Vrishabanou Mongendre 206128506

iPGCE/MA ETL Module 1

EDU6186 – Education, Teaching and Learning

Teaching Activity Portfolio, 4500 words

1. Introduction

This portfolio explores a teaching activity that took place in a Cambridge

International School in India, in an English lesson for Grade 5 (learners aged 10 years). It was
a tentative application of learner-centred education (LCE)-inspired pedagogy, expressed
through collaborative poetry-writing. As I was volunteering in this school, I mentioned haiku
poetry in conversation with the Grade 5 teacher, who then proposed that I present it to her
class because she had incidentally reached that topic in the Cambridge-recommended
textbook she was following. LCE is, very briefly, education that gives students a more active
role in the learning process, through pedagogical methods such as inquiry, social interaction
(dialogue, collaboration), and direct experience (problem/activity-based learning, creative
expression). There are, of course, many more elements to this complex theory; they will be
further expanded in the main body. Like any theory, LCE has faced criticism and challenges
in its implementation. Nonetheless, LCE is a spectrum, and can be applied in flexible ways
according to context. It is also noteworthy that LCE is but one out of the wide range of
methods qualified teachers have in their repertoire, where traditional teacher-led methods can
have a place and appropriate use (Schweisfurth, 2019, p. 2) and indeed that a balance
between teacher and student-led pedagogies may be desirable in some contexts. In light of
these considerations, I wished to create a classroom activity that would engage students
without leaving them lost, that would use low resources, and that would also fulfil the
curriculum requirements of the school. After presenting my lesson plan, I discuss the
challenges and misconceptions of LCE, and then reflect on how this relates to my activity,
finally exploring my thoughts on socio-dramatic play in a blog post.

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2. Lesson Plan

Subject: English Level: Grade 5 Number of students: 11 Time: 40 min

Age: 9-10
Curriculum Cambridge International – Primary
Based on the England National Curriculum
(Cambridge International Examinations 2016;
Department for Education 2014)
Materials Blackboard, student notebooks.

Learning Intentions To understand and appreciate haiku poems.

To consolidate understanding of the parts of speech.

Class characteristics Many different nationalities, all fluent English speakers, no additional
needs.
Lesson stage Teacher Learners
Introduce and define haiku poems. Listen attentively.
Talk about 5-7-5 syllable structure.
Make short notes.
1. Introduction Explain how they are like snapshots of
nature or everyday activities that go Follow instructions.
(15 minutes, T-Ss, T-S) unnoticed.
Count syllables.
Write 3 examples, read them aloud and
explain them. Propose answers.

Show students how to count the number

of syllables in the examples and ask
them to guess the seasonal reference.
Ask a student to think of a noun related Recall previous knowledge
to nature. of grammar (parts of
2. Activity speech).
Repeat for each student, with different
(20 minutes, T-S) parts of speech: verb, adjective, article, Respond to instructions.
conjunction, adverb, preposition,
pronoun, as needed to form a Engage with activity by
‘nonsense’ haiku based on chosen making suggestions.
words.

Take suggestions from class and check

syllable count regularly.
Review lesson. Point out that the poem Reflect on what they have
still makes sense grammatically. Why? learned.
Because we chose where to put the
3. Plenary– parts of speech. That is why placement
Moving on is important.

If time, encourage students to write

(5 minutes, T-Ss, SS) their own haiku.

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Potential problems: Potential solutions:

Introduction: Students may lose focus while haiku Stage 1: Ask two students to read one poem
are read out. each.
Activity: Students may not remember the parts of Stage 2: Give hints and examples.
speech.

Assessment
No formal assessment. Opportunity to assess students’ existing understanding of grammar.

