Bio Chemistry

Assist. Lecturer Maryam A. Saib 1st stage

2023
Lec.3
Metabolism
Metabolism: is the chemical reactions in the body's cells .
that change food into energy. Our bodies need this energy to do
everything from moving to thinking to growing.
Metabolism consist of:
1-Catabolism: Pathways of chemical reactions leading to the
breakdown of molecules.
2-Anabolism: pathways of chemical reactions leading to the
synthesis of molecules.
Digestion (Metabolism) of Carbohydrates
The mechanical and chemical digestion of carbohydrates .
begins in the mouth. Chewing crumbles the carbohydrate
foods into smaller pieces. The salivary glands in the oral
cavity secrete saliva that coats the food particles. Saliva
contains the enzyme, salivary amylase. This enzyme breaks
the bonds between the monomeric sugar units of
disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and starches. The salivary
amylase breaks down amylose and amylopectin into smaller
chains of glucose, called dextrin’s and maltose. Amylase is
sensitive to pH and thus is inhibited in the acidic environment
of the stomach.
Digestion (Metabolism) of Carbohydrates
The pancreas releases pancreatic enzyme called pancreatic .
amylase, which starts again the breakdown of dextrins into .
shorter and shorter carbohydrate chains. This enzymes, known
collectively as disaccharides, are sucrose, maltose and lactose.
Sucrase breaks sucrose into glucose and fructose molecules.
Maltase breaks the bond between the two glucose units of
maltose, and lactase breaks the bond between galactose and
glucose. Once carbohydrates are chemically broken down into
single sugar units they are then transported into inside of
intestinal cells. Then the cells in the small intestine have
membranes that contain many transport proteins in order to get
the monosaccharides and other nutrients into the blood
Digestion (Metabolism) of Carbohydrates
where they can be distributed to the rest of the body. .
The first organ to receive glucose, fructose and galactose is the
liver. The liver takes them up and converted galactose to glucose,
breaks fructose into even smaller carbon- containing unites, and
either stores glucose as glycogen or exports it back to the blood.
Digestion (Metabolism) of Carbohydrates
Major Pathways in carbohydrate metabolism
Glucose is oxidized by glycolysis, an energy-generating .
pathway that converts it to pyruvate. In the absence of
oxygen, pyruvate is converted (reduced) to lactate, so it can
allow the production of ATP in tissues that lack
mitochondria example RBC or in exercising skeletal
muscles. If oxygen is present, then the pyruvate will enter
into the mitochondria and form acetyl CoA.
Significant amounts of energy in the form of ATP can be
extracted from Acetyl-CoA by the citric acid cycle and the
electron transport system.
Major Pathways in carbohydrate metabolism
Excess glucose is converted to its storage form, .
glycogen, by glycogenesis. When glucose is needed as a
source of energy or as a precursor molecule in
biosynthetic processes, glycogen is degraded by
glycogenolysis.
Glucose can be converted to ribose-5-phosphate (a
component of nucleotides) and NADPH (a powerful
reducing agent) by means of the pentose phosphate
pathway.
Major Pathways in carbohydrate metabolism
The metabolism of CHO can be subdivided as follows
1-Glycolysis pathway.
2-Citric acid cycle.(oxidation of pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA) .
3-Glycogenesis.
‫شرح او فراغات‬
4-Glycogenolysis.
5-Gluconeogenesis.
6-Hexose monophosphate shunt.
Glycolysis
1-Glycolysis is a pathway that occurs in all tissues for the .
oxidation of glucose to provide energy (as ATP) and intermediates.
for other metabolic pathways.
Glycolysis is a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed steps in which a six-
carbon glucose molecule is broken down into two three-carbon
pyruvate molecules. This catabolic pathway is accompanied by the
phosphorylation of two molecules of ADP (to produce 2 ATP) and
the reduction of two molecules of NAD+. The net equation for the
pathway (ignoring water and protons) is
Glycolysis
2-Pyruvate is the end product of glycolysis in cells with .
mitochondria and an adequate supply of O2.
3-Aerobic glycolysis sets the stage for the oxidative
decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA, a major fuel of the
TCA cycle.
4-Pyruvate is reduced to lactate as NADH is oxidized to NAD+
. This conversion of glucose to lactate is called anaerobic
glycolysis because it can occur without the participation of O2.
Anaerobic glycolysis allows the production of ATP in tissues
that lack mitochondria (for example, red blood cells [RBC] and
parts of the eye) or in cells deprived of sufficient O2 (hypoxia).
Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs cycle)
Citric acid cycle, also called the Krebs cycle or the .
Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) plays several roles in .
metabolism. It is the final pathway where the oxidative
metabolism of carbohydrates, amino acids and fatty acids
converge, their carbon skeletons being converted to Co2. The
oxidation provides energy for the production of the majority of
ATP. The cycle occurs totally in the mitochondria. The total
yield of ATP on the oxidation of one acetyl CoA is 12 ATP.
Glycogenesis (Glycogen synthesis)
Glycogen synthesis occurs after a meal, when blood .
glucose levels are high. The synthesis of glycogen from .
glucose-6-phosphate. The process occur in cytosol.
Tow enzymes are required to complete the synthesis :-
1. Glycogen synthase Which catalyze the transfer of glucose to
glycogen primer via α (1→4) glycosidic chain of glycogen.
This enzyme only synthesize α (1→4) linkage.
2. Branching enzyme :- Which catalyze the formation of α
(1→6) linkage. After that glycogen synthase reactivated again
and glucose will be added to the α (1→4) chain. The result is a
highly branched glycogen structure.
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis, the formation of new glucose molecules .
from non-carbohydrate precursors, occurs primarily in the liver.
Precursor molecules include lactate, pyruvate, glycerol and
certain α-keto acids (molecules derived from amino acids).
Under certain condition (i.e. metabolic acidosis or starvation)
the kidney can make small amounts of new glucose. Between
meals adequate blood glucose levels are maintained by the
hydrolysis of liver glycogen. When liver glycogen is depleted
(e.g. owing to prolonged fasting or vigorous exercise), the
gluconeogenesis pathway provides the body with adequate
glucose.
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis reaction : In Gluconeogenesis, which .
occurs when blood sugar levels are low and liver glycogen is
depleted, 7 of the 10 reactions of glycolysis are reversed. Three
irreversible glycolytic reactions are by passed by alternative
reactions. The major substrate for Gluconeogenesis are certain
amino acid (derived from muscle), lactate (formed in muscle
and red blood cells) and glycerol (produced from the
degradation of triacylglycerols).