Learning Style Differences of Myanmar EFL Teachers

with an Emphasis on Confucian Cultures

Soe Darli Wai

Lecturer, Department of English, Myitkyina University, Ministry of Education, Myanmar
Email: soedarliwai89@gmail.com

Abstract
This study includes a brief discussion of Confucianism, a discussion of East Asian
learning styles, review of some theories of measuring cultures, and some prescriptions
concerning practice. Confucianism has had a major influence on education for two thousand
years, so an understanding of the influence of Confucianism is essential for successful
teaching. Thus, this paper discusses unique characteristics of learning styles and cultural
values specific to Myanmar EFL teachers, with an emphasis on Confucian cultures.
Prescriptions that can facilitate success for lecturers in the tertiary classroom in Myanmar are
provided. According to the findings, most teachers have not taken surveys of their learning
styles and adjusted the class, or provided more options based on the diversity of styles
(Mean=2.24). Most teachers use several diverse forms of assessment (oral exams, written
exams, projects, group work, group quizzes, performances, presentations, creative writing,
poster sessions, etc.) (Mean=3.86). Participants said that they did not experience background
knowledge tests (pretests) of their students and adjust material or provide alternative learning
sequences. However, they use multimedia, broadly defined: text, audio, video, overheads,
computers, discussion, group work, lecture, poetry, music, art, touch to present material
(Mean=3.36). They often present verbal material in more than one way and use many
examples. However, only some of them make use of technology to vary modes of learning,
and for asynchronous learning. Finally, they recommend or require diverse out-of-class
learning opportunities (Mean=3.29).
Keywords: Learning Style Differences, Myanmar EFL Teachers, Confucian Cultures

I. Introduction
This study includes a brief discussion of Confucianism, a discussion of East Asian
learning styles, review of some theories of measuring cultures, and some prescriptions
concerning practice. Confucianism has had a major influence on Chinese life for two
thousand years, so an understanding of the influence of Confucianism is essential for
successful teaching in East Asia. This research is intended to provide useful knowledge to
English teachers when they are teaching in the language classroom particularly Myanmar.
Confucian heritage cultures are Greater China, Japan, Korea, Singapore, Vietnam, and more
or less in Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia. If one has never experienced living in another
culture, he or she is unaware of the profound differences existing that affect every facet of
life. These issues relate to the lecturer and the student in cross-cultural teaching situations. As
a foreign language teacher in Myanmar, lecturers will find many Chinese students are well
travelled; others may have spent little or no time outside the city in which they were born.
Students and teachers bring with them the beliefs and expectations about schooling they have
formed from their own life experiences. They also bring their language and their beliefs about
education based on their native culture. This will, of course, lead to problems when the
teacher and students are generally unfamiliar with the culture of the other and are unaware of
the cultural accommodations they must make.

1.1 Confucianism
The most important figure in North Asian civilization is unquestionably Confucius
(Little and Reed, 1989). The Confucian philosophy of life has had strong influence for more
than two thousand years on the cultures of China, Vietnam, Korea, and Japan. Confucianism
became the state ideology of Korea during the Choson Dynasty in Korea in 1392. The Korean
Choson dynasty's King Sejong the Great (r. 1418-1450), was noted for his mastery of
Confucian learning; King Sejo (r. 1455-1468) attempted to stop Confucian influence on
government; and Songjong (r.1469-1494) restored it, and Confucian brainwashing was again
the order of the day. The influence is still considerable. Confucianism was introduced into
Japan via Korea in the year 285. In 1600, the Tokugawa clan succeeded in establishing its
supremacy in Japan following over two centuries of civil wars between powerful clans.
During this period of the Tokugawa Shogunate, Confucianism was adopted as a state
ideology. Confucianism was also become an integral part of the warrior or bushido culture.
Confucianism was introduced into Vietnam in the first century, during the Chinese
domination. However, it was after Vietnam achieved independence from China that Chinese
influence and Confucianism became important. As a political philosophy favorable to the
monarchy, Confucianism was promoted and supported by the government. Vietnam was
considered a Confucian state until the mid-nineteenth century. In Vietnam official support of
the Confucian system of philosophy lost prominence in more recent history, but its practice is
still common among government bureaucrats and leaders.
 The foundation of his philosophy was that Man was essentially good. Confucius had a
simple moral and political philosophy: to love others; to honor one's parents; to do what is
right instead of what is to one’s exclusive advantage; to practice "reciprocity," i.e., "don't do
to others what you would not want yourself"; to rule by moral example instead of by force
and violence. Confucius thought that a ruler who had to help to force had already failed as a
ruler, "Your job is to govern, not to kill." (Analects XII: 19, all quotations are from Yu,
1999). This was not a principle universally adhered to by Chinese rulers, however, it was the
ideal of benevolent rule. Self-control is the basis of the industrious virtues that have made the
Chinese people economically successful whenever they have been allowed to prosper,
whether in California, Malaysia, or China.

