Case Study

Leak-Before-Break Main Failure Prevention for Water

Distribution Pipes Using Acoustic Smart Water
Technologies: Case Study in Adelaide
Mark Stephens 1; Jinzhe Gong 2; Chi Zhang 3; Angela Marchi 4; Luke Dix 5;
and Martin F. Lambert, A.M.ASCE 6
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Carleton University on 08/09/20. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Abstract: Water main breaks in city areas can cause significant economic loss, interrupt traffic, and result in negative publicity for utilities.
The South Australian Water Corporation (SA Water) has taken a proactive approach to reduce water main breaks in the Adelaide, Australia,
central business district (CBD) by detecting developing pipe cracks/leaks using distributed acoustic sensors (accelerometers) with customized
analytics and internet of things (IoT) technologies. This paper reports the findings and the outcomes of this initiative 24 months after the first
commissioning of the continuous leak detection system. The acoustic data analytics team (comprising the authors) has successfully inter-
preted acoustic data from numerous cracked pipes in the Adelaide CBD, with approximately 55% of all developing leaks associated with
cracked pipes being able to be detected before uncontrolled failure (i.e., before unplanned interruption of customers and/or third party
economic damage). Furthermore, the localization and repair of specific cracks (sometimes through sections of corroded cast iron pipe walls)
can help justify extending the service life of the water main as points of weakness (faults) are specifically rectified. However, only 45% of
the developing cracks have been able to be repaired, after detection, under controlled conditions (i.e., before the planned interruption of
customers) due to practical limitations affecting operational responses. The results have confirmed the additional insight that can be obtained
by continuously collecting acoustic data in terms of distinguishing environmental and crack noises as well as circumferential from longi-
tudinal cracks. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0001266. © 2020 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Accelerometer; Acoustic; Leak-before-break; Pipe burst; Smart water network.

Introduction
Water main breaks cause significant problems across the globe.
They can lead to traffic interruptions and property damage and re-
sult in negative publicity for water utilities. In central business dis-
trict (CBD) (i.e., city) areas, damage to, and subsequent repair of,
third party buried telecommunication and power infrastructure
caused by uncontrolled main breaks is a significant additional prob-
lem. Currently, the management of water main breaks is largely
1
Asset Analytics Lead, South Australian Water Corporation, 250
Victoria Square, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia (corresponding author).
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7350-6430. Email: mark.stephens@
sawater.com.au
2
Lecturer, School of Engineering, Deakin Univ., Geelong Waurn Ponds
Campus, VIC 3216, Australia. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6344
-5993. Email: james.gong@deakin.edu.au
3
Research Fellow, School of Civil, Environmental, and Mining Engi-
neering, Univ. of Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia. ORCID: https://orcid
.org/0000-0001-8932-0526. Email: chi.zhang05@adelaide.edu.au
4
Senior Hydraulic Engineer, South Australian Water Corporation, 250
Victoria Square, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia. ORCID: https://orcid.org
/0000-0003-3006-9255. Email: angela.marchi@sawater.com.au
5
Asset Planner (Monitoring), South Australian Water Corporation, 250
Victoria Square, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia. Email: luke.dix@sawater
.com.au
6
Professor, School of Civil, Environmental, and Mining Engineering,
Univ. of Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000
-0001-8272-6697. Email: martin.lambert@adelaide.edu.au
Note. This manuscript was submitted on June 19, 2019; approved on
March 13, 2020; published online on August 7, 2020. Discussion period
open until January 7, 2021; separate discussions must be submitted for in-
dividual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Water Resources Plan-
ning and Management, © ASCE, ISSN 0733-9496.
reactive: uncontrolled main breaks are fixed after detection and
the deployment of reactive operational repair crews. A section of
water main may be replaced after several [e.g., three for the South
Australian Water Corporation (SA Water)] uncontrolled breaks
have been experienced. Should current reactive practices continue,
the number of uncontrolled water main breaks will likely increase
as water pipeline infrastructure ages. Water utilities worldwide are
looking for solutions to reduce uncontrolled water main break rates
and improve their service to the public.
In recent years, continuous pressure monitoring systems (for
transient and/or steady-state pressure management) have been used,
and corresponding analysis techniques have been developed to de-
tect and locate pipe main breaks after their occurrences (Misiunas
et al. 2005; Stephens et al. 2005; Farley et al. 2013; Srirangarajan
et al. 2013; Romano et al. 2014; Kang and Lansey 2014; Lee et al.
2016). The South Australian Water Corporation has commissioned
a transient pressure sensor network in the Adelaide, Australia, CBD
water supply system for continuous pressure monitoring and near
real-time main break detection since December 2016. This continu-
ous transient monitoring has provided an insight into the hydraulic
behavior of the Adelaide CBD water distribution system, including
the system being more hydraulically active (less calm) than ex-
pected (Stephens et al. 2017a, b). It has also demonstrated that main
break detection is still a reactive practice and that most main breaks
are first brought to the attention of SA Water through public phone
calls and reporting rather than through the pressure sensor network
(in suburban areas, with less intensive public activity, it is expected
that continuous main break monitoring would add more value).
A more proactive approach is to reduce the occurrence of un-
controlled pipe main breaks by detecting and fixing the developing
pipe cracks before they grow to a significant length (and become