References
Cambridge International Examinations (2016) Cambridge pre-14 curricula and the National
Curriculum for England [Online] Cambridge Assessment International Education [Viewed 28
November 2020] Available from: https://www.cambridgeinternational.org/images/254430-
overview-of-cambridge-pre-14-curricula-and-the-national-curriculum-for-england.pdf

Department for Education (2014) The national curriculum in England. [Online] GOV.UK. [Viewed
28 November 2020] Available from:
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/
attachment_data/file/381344/Master_final_national_curriculum_28_Nov.pdf

3. Pedagogical Focus Essay

1. Introduction
My pedagogical focus situates itself within learner-centred education and its related
theories and practices. LCE is being increasingly accepted as a way of achieving quality,
inclusive and relevant education (Schweisfurth 2019), and this is reflected in education policy
around the world (Bremner 2020). It is not simply a methodology but a complex theory
encompassing many different elements, including attitudes and values rooted in
theoretical/ethical understandings. For example, we can note in Schweisfurth’s (2019, pp. 4-
5) seven principles of LCE, elements that pertain to pedagogical technique (dialogic teaching,
engaging teaching methods, formative assessment) but also student wellbeing and attitudes
(inclusive learning environment, mutual respect between students and teachers), policy and
curriculum (appropriate language of instruction, curriculum that students can relate to and
apply later in life, that encourages creative and critical thinking), and theoretical
understandings (constructivist ideas such as building upon students’ prior knowledge).
Therefore, Bremner (2020) has organised the elements of LCE into 6 categories based on his
review of the literature, as follows:

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1. Active participation (including interaction)

2. Adapting to needs (including human needs)

3. Autonomy (including metacognition)

4. Relevant skills

5. Power sharing

6. Formative assessment

Within my context, this is reflected in the Cambridge learner and teacher attributes –
confident, responsible, reflective, innovative and engaged – which form the school ethos of
all Cambridge International Schools and are illustrated by a number of case studies in the
‘Developing Cambridge Learner Attributes’ guide (Cambridge Assessment International
Education 2020, p. 4). It describes the need for education to prepare children for today’s
world by producing creative, reflective and independent thinkers who are not merely able to
repeat knowledge, but to apply, critically assess and expand it. The cognitive, emancipation
and preparation narratives behind LCE identified by Schweisfurth (2013) are clearly visible
within it: the idea that children learn best from meaningful, engaging and connected teaching
methods; the concept that knowledge frees students by giving them the power to question
society and transform it; and the awareness that today’s knowledge economy requires a more
advanced set of skills, respectively.

2. Challenges in implementing LCE

The difficulty of implementing this travelling policy in international contexts has been
well-documented, and a range of obstacles identified: material infrastructure, culture,
curriculum demands, and teacher training, beliefs and motivation. (Schweisfurth 2013; Di
Biase 2018; Brinkmann 2018; Mendenhall et al. 2015). In some countries, teachers are
pressured by large classrooms, few resources and stringent curriculum demands based on
narrow assessments, causing them to resort to traditional teacher-led lectures, note-taking and
rote learning, which appear easier and less time-consuming (Mendenhall et al. 2015).
Sometimes, there is even a cultural barrier, where teachers resent LCE as a Western
imposition (Tabulawa 2010). This is of course exacerbated by the lack of understanding,
experience and exposure teachers have to LCE methods, which is also something I face to a
certain extent and has made me less than confident about enacting LCE in the classroom. I

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shall focus on this obstacle because my context, an international school with an LCE-oriented
curriculum, did not present the other challenges. As for material infrastructure, it is true the
school often faced power cuts and teachers don’t usually use projectors, interactive boards, or
other technology, so I made sure my activity did not require these.