1.2 East Asian Learning Styles

Significant study of learning styles across cultures started in the 1980s in the USA,
motivated by teachers of English to speakers of other languages. In theory, there exist as
many learning styles as there are learners, but national groups have recognized to
demonstrate similarities. Many theorists have defined several schemes of classifying learning
styles. Rao (2001) and Clenton (1998) have provided excellent discussions of the many
student learning styles observed in East Asia. Teaching in most East Asian countries is
traditionally dominated by a teacher-centered, book-cantered method and an emphasis on rote
memory (Liu & Littlewood, 1997). These traditional teaching approaches have resulted in a
number of common learning styles.

1.2.1 Introverted Learning Style

For this style, knowledge is something to be transmitted by the teacher rather than
discovered by the learners; the students receive learning from the teacher rather than interpret
it. Hershberger et al. (1986) reported Japanese and Korean students are often quiet, shy and
reticent in classrooms. They dislike public touch and overt expressions of opinions or
displays of emotions, indicating a reserve that is the hallmark of the Western definition of
introverts.

1.2.2 Closure-oriented Style

Closure-oriented students dislike ambiguity, uncertainty, or fuzziness; to avoid these,
they will sometimes jump to hasty conclusions from incomplete information. Sue and Kirk
(1972) found Asian students to be autonomous, more dependent on authority figures, and
more obedient and conforming to rules and deadlines. Harshbarger et al. (1986) noted that
Korean students insist that the teacher be the authority and are disturbed if this does not
happen. Japanese students often want rapid and constant correction from the teacher and do
not feel comfortable with multiple correct answers.

1.2.3 Analytic and Field-independent Style

Analytic learners are sequential, orderly, and organized, and focus on details and tend
to formulate plans. Field dependence means being “holistically oriented”, going from the big
picture to the detail. Generally, field independent learners are better at spatial tasks, math, and
science. Individuals with an analytical learning style tend to focus on sequential details rather
than the overall structure. Oxford and Burry-Stock (1995) state that the Chinese, along with
the Japanese, are often detail-and precision-oriented, showing some features of the analytic
and field-independent styles. They prefer learning strategies that involve dissecting and
logically analyzing the given material, searching for contrasts, and finding cause-effect
relationship.

1.2.4 Visual Learning Style

Reid (1987) found Korean, Chinese, and Japanese students to be visual learners, with
Korean students ranking the strongest. They like to read and obtain a great deal of visual
stimulation. For them, lectures, conversations, and oral directions without any visual backup
can be very confusing and anxiety-producing. This visual learning style stems from a
traditional classroom teaching in East Asia, where most teachers emphasize learning through
reading and tend to put a great deal of information on the blackboard.

1.2.5 Concrete-sequential Style

Students favoring this learning style are likely to follow the teacher's guidelines to the
letter, to be focused on the present, and demand full information rather than drawing their
own conclusions. They prefer learning materials and techniques that involve combinations of
sound, movement, sight, and touch that can be applied in a concrete, sequential, linear
manner. Oxford and Burry-Stock (1995) found that Chinese and Japanese are concrete-
sequential learners, and use a variety of strategies such as memorization, planning, analysis,
sequenced repetition, detailed outlines and lists, structured review, and a search for
perfection. Many Korean students also prefer situations where they have rules to follow
(Harshbarger et al, 1986), indicating a concrete-sequential style.
1.2.6 Thinking-oriented and Reflective Styles
These styles are closely related to analytic and field-independent, visual and concrete
sequential. Nelson (1995) found Asian students to be more overtly thinking-oriented than
feeling-oriented. They typically base judgment on logic and analysis (rather than on feelings
of others), the emotional climate, and interpersonal values. Compared with American
students, Japanese students, like most Asians, show greater reflection (Condon, 1984), as
shown by the concern for precision and for not taking risks in conversation (Oxford et al,
1992). Typical is "the Japanese student who wants time to arrive at the correct answer and is
uncomfortable when making a guess" (Nelson, 1995, p.16). Chinese students have also been
identified to possess this type of thinking orientation by Anderson (1993).