© ASCE 05020020-1 J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage.

J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 2020, 146(10): 05020020

 uncontrolled failures). This early warning system is feasible only if
main breaks (at least some) are preceded by acoustically detectable
leaks and if there is enough time between detection and uncon-
trolled failure for the repair of the cracked water pipe main to be
completed in a controlled manner. This concept is similar to the
leak-before-break (LBB) design principle widely used in the nu-
clear industry (Roos et al. 1989; Bourga et al. 2015), which requires
that cracks in pipes (or pressure vessels) grow, for a period of time,
in a stable manner before the occurrence of a fracture/failure. In
contrast to design practices in the nuclear industry, water mains
are not intentionally designed to crack at controlled rates to enable
LBB intervention and repair. The original LBB concept is not gen-
erally considered applicable to systems susceptible to failure from
material degradation mechanisms (e.g., corrosion) and/or with
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Carleton University on 08/09/20. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
components (e.g., pipes) made of brittle materials (e.g., cast iron)
(Bourga et al. 2015). In the case of the water mains in the Adelaide
CBD network, most of the pipe cracks (both circumferential and
longitudinal) occur where pipe wall corrosion is also occurring,
and most of the pipes are cast iron (CI), as shown in Fig. 1.
However, recent numerical and laboratory studies in Australia
have provided some evidence that the LBB phenomenon may occur
in larger diameter (>300 mm) CI water pipes (Kodikara et al. 2017;
Rathnayaka et al. 2017; Zhang et al. 2017). A metallurgical inves-
tigation of a fractured 500 mm-diameter CI water main indicated that
a longitudinal crack may develop and grow and that leakage prior to
a main break occurs (Jiang et al. 2017). A new laboratory testing
facility has been recently constructed by Rathnayaka et al. (2018)
to further study the time frames over which cracks develop in larger
diameter cast iron water pipes subject to dynamic pressure variations.
The research reported in this paper provides objective field evi-
dence and analysis confirming that the LBB phenomenon occurs in
a significant number of aging CI water pipes within the Adelaide
CBD network. Over 2 years, 58 of 105 pipe cracks (55%) were
acoustically detected. However, only 47 of 105 pipe cracks (45%)
were able to be repaired proactively due to practical limitations af-
fecting operational responses and/or faults in the alert procedures.
Approximately 31% of the 105 pipe cracks, regardless of whether
they were acoustically detected or not, developed rapidly (i.e., breaks
in which patches of corroded pipe wall have resulted in a blow-out
over minutes to hours). Magnitude data was collected confirming the
rapid nature of some of these events (where an acoustic logger was
close enough). Approximately 14% of the 105 pipe cracks developed
slowly but were not detected by the nearest acoustic logger, which
was too far away. Overall, for the Adelaide CBD network, the num-
ber of relatively slowly developing pipe cracks (about two-thirds) is
significantly greater than the number of blow-outs (about one-third).
It is shown that a proportion of uncontrolled pipe main breaks
are preventable because the time between the occurrence of an
(a) (b)
Fig. 1. (Color) Photos of cracked pipes in the Adelaide CBD water network: (a) circumferential crack (discharging); (b) longitudinal crack; and