2.1 Active learning and passive teaching

Misconceptions around LCE could be one of the main reasons for its implementation
failures. One misunderstanding is that LCE is so literally learner-centred that teachers
become passive bystanders, letting students explore and decide what and how they want to
learn. This could lead to students feeling ‘abandoned’, left to do all the work while the
teacher makes no effort. It could also manifest as the teacher presenting games to entertain
the class, having students teach themselves, or assuming group work is simply allotting
students to teams. These issues have been explained in detail by Gordon (2009), who points
out the dangers of misapplying constructivist teaching, and illustrates the rewards of well-
applied practice with case-studies. He asserts that it is not about disempowering teachers or
obliterating their role in the learning process – rather, ‘a constructivist classroom is one in
which there is a balance between teacher‐ and student‐directed learning and requires teachers
to take an active role in the learning process, including formal teaching’ (Gordon 2009, p.
739). Teachers are indispensable guides and facilitators and indeed, activators of the learning
process (Hattie 2009, cited in Di Biase 2019, p. 569). In fact, as Vygotsky (whose ideas
influenced LCE), explains, there is only so much a child can learn alone – but with help from
more knowledgeable others, children can go beyond their capabilities. This takes place in the
well-known zone of proximal development (ZPD) (Hedges and Cullen 2011). A good
example of what really goes on in LCE is that of Forest Schools, which are known for
allowing children to play and discover their natural surroundings, and somehow learn though
this hands-on experience. In fact, pedagogues (what teachers are called in Forest Schools) are
carefully designing activities, teaching children about the flora and fauna, and transmitting
new skills – in short, doing much more than meets the eye (O’Brien and Murray 2007).

2.2 ‘Think globally, act locally’ in teaching

Another related concern is that LCE must necessarily exclude teacher-centred

pedagogical methods, such as lectures, note-taking, rote-learning, filling answer-sheets, and
other ‘traditional’ approaches. This can appear daunting to teachers unfamiliar with learner-

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centred methods. This is something Schweisfurth (2019, p. 2) addresses in her UNICEF think
piece:

Part of the problem with LCE is that it is often polarised against teacher-centred or
rote learning. In reality, many good teachers draw on a range of methods in their
pedagogical practice, which are suited to the cultural and resource contexts in which
they work.

Besides, the idea of a balanced approach that integrates both learner and teacher-centred
methods is another option that could reassure teachers and contexts new to LCE. Di Biase
(2019) summarises the various theorists in support of such a distributed model and
demonstrates its effectiveness in the Maldives through the ‘Gradual Release of
Responsibilities’ (GROR) model, where it was still in place two years later and had been
adopted across the atoll, according to the principal of the school (Di Biase 2019, p. 577). I
had not, unfortunately, seen her work before attempting my lesson activity, but realised that
the model reflected what I was unconsciously trying to achieve. The GROR model (Fisher
and Frey 2008, cited in Di Biase 2019, p. 571), is in essence a three-phase design that can be
summarised through the phrase: ‘I do, we do, you do’. ‘I do’ indicates the teacher-centred
phase, with tasks such as designing the lesson and giving clear instructions and guidance.
‘We do’ is the collaboration of students and teacher, where students are working but take help
from the teacher. This then allows the ‘I do’ phase to take place, where students create work
unaided. This model takes into account different shapes and stages of learning – the first
being taking information, the second applying it while making and correcting mistakes, and
the third being able to synthesise and present what has been learned with confidence. I see it a
logical way of gaining knowledge and skills, one that children naturally apply in play – they
attentively read or listen to the rules of a game, then participate in it, and are finally able to
explain the game to someone else. Similarly, the first part of my lesson consisted of giving
information, examples and background for the activity, and the second was a demonstration,
in which the students participated and were able to experience the processes behind creating a
haiku. I then wanted to encourage students to create their own haiku, but did not have
sufficient time, nor the classroom teacher’s permission to give ‘homework’. Interestingly,
two students spontaneously composed their haiku in the last few minutes of the lesson,
without asking me. Thus, such distributed models can be useful to transitioning and/or
inexperienced teachers such as myself, for whom LCE in its pure form seems inaccessible.