1.3 Prescriptions Concerning Practice

McKinney (2004) suggests some techniques for adjusting a variety of student learning
styles in class: Having students taken surveys of their learning styles and adjusted the class to
who they are, or provided more options based on the diversity of styles; Using several diverse
forms of assessment (oral exams, take-home exams, essay exams, portfolios, projects, group
work, journals, group quizzes, performances, presentations, creative writing, poster sessions,
etc.); Giving students background knowledge tests (pretests) and adjust material or provide
alternative learning sequences; Using multimedia, broadly defined: text, audio, video,
overheads, computers, discussion, group work, lecture, poetry, music, art, touch to present
material; Presenting verbal material in more than one way and use many examples; Making
use of technology to vary modes of learning, and for asynchronous learning; and
Recommending diverse out-of-class learning opportunities. Identifiable learning styles exist
for students in most East Asian societies. A native Western educated and experienced lecturer
engaged in teaching East Asian students is likely to confront a teaching-learning style
conflict. Such style differences between students and teachers consistently and negatively
affect student performance (Wallace and Oxford, 1992). Matching appropriate teaching
approaches with students' learning styles can increase motivation and achievement (Brown,
1994).

II. Methodology
Data for this research were collected from postgraduate students and academics at
selected universities. Purposive sampling technique was used which allowed the researchers
to collect data from key informants. A mixed methods approach was adopted in this study. A
questionnaire with predominantly closed-ended questions was used to collect quantitative
data. In total, we self-administered a questionnaire to 30 postgraduate students and over 70
academic staff. Qualitative data were collected by conducting follow-up interviews with
some academic staff. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to
analyze quantitative data from both students and academics. Some frequencies and
percentages generated using SPSS were exported to MS Excel to produce charts and MS
Word to produce tables. Interviews were recorded using recording applications on Iphone 5
smartphones. The recorded interviews were then transcribed using the Trancribe© software
into MS word. Qualitative data were analyzed thematically. The strength of this study is the
use of a mixed methods approach which allowed the researchers to triangulate the results. In
this context, data collected using questionnaires from students and academic staff were used
to confirm each other, and we drew the conclusions of the study based on the findings that
were supported most by data sources. To ensure that the questionnaire was free from errors,
its content was subjected to pretesting in two ways. First, we asked experts in research in
higher education to comment on the questionnaire focusing on clarity, question wording,
validity and order of the questions. Second, we piloted the questionnaire with 10 postgraduate
students and 2 lecturers at the University. Postgraduate students and lecturers were used in
the pilot study because they were similar to the target population of our study. Feedback from
education experts and the pilot study was used to make corrections on the questionnaire.
Ethical issues were addressed in two ways in this study. First, we sought and were granted
permission by the Rectors of selected universities. We sought permission to conduct this
study through the university research ethics committee. Second, before taking part in the
study, participants were informed through a consent letter that they were taking part in the
study voluntarily. The consent letter further informed participants that even if they had
accepted to participate in the study, they were at liberty to withdraw at any stage of the study
without giving reasons. The participants signed the consent letter to show that they had read
the content and that they were taking part in the study voluntarily.

III. Results
The research in and practice of emphasis on Confucian cultures can provide useful
knowledge to Myanmar teachers with the chance to understand and take charge of their
teaching in the language classrooms. Firstly, most Myanmar teachers agree with the
foundation of Confucius philosophy and it can be found that they are happy with a simple
moral and political philosophy. Secondly, the evaluative views of the teachers towards
Myanmar students’ learning style compared to East Asian learning styles were collected.
According to the data, Myanmar students are likely to use East Asian learning styles but they
do not apply all as there exist many learning styles across Myanmar culture. Finally, the
techniques adapted by the teachers for a variety of student learning styles in class is in
medium. Among the techniques, it can be found out that using several diverse forms of
assessment is high and giving students background knowledge tests (pretests) and adjust
material or provide alternative learning sequences is very low.