(c) longitudinal crack/blow-out, with each crack developing through cast iron corroded to different levels.
© ASCE 05020020-2
J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 2020, 146(10): 05020020
initial circumferential or longitudinal crack and the first detection
of the noise from it, and the growth and propagation of these cracks
through corroded pipe walls to the point in which an uncontrolled
main break would occur, is generally long enough (days through to
months) for a planned (controlled) repair to be organized. It is also
shown that it is necessary to have a continuous monitoring system
to achieve this outcome and that periodic (e.g., yearly) leak surveys
are not enough. The approach is different from conventional leak
management that focuses on reducing nonrevenue water (Arreguín-
Cortes and Ochoa-Alejo 1997; Farah and Shahrour 2017). The im-
portant distinction between this work and conventional periodic
leak surveys (conducted using acoustic sensors) is the near continu-
ous measurement of noise levels, and daily sound files, and the use of
this information to distinguish leak from environmental noise and, in
a significant number of cases, the type of crack that has occurred.
Accelerometer Sensor Network in Adelaide CBD
The research is carried out using an accelerometer type acoustic
sensor network commissioned by SA Water in Adelaide CBD in
July 2017 as part of its Smart Water Network (SWN) initiative (SA
Water 2016). A total of 305 acoustic accelerometers (Ortomat-
MTC, von Roll, Switzerland) have been installed in the Adelaide
CBD water network, as shown in Fig. 2. The area covered by the
pipe network is about 2.5 × 2.5 km, and the total pipe length is about
120 km. Approximately, 70%–75% of all pipes in the Adelaide CBD
are aging cast iron (CI) pipes, with the diameter ranging from 80 to
250 mm, and these CI pipes have contributed to the majority of the
uncontrolled pipe main breaks in recent years. The placement of
the acoustic sensors is concentrated along the aging CI pipes, where
the historical number of pipe main breaks is higher, and in areas
where the disruption caused by an uncontrolled pipe main break
is likely to be significant. Deployment to higher risk mains resulted
in more acoustic detections than would have occurred with a spa-
tially uniform deployment.
The accelerometers are magnetically attached to pipe fittings (as
also shown in Fig. 2), such as fire hydrants and isolation valves, and
are used to continuously monitor the vibration of the pipe fitting
(coupled with the pipe wall and pressurized water within the pipe
and fitting). Once deployed, each accelerometer is generally main-
tained at the same location, with an unaltered contact and connec-
tion to the pipe fitting, such that relative changes in noise levels
and characteristics can be attributed to new leaks. Measured noise
level magnitudes and noise sound file recordings are transmitted
through a 3G mobile communication network to a cloud-based data
management system. A systematic procedure has been developed
for the data collection, data analysis, and field leak (and crack)
(c)
J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage.
 Fig. 2. (Color) (a) Layout of acoustic accelerometer loggers across the Adelaide CBD area (base map ©2020 Google); and (b) photo of acoustic
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Carleton University on 08/09/20. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

loggers in air valve/fire hydrant chamber (with accelerometers orientated vertically and horizontally) (adapted from Stephens et al. 2018a).

