va Vs  Vv 1  e

Bulk unit weight =  =

 Gs  S r e   w
1 e
w.Gs  S r .e
Ws 
Dry unit weight =  d = 
V 1 w
Ws
s Vs
Gs  Specific gravity of solid = 
w w
 w  Unit weight of water
 7
Soil particle size

Soil components Size

Boulder > 300 mm

Coarse grained soil
Cobble 300 mm to 80 mm

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Coarse – 80 mm to 20 mm

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Gravel (G)

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Fine – 20 mm to 4.75 mm

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Coarse – 4.75 mm to 2 mm

D E
Sand (S) Medium – 2 mm to 425 micron
Fine – 425 micron to 75 micron

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Fine grained

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Silt (M) 75 micron to 2 micron
In
soil

Clay (C) < 2 micron

 8

Electron
Naked eye
microscope Microscope

0.002 0.075 0.425 2.0 4.75 20.0 80.0 300.0 mm

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Fine grained Coarse grained

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In artm sso nil ans
Fine Medium Coarse Fine Coarse

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Clay Silt Cobble Boulder
Sand Gravel

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 9
Determination particle size distribution curve
Particle size distribution curve helps in understanding the proportion of various size of the
particles present in a soil.

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of %f CFiner
In artm sso nil ans
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Set of sieves (Budhu, 2015)

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In
Particle size (mm) in log scale

Hydrometer analysis for fine grained soil (Budhu, 2015)

 10
Gradation of soil
Gradation of a soil is obtained from the grain size distribution curve

Well graded soil (W): Soil consists particles of all the sizes
in good proportion.

Poorly graded soil (P): Soil consists of particle mostly of one D60
size.

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D30

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In artm sso nil ans
D60 D10
Co-efficient of uniformity = Cu =

an p A r. A xp
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D E
D10
D30 2 Particle size distribution curve (Budhu, 2015)
Co-efficient of curvature = Cc =
D60 D10

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For well graded gravel:
In
Cu > 4 and Cc should be between 1 to 3

For well graded sand:

Cu > 6 and Cc should be between 1 to 3
 11
Plasticity behaviour of soil

The plasticity behavior of a soil is defined as the soil’s ability to undergo deformation
due to application of pressure.

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Due to plasticity behaviour of the soil it can deform into various shapes when it is wet.

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In artm sso nil ans
Fine grained soil exhibits plasticity behaviour.

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Plasticity behaviour of a soil depends upon the soil’s mineralogical composition and

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 12
Consistency behaviour of soil
The term consistency of a soil defines the degree of firmness of a soil in terms of soft,
firm, stiff or hard. It indicates the relative ease with which a soil can be deformed into
various shapes.
Unconfined Consistency
compressive

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strength (kPa)

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< 25 Very soft

In artm sso nil ans

25-50 Soft

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50-100 Medium
100-200 Stiff
200-400 Very stiff
> 400 Hard

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Consistency behavior of soil (Budhu, 2015)

Depending on the water content, a clayey soil can be described in terms of liquid, plastic, semisolid and solid
state.
 13

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When soil is dried from the liquid state (A), at point B it starts to develop some shear strength and stops

In artm sso nil ans

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flowing like liquid and exhibit plastic behaviour. At this point soil changes its state from liquid to plastic state.

K
D E
The water content corresponds to this point is known as liquid limit.

When the soil is further dried from B, it will be in a plastic state and can be molded into various shapes without

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rupture. On further drying, a point C will reach where the soil starts developing cracks and soil is in semisolid
state.The water content at which the state of soil changes from plastic to semisolid is known as plastic limit.
In
 14

On further drying from C the volume of the soil

decreased continuously up to D. Beyond D, the volume
of the soil will not decrease on drying the soil. The
water content corresponds to the point D is known as
Shrinkage limit.

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Shrinkage limit can also defined as the minimum water

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In artm sso nil ans
content up to which the soil remain saturated.

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The range of water content for which the soil is in semi-solid state is known as shrinkage index.