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2.3 Cultural Inappropriateness

A third concern is that LCE is culturally inappropriate in some contexts, or even a

Western ideological imposition, a form of colonisation that disregards Indigenous pedagogies
(Tabulawa 2010; Brinkmann 2015). There are two counterarguments I would like to touch
upon in response to this: 1) LCE is a method which can and must be used as a medium to
express cultural or Indigenous values and knowledge, 2) what are Indigenous methods, and
could they actually be learner-centred, with teacher-centred methods coming through
colonisation instead. This is, of course, bearing in mind that Indigenous pedagogies which
perpetuate inegalitarian or oppressive ideologies are excluded. The aspect of LCE Bremner
(2020) identified as ‘adapting to needs’ is about making knowledge relevant and meaningful
to students. Hedges and Cullen (2011, p. 924) show that Vygotsky made this point:

Further, Vygotsky (1986) was clear that ‘... direct teaching of concepts is impossible
and fruitless’ (p. 150). Instead, Vygotsky supported that learning should be authentic;
that is, it should be relevant to the daily life and practices of children in communities
or cultures.

A good illustration of this is a multi-modal literacy project that took place in the Hymba
Yumba Community Hub, an Independent Indigenous school in Australia, which was themed
around Indigenous culture, values and stories. Year 6/7 students retold an Indigenous story,
using their own artwork as illustrations, and using iPads to record their narration and
photograph the scenes depicted. The year 4/5 students wrote and recorded poems about the
first contact between Indigenous peoples and white colonial invaders, which they brought to
life through self-illustrated ‘gamis’ (short, animated videos). Interviews with the students
indicated the experience to be personally meaningful to them: ‘This story is important to me
because it is part of my culture’ ~ Joshua, 12 years old (Mills et al. 2015). The authors noted
that students ‘demonstrated an awareness, appreciation and deep respect and pride in their
culture and heritage’ (p.18). This shows that there need not be a contradiction between
cultural context and LCE.

Furthermore, LCE methods can in fact echo traditional Indigenous modes of teaching,
such as teaching through hands-on experience, storytelling, and engaging with nature (just
like Forest Schools). In fact, Indigenous education can be profoundly learner-centred, as
Robbie Mathew (1999, para. 9), an Eeyou Elder in a Canadian Bush school says: ‘the Eeyou
believe that even children have something to teach or share with elders. In many instances, I

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become the student and they the teachers.’ Abah, Mashebel and Denuga (2015) also explain
the common ground between African Indigenous knowledge systems and Western
approaches, which, they argue, can be appropriately integrated with each other to ‘strengthen
the quality of educational experiences for Indigenous students’ (section 3, para 2). These
Western approaches are LCE principles, for which they provide a concise, nuanced and
developed overview (section 3, para. 3). Furthermore, many of the views and methods of
Indigenous knowledge systems they specify are in keeping with LCE (table 1): critical
thinking, a holistic view of knowledge, learning from experience, learning that is practical
(for use in daily life). In my context, India, Wolfenden (2019) identifies a tradition of child-
centredness beginning 2,500 years ago with Charaka, a Hindu scholar who advocated play-
based learning. This is also supported by Smail (2013), who identifies Gandhi, Aurobindo
and Vivekananda as key-thinkers influencing this school of thought in India (p. 615). Most
significantly, Brinkmann (2018, p. 25) concludes after her research on teacher beliefs in
India, that:

The paper has argued that LCE as an ideal and its underlying beliefs are not
necessarily a Western imposition on Indian education. Its ideals can be found
historically among several Indian social reformers and philosophers, and more
importantly in the Constitutional values adopted by India as a nation. However, the
dominant ideology that shapes many Indian teachers’ beliefs is in opposition to the
beliefs underlying LCE. Part of the reason for the limited success of LCE reforms in
India and possibly other countries may be their failure to engage with teachers’
existing beliefs.