3.1 Confucianism
The following table shows the responses of Myanmar teachers’ level of agreement
with the foundation of Confucius philosophy.
Table 1: Myanmar teachers’ level of agreement with the foundation of Confucius philosophy
Responses Calculation
Mea
SN East Asian Learning Styles Disagre Not SD Interpretation
Agree
e Decided n
1 The foundation of Confucius
24% 5% 71% 2.47 0.85 Happy with the
philosophy was that Man was
philosophy
essentially good.
2 Confucius had a simple moral and
political philosophy: to love others;
to honor one's parents; to do what is 13% 2% 85% 2.72 0.68 Happy with the
right instead of what is to one’s philosophy
exclusive advantage; to practice
reciprocity.
3 Confucius emphasized the
importance of education and self-
24% 3% 73% 2.49 0.85 Happy with the
cultivation in the service of the
philosophy
community and to achieve good
government.
20.33% 3.33% 76.33% 2.56 0.81 Happy with the
Average
philosophy
NOTE:
1.00-1.66=Unhappy with the philosophy
1.67-2.33=Neither unhappy nor happy with the philosophy
2.34-3.00=Happy with the philosophy

In Myanmar, the respect for education is linked with a tradition of obedience to

superiors, teachers, parents, and a respect for ancient times. Most Myanmar teachers agree
with a simple moral and political philosophy of Confucius: to love others; to honor one's
parents; to do what is right instead of what is to one’s exclusive advantage; to practice
"reciprocity," i.e., "don't do to others what you would not want yourself"; to rule by moral
example instead of by force and violence. Myanmar also thought that a ruler who had to help
to force had already failed as a ruler. This was also a principle universally adhered to
Confucius. Confucius’ philosophy might play a significant role in the life of the common
man as well as the educated and intellectual in Myanmar civilization. Of interest in this paper
is Confucius’ emphasis upon respect for education. His teachings have contributed to the
development of a tradition of a ruthlessly competitive education process as a preparation for
the holding of high office and as qualification to enter the bureaucracy.

3.2 Myanmar Students’ Learning Style Compared to East Asian Learning Styles
The following table presents the evaluative views of the teachers towards Myanmar
students’ learning style compared to East Asian learning styles.
Table 2: Evaluative views of the teachers towards Myanmar students’ learning style
compared to East Asian Learning Styles
SN East Asian Characteristics Responses Calculation Interpretation
Learning Disagree Not Agree Mean SD
Styles Decided
1 Introverted My students are often 29% 2% 69% 2.40 0.91 Extremely
learning quiet, shy, and silent
likely to use
style in classrooms.

2 Closure- My students are 40% 5% 55% 2.15 0.96 Likely to use

oriented obedient and
style conforming to rules
and deadlines.
3 Analytic and My students prefer 54% 13% 33% 1.79 0.91 Likely to use
field- learning strategies
independent that involve
style examining and
logically analyzing
the given material,
searching for
contrasts, and finding
cause-effect
relationship.
4 Visual My students like to 46% 10% 44% 1.98 0.95 Likely to use
learning read and obtain a
style great deal of visual
stimulation.
5 Concrete- My students prefer 30% 9% 61% 2.31 0.90 Likely to use
sequential learning materials and
style techniques that
involve combinations
of sound, movement,
sight, and touch that
can be applied in a
concrete, sequential,
linear manner.
6 Thinking- My students want 41% 11% 48% 2.07 0.94 Likely to use
oriented and time to arrive at the
reflective correct answer and
styles are uncomfortable
 when making a guess.
Average 40.00% 8.33% 51.67% 2.12 0.95 Likely to use

NOTE:
1.00-1.66=Not at all likely to use
1.67-2.33=Likely to use
2.34-3.00=Extremely likely to use

The generalizations made above about learning styles in Myanmar do not apply to
every representative of all East Asian countries; many individual exceptions of course exist.
Nevertheless, these descriptions do have a basis in research. While diversity within any
culture is the norm, research shows that individuals within a culture tend to have a common
pattern of learning and perception when members of their culture are compared to members
of another culture. Comparison of East Asian learning styles with those of students from
other cultures will indicate differences and understanding and accommodating the differences
should be a goal of a dedicated teacher. There is no clear evidence that any one style is
generally better than another for efficient and effective learning and cannot alter how we
prefer to learn. Adaptation is the responsibility of the lecturer. According to the data, there
exist many learning styles across Myanmar culture. These traditional teaching approaches
have resulted in a number of common learning styles. Teaching in most East Asian countries
is traditionally dominated by a teacher-centered, book-cantered method and an emphasis on
rote memory (Liu & Littlewood, 1997).