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Shrinkage Index (SI) = Plastic limit (PL) – Shrinkage limit (SL)
In

The volume of the soil will not decrease on further drying from D.
 15
Plasticity index
The range of water content for which the soil is in plastic state is known as plasticity index.
Plasticity Index (PI) = Liquid limit (LL) – Plastic limit (PL)
The plasticity index indicates the degree of plasticity a soil exhibits. Higher plasticity index indicates a greater
plasticity of the soil.
Plasticity Index Soil Description

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0 Non-plastic

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<7 Low plastic

itu en cia um ive

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In artm sso nil ans
7-17 Medium plastic

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>17 Highly plastic

K
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Liquidity index
It indicates the closeness of the water content of a soil to its liquid limit.

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Water content- Plastic limit
Liquidity index, Il = x100
When Il is, In Plasticity Index
< 0 = Semi-solid state
0 to 1 = Plastic state
> 1 = Liquid state
 16

Consistency index
It indicates the closeness of the water content of a soil to its plastic limit.

Liquid limit-Water content

Consistency index, Ic = x100
Plasticity Index

Activity of soils

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It is defined as the ratio between the plasticity index and clay fraction of the soil

In artm sso nil ans

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Plasticity Index When,
Activity, A c = Ac < 0.75 = Inactive
Clay fraction
Ac = 0.75 to 1.25 = Normal
Ac for,

st
Ac > 1.25 = Active

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Sodium montmorillonite : 4 - 7
Illite: 0.5 - 1.3
Kaolinite: 0.3 to 0.5 In

Higher is the activity, higher will be compressibility and swelling and lower hydraulic conductivity
 17
Toughness index
It is defined as the ratio between the plasticity index and flow index of the soil.
Ip
Toughness index, I t =
If
Flow index

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It is defined as the slope of flow curve obtained between the number of blows and water content

of f C Pr r M il

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In artm sso nil ans
w1

Water content
Flow curve

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w1 - w 2

D E
Flow index, If = w2
N
log 2
N1 N1 N2

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No. of blows
It indicates the rate of decrease in the shear strength of the soil due to
increase in water content. In
 18
Sensitivity (Si): Sensitivity Type

It indicates the effect of remoulding of a soil on its strength. <1 Insensitive

1-4 Normal
Undisturbed unconfined compressive strength 4-8 Sensitive
Sensitivity, Si =
Remoulded unconfined compressive strength 8-15 Extra-sensitive
>15 Quick clays
Thixotropy:

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Thixotropy is a property of clay by which a remoulded soil regains its strength.

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In artm sso nil ans
Volumetric shrinkage:

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Volumetric shrinkage of a soil is defined as the ratio between the decrease in the volume of the soil to its
dry volume.
V -V

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Volumetric shrinkage, VS = 1 2 x100
Vd
Linear shrinkage: In
The linear shrinkage is expressed as the percentage in decrease in the length of a soil mass due to drying
to its initial length at a water content equals to its liquid limit.
L -L
Linear shrinkage, LS = 1 d x100
L1
 19

Classification of soil
A soil classification system is performed to place the soils, which are
expected to exhibit identical characteristics, into a particular group.

Soil classification is defined as the arranging of the soils into various group so

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that soils in a particular group behave similarly.

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A soil classification system also provide information about the engineering

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behavior of soil.

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Purpose: In
The main purpose of any soil classification systems are;
i) Soils of similar behavior to place in one group
ii) To name a soil such that it will have a universal meaning
 20
Classification of soil
Criteria:
The main criteria used for soil classification systems are derived from;
i) Particle size
ii) Gradation (for coarse grained soil) and Plasticity (for fine grained soil)

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Classification systems:

D E
1. Textural classification
2. AASHTO classification system

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3. Unified soil classification system
In
4. Indian soil classification system
 Gravel (G)
(80 mm to 4.75 mm)
Coarse

(< 75 m)
grained Soil

In D E
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In artm sso nil ans
Sand (S)