The point of these examples is not primarily to argue that learner-centredness existed
in Indigenous contexts before colonialism and globalisation, but that it can serve the interests
and purposes of Indigenous children, and children in any cultural context, if it is applied with
creativity and sensitivity. The principles of LCE allow an application flexible enough for
teachers to use the cultural and material resources at their disposal to provide learning that is
profoundly rooted in the realities of children’s contexts (Schweisfurth 2019). This, of course
requires a great deal of autonomy and creative application on the teacher’s part (and the
freedom to do so), for they cannot rely on ready-made activities – they must invent their own
unique adaptations that are specifically designed for their context. Once they are exposed to
the possibilities of LCE, either by witnessing it in their own or other’s practice, they gain the
will to adopt it, and from then on can gradually transform their practice. This is confirmed by

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Brinkman (2018), who explains that for LCE to be successfully applied in the Global South,
teachers must internalise the core principles and values of LCE, instead of being fed
formulaic ‘pre-packaged materials’ to mindlessly replicate (p. 22). Rather, she argues:

Instead of imposing a fixed, ‘Western’ model of what LCE is supposed to look like in
practice – which will fail to take root if not supported by teachers’ underlying beliefs
– it may be more fruitful to focus on engaging with teachers’ existing beliefs and
promoting culturally relevant learning-centred beliefs. This could enable teachers
themselves to decide what learning-centred practices work best within their contexts
that align with learning-centred beliefs. (p. 25)

For such a paradigm shift to take place, she says they must ‘experience such beliefs
themselves’ (italics in original) and ‘yet, even a workshop on teaching primary mathematics
can begin to shift beliefs if teachers experience something radically different from what they
experience in society.’ (p. 25) Indeed, the shift to LCE can be successful, even in different
cultural contexts, if the change is gradual and begins with small, visible, practical
implementations, so as to engender transformation in teachers’ beliefs and pre-conceived
notions. This was seen for example in India, with the TESS-India OER (open educational
resources) project (Wolfenden 2019), in Sub-Saharan Africa and Kenya with the TESSA
OER programme (Stutchbury, Dickie and Wambugu 2019), and in the Maldives, with the
GROR model mentioned earlier (Di Biase 2019).

3. Conclusion
In conclusion, learner-centred pedagogy is more than just technique – it is a worldview, a set
of values, a way of thinking. This makes it more challenging to apply in the classroom than
simply transplanting a teaching method, such as group-work, into a new context. It possesses
both external and internal components, which must both be present for long-term
transformation of teaching practice to take place. Thus, for teachers to make the transition, it
is useful to use a hybrid of both teacher-centred and learner-centred methods, as confidence
gradually builds and teachers begin to understand the underlying principles of LCE and
imagine new ways of applying them within their local contexts.

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4. Reflective Conclusion
As I began to reflect on my teaching activity, I realised how limited my understanding
of LCE was, and how the activity was only a weak attempt at it. Brinkmann’s (2018) article
made me ask myself what beliefs I was bringing to the classroom. Gordon (2009) made me
question, ‘Am I just presenting a game to entertain the students? Or am I really fostering in-
depth learning?’

In an attempt to understand how exactly my activity related to LCE, I created a table

to illustrate the interpretations I made of the various ‘micro-events’ within the activity, and
how they linked to the aspects of LCE as categorised by Bremner (2019).

Lesson Stage Micro-Event Interpretation Related aspect of LCE

(if applicable)
Introduction As I presented facts, Judging from their lack
(Actual time taken: 10 students of interest, I doubted
minutes) automatically copied they would remember
notes in a robotic, much of these facts or
neutral fashion. that the lesson would
make an impact on
their learning.

When I read the Perhaps they could

poems, they appeared not relate to the
unimpressed, poems, or had not
bordering boredom. I acquired the
could not elicit sensitivity required to
appreciation from feel moved by them.
them, only awkward
silence. I could feel my
confidence waning
and cut the
introduction short.
Activity I asked them if they Shows the importance Power sharing
(Actual time taken: 25 would like to write of the teacher’s role in (giving students a
minutes) their own haiku, or if scaffolding to use the choice about how
they preferred we full potential of the they wanted to
create one all ZPD. Throwing conduct their learning
together as a class, students into and a sense of control,
including me. something new with because their opinions
They immediately little support can feel matter)
chose the second like being abandoned
option with relief. by the teacher.