3.3 Techniques for Adjusting a Variety of Student Learning Styles in Class

The following table illustrates the techniques adapted by the teachers for a variety of
student learning styles in class.
Table 3: Techniques for adapting a variety of student learning styles in class
SN Techniques Responses Calculation Interpretation
Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always Mean SD
1 Having your
students taken
surveys of their
learning styles
and adjusted the
class to who 33% 30% 23% 8% 6% 2.24 1.17 Low
they are, or
provided more
options based on
the diversity of
styles
2 Using several
diverse forms of 0% 6% 31% 34% 29% 3.86 0.91 High
assessment
3 Giving students 81% 5% 4% 5% 5% 1.48 1.11 Very low
 background
knowledge tests
(pretests) and
adjust material
or provide
alternative
learning
sequences
4 Using
11% 13% 25% 31% 20% 3.36 1.25 Medium
multimedia
5 Presenting
verbal material
in more than 9% 20% 23% 29% 19% 3.29 1.24 Medium
one way and use
many examples
6 Making use of
technology to
vary modes of
23% 17% 17% 25% 18% 2.98 1.44 Medium
learning, and for
asynchronous
learning
7 Recommend or
require diverse
out-of-class 14% 16% 20% 27% 23% 3.29 1.35 Medium
learning
opportunities.
17.14
Average 24.43% 15.29% 20.43% 22.71% 2.93 1.43 Medium
%
NOTE:
1.00-1.80=Very low
1.81-2.60=Low
2.61-3.40=Medium
3.41-4.20=High
4.21-5.00=Very high

According to the data, Myanmar lecturers expect students to engage in considerable

amounts of interaction and give-and-take in the classroom. They will need to carefully plan
and nurture development of the interaction. Using the traits of “expecting to be told what to
do” and “obeying and not questioning superiors” the lecturer can lead the class to develop
student-teacher oral interaction, perhaps even to the point of questioning the validity of the
opinions expressed by the lecturer.

IV. Conclusions
Many EFL teachers already have considerable experience dealing with culturally
diverse groups of students, because of the explosive growth of export education in developed
and developing countries. However, when the teacher is asked to perform in a country with a
high cultural distance from the home country, the situation is changed. Careful planning and
implementation of classroom education is of particular importance, and should include:
 1. A full understanding of the culture and value differences between the teachers’ home
country and the country in which the education will be distributed; a presentation and
discussion of these differences at the beginning of the course is helpful to everyone.
2. Specific knowledge of the variety of learning styles that may be common to students
in the cultural environment in which the teacher is working.
3. Thoughtful design and distribution of classroom instruction that takes several learning
styles into reflection.
4. Focus on the distribution rate of speech, with regular feedback checks from students.
5. Adjustment of expectations as to what can be taught and read in the timetable of the
course, compared to the teacher’s home country.
6. From individual experience teaching in Myanmar, the author has found performance
on assessments in English to be improved when reading material to be studied is
available in both English and Myanmar; quite a number of publishers provide both
English and Myanmar translations of popular textbooks; the Universities produce
some case studies in various languages.

V. Recommendations
When we want to provide effective teaching and learning outcomes, it should be
mutual responsibility to recognize and understand the learning diversity. Every learning style
has their characteristics. On the other hand, as passionate teachers, we should know more
about the learners' learning styles. Consequently, more appropriate materials and strategies
can be created to adapt the learning styles from different knowledge background. The
diversity of learners’ background and experience may bring us a challenge, but we should
improve our teaching and learning competence by developing suitable educational theory and
skills to support a learning process. Moreover, teachers must build a good relationship
between students and teachers may work more effective than any other strategies above.

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