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itu en cia um ive
Soil

te t o te a So
(4.75 mm to 75 m)

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Silt (M)
( 75 m to 2 m)
Soil
(> 75 m)
Fine grained

(< 2 m)
Clay (C)
21
 22
Indian Soil Classification (ISC) System
Soil
More than 50% More than 50% passing
Secondary Group Primary Group retained by 75m sieve through 75m sieve

Coarse grained

i
Fine grained

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Te ivi ofe is
More than 50% retained

no ng or
More than 50% passed

gy e
itu en cia um ive

lo ine
by 4.75 mm sieve through 4.75 mm sieve

In artm sso nil ans

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Gravel (G) Sand (S) Silt (M) Clay (C) Organic (O) Peat (Pt)

Liquid limit ≤ 35% Liquid limit in Liquid limit > 50%

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between 35 to 50%

In
Well Graded (W) Poorly Graded (W) Low plasticity (L) Intermediate High plasticity (H)
plasticity (I)
 23
Soil

If more than
50% of soil No Fine grained
retained on soil
75m sieve

Yes

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Coarse

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grained soil

In artm sso nil ans

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If more than 50%
Yes of coarse No

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Gravel grained soil Sand
retained on
In 4.75mm sieve
 In D E
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Clay (C)

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Silt (M)

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Plasticity chart (ISC System)

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 25

Yes Well graded

(GW)
Fine content If Cu > 4 and
less than 5% Cc = 1 to 3
No Poorly graded
(GP)

Depending on GW-GM

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Fine content

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G rin
GW-GC

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Gravel plasticity and

Te ivi ofe is
no ng or
gy e
between 5 and

itu en cia um ive

lo ine
gradation, dual GP-GC
(G)

In artm sso nil ans

12% symbol GP-GM

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Above “A” line or
hatched zone in GC

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plasticity chart

Fine content In In hatched zone in

plasticity chart GM-GC
more than
12%

Below “A” line or

hatched zone in GM
plasticity chart
 26

Yes Well graded

(SW)
Fine content If Cu > 6 and
less than 5% Cc = 1 to 3 ?
Poorly graded
No (SP)

Depending on SW-SM

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Fine content

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G rin
SW-SC

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plasticity and

Te ivi ofe is
no ng or
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between 5 and

itu en cia um ive

Sand (S)

lo ine
gradation, dual SP-SC

In artm sso nil ans

12% symbol SP-SM

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Above “A” line or
hatched zone in SC
plasticity chart

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In In hatched zone in SM-SC
Fine content plasticity chart
more than
12%
Below “A” line or
hatched zone in SM
plasticity chart
 Clay with low
27
Liquid limit compressibility
<35% CL

Clay with
Liquid limit in medium
Above A- between 35
Clay (C) compressibility
line and 50% CI

Clay with high

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Silt (M) Liquid limit compressibility

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G rin
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Te ivi ofe is
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itu en cia um ive
Or >50% CH

lo ine
In artm sso nil ans
Clay (C)

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Liquid limit

D E
<35% ML or OL

Silt (M) or
Below A-line

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Organic (O)

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Liquid limit in
between 35 MI or OI
In and 50%

Liquid limit
MH or OH
>50%
 In D E
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Plasticity chart (ISC System)

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 Plasticity Index, Ip

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In artm sso nil ans
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Liquid limit, LL (%)

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Classification of coarse grained soils are identical to ISC system
Unified Soil Classification (USC) System
29
 30
Clay with low
Liquid limit
compressibility
<50%
CL

Above A-
Clay (C)
line

Clay with high

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Silt (M) Liquid limit compressibility

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G rin
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Te ivi ofe is
no ng or
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itu en cia um ive
Or >50% CH

lo ine
In artm sso nil ans
Clay (C)

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K
Liquid limit

D E
<50% ML or OL

Silt (M) or
Below A-line

st
Organic (O)

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In

Liquid limit
MH or OH
>50%