Each student Choosing the ‘first one Active participation,

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contributed a word in to raise their hand’ including interaction

turn. If they struggled, favours the more (students contributed
I provided examples. (I confident learners and equally and in
did not ask students allows others to collaboration with
to raise their hands remain passive. their peers and the
but selected each No winners and losers teacher)
one.) (no one saying ‘I’m Adapting to needs
just not good at this.’) (building on previous
knowledge of parts of
speech)

Students began to Illustrates the Power-sharing

engage more with the effectiveness of (students’
process and began collaboration and contributions are
spontaneously making active participation in necessary for the
suggestions for the eliciting engagement. activity to work)
poem.

They were soon They took the activity Human needs

smiling and laughing, as a game more than (inclusion, respectful
especially at the simple learning. At relationships,
resulting ‘nonsense’ this stage, I was no comfortable
poem, which they longer pushing them environment, lack of
chose to copy in their along, they were fear and anxiety)
notebooks. pulling the activity
forward.

They asked for Some evidence that Active participation

another round (one the activity was (methods were
student, followed by a successful (it would engaging enough to
few ‘Yes, please!’) promote learning and keep students
remain as an enthusiastic)
enjoyable memory.)

Plenary Two students made Evidence that the Relevant skills

(Actual time: 5 their own haiku collaboration made (creativity,
minutes) spontaneously, and them confident independent
then showed me. enough to attempt the initiative.)
skill unaided.

I asked one student Students appreciate Autonomy including

(as the others left too variety in teaching Meta-cognition
quickly) if he liked the methods and styles. (Asking a student to
lesson, to which he reflect on which
replied, ‘Yes, it was Evidence that LCE methods of learning
fun, better than the provides a more he likes best)
usual boring notes and interesting experience
questions.’ for learners.
I did note that the
textbook’s

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presentation of haiku
consisted mainly of
examples followed by
comprehension
questions such as
‘What colour was the
grass?’.
Such an analysis helped me to understand what I would change next time: to make
this a more effective, meaningful learner-centred activity, I could for example, ask students to
illustrate and make haiku poems about endangered animals, which they could then present in
an art exhibition open to the public.

5. Blog
Sociodramatic play – A dramatic improvement for teaching?
Image 1

What are your happiest childhood memories? Learning to ride a bicycle, going to the
beach, playing in the park? Did they take place in the context of play?

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Although my memory is blurry and blotchy, there are some moments that stand out as
intensely epic. Times when I thought to myself ‘Gosh, I’m having so much fun, I really don’t
want this to end.’

Interestingly, these magical moments were all linked to imaginary role-play scenarios
and narratives. It wasn’t sports, board-games, puzzles, drawing, cooking, or reading.
Although I did enjoy these things, I never felt more alive than when I was enacting a complex
character in a fantasy world.

Here are four separate memories I have of these instances:

- Aged 7, outdoors, just my dad and I. Inspired from a story we had read, we
were spearing rotting banana trees (monsters) with sticks. I recall especially enjoying the
seriousness with which my father took his role, saying things like, ‘Oh, look, there’s another
monster! Watch out!’

- Aged 9, in a park, with a group of 4 or 5 friends of mixed ages. One of my

friends had an idea. We imagined ourselves with the ears and tail of a specific animal we
liked. From then on, we chose superpowers, and then acted with those roles in an invented
adventure that spanned the park. This was a narrative which we returned to many times
afterword.

- Aged 9-12, on the phone, with my best friend of the same age. We invented
new names for ourselves, wrote elaborate character descriptions, and then spoke on the phone
in these impersonations. We also began inventing a language and fantasy world, supported by
drawings of maps, illustrations, emails, and a joint ‘book’ we began writing. The stories were
somewhat original, but they drew heavily from books and comics we had read.

- Aged 14 to 16 – via internet (forums, chat and collaborative writing software),

with 5 then 2 friends of mixed ages. We began posting short ‘memoirs’ of a character in a
shared world in a school forum. We then took this to collaborative writing software
(framapad) and wrote increasingly complex multi-perspective stories, with far more
sophisticated, original and developed plots, characters, places, ideologies, etc, than I had ever
imagined possible.

The reason I give these details is not to bore you to death – but to show that this was a
long-term theme that not only formed my best memories, but ultimately had direct, visible
benefits for my writing skills, collaboration skills, and creative thinking. While quite simple
at first, our narratives grew in originality – and this was thanks to the other participants, who
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enriched and scaffolded the learning process. Forged in meaningful interactions, our writing
was not a chore like homework – it was fun with hidden benefits. It was learning that would
not go away – learning that truly made us into capable adults.

I was fascinated, naturally, when I read Vygotsky praise this kind of learning and
even coin a term for it: ‘sociodramatic play’. This sparked in me the idea that as teachers, we
can make learning more emotionally engaging in the early years through imaginative
scenarios, and in later years, through meaningful community-service-inspired projects. Thus,
instead of teaching skills such as collaboration or ICT-literacy in an isolated manner, students
automatically use all these ‘without thinking’, in projects that mean a lot to them. Some
brilliant examples of how this can work are visible in this study by Portier, Friedrich and
Peterson (early years) and in this school project in Sri Lanka (p. 88). So, are we ready to get
our swords and capes out?

6. References

Abah, J. Mashebel, P., and Denugal, D. D., (2015) Prospect of Integrating African Indigenous
Knowledge Systems into the Teaching of Sciences in Africa. American Journal of
Educational Research [online]. 3 (6), 668-673. [Viewed 28 November 2020] Available from:
doi: 10.12691/education-3-6-1

Bremner, N., (2020). The multiple meanings of ‘student-centred’ or ‘learner-centred’

education, and the case for a more flexible approach to defining it. Comparative Education
[online]. [Viewed 28 November 2020] Available from: doi: 10.1080/03050068.2020.1805863

Brinkmann, S., (2018). Teachers’ beliefs and educational reform in India: from ‘learner-
centred’ to ‘learning-centred’ education. Comparative Education [online] 55 (1), 9-29.
[Viewed 28 November 2020] Available from: doi: 10.1080/03050068.2018.1541661

Cambridge Assessment International Education (2020) Developing the Cambridge learner

attributes [online]. Cambridge Assessment International Education. [Viewed 28 November
2020] Available from: https://www.cambridgeinternational.org/support-and-training-for-
schools/teaching-cambridge-at-your-school/cambridge-learner-attributes/

Di Biase, R., (2019) Moving beyond the teacher-centred/learner-centred dichotomy:

implementing a structured model of active learning in the Maldives. Compare: A Journal of

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Comparative and International Education [online] 49 (4), 565-583. [Viewed 28 November

2020] Available from: doi: 10.1080/03057925.2018.1435261

Gordon, M., (2009) The misuses and effective uses of constructivist teaching. Teachers and
Teaching [online]. 15 (6), 737-746. [Viewed 28 November 2020] Available from: doi:
10.1080/13540600903357058

Hedges, H., and Cullen, J., (2011) Participatory learning theories: a framework for early
childhood pedagogy. Early Child Development and Care [online]. 182 (7), 921-940. [Viewed
28 November 2020] Available from: doi: 10.1080/03004430.2011.597504

Image 1 [no date] Children playing make-believe [digital image]. [Viewed 28 November
2020]. Available from: https://bucksoxon.muddystilettos.co.uk/kids/half-term-top-13/

Matthew, R., (1999) Educating Today's Youth in Indigenous Ecological Knowledge: New
Paths for Traditional Ways [online]. Asia-Pacific Centre of Education for International
Understanding [Viewed 28 November 2020] Available from:
http://www.unescoapceiu.org/bbs/files/doc/2002/esd/TLSF/theme_c/mod11/
uncom11t05s01.htm

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