localization based on the current data management system within
SA Water (Stephens et al. 2018a).
Data Collection and Assessment
Data Collection
The acoustic loggers were initially configured to measure the noise
level magnitude every 5 min between 2:00 a.m. and 4:00 a.m., and
otherwise every 30 min. A 9 s sound wave file was recorded at ap-
proximately 2:05 a.m. by each logger each day. The data from all
the loggers was transmitted daily to data storage between 6:00 a.m.
and approximately 9:00 a.m. The noise level as provided by the
vendor is a dimensionless value (the higher the value, the louder
the noise). Controlled laboratory tests have been undertaken and
used to establish the relationship between the vendor’s dimen-
sionless value and the sound intensity in decibels [summarized in
Stephens et al. (2018b)].
Experience gained through practice indicated that more frequent
data sampling and transmission could potentially assist in enabling
a response to a limited number of rapidly developing main breaks
(i.e., there were 3 out of 58 cracks that were acoustically detected
via magnitude and sound file data approximately 12 to 24 h before
uncontrolled failure, with all others detected days, weeks, or months
earlier). The acoustic loggers were reconfigured (onsite) to measure
the noise level at every 10 min (less than the previous 30 min) outside
the time period between 2:00 a.m. and 4:00 a.m., and ad-hoc data
transmission was activated if six consecutive noise level readings
were higher than a predefined threshold (set at 45 dB, which is ap-
proximately the maximum typical environmental noise level across
the Adelaide CBD). This has improved SA Water’s understanding of
developing pipe main break leaks and the rates of development of the
cracks and provided more magnitude data with which to confirm
rapid pipe breaks, which were uncontrolled and reactively repaired.
The measurement of noise level every 10 min also provided a more
detailed view of variations in environmental noise levels over shorter
time periods.
Environmental Noise
Environmental noise across the Adelaide CBD area is emitted from
a variety of sources and consistently recorded, at different levels,
for all acoustic loggers. Figs. 3(a and b) show the spectrograms and
power spectrum density (PSD) plots for typical traffic and water
meter noise, respectively, which contribute to general diurnal
variations in environmental noise levels. These noises are generally
intermittent, over the duration of the sound file recording, and
distinguishable from continuous noise sources by the vertical bands
in the spectrograms. The noises include regular traffic signal beeps
(1.8 s intervals), and a passing vehicle (2 axles), in Fig. 3(a) and a
water meter click (0.5–0.6 s intervals) in Fig. 3(b).
Temporary increases in the noise magnitude level are sometimes
measured and are less diurnal in nature. Figs. 4(a and b) show the
spectrograms and PSD plots of wave files contaminated by semi-
regular noise (vibration) from electrical and mechanical equipment,
respectively. These noises are generally continuous, over the dura-
tion of the sound wave file recording, and distinguishable from in-
termittent traffic and water meter noise. Furthermore, noise from
electrical and mechanical equipment sometimes exhibit harmonics
[see the electrical noise in Fig. 4(a)].
The environmental noise levels typically vary diurnally and can
relate to changes in vehicular and pedestrian traffic or levels of
water consumption (and associated hydraulic and customer meter
noise). The magnitude of the diurnal noise variation and associated
bandwidth varies for different loggers but is able to be historically
established using noise magnitude level data (based on the day of
the week and the time of day) and is used as a point of reference for
the detection of changes (sometimes associated with new leaks
from pipe cracks). Fig. 5 shows the variation in the magnitude level
data at a typical logger on Rosina Street in the Adelaide CBD. The
diurnal variation in the noise magnitude level on a day-by-day and
hour-of-day basis is evident with regular increases in noise level on
weekends due to airborne and hydraulic noise sources.
Spectrograms for a logger measuring a nondiurnal but repeating
irrigation consumption pattern are shown in Fig. 6 over 30 consecu-
tive days. In terms of magnitude, the pattern would manifest as
irregular noise increase over periods of a few hours each day. Plotting
the consecutive spectrograms is more informative by showing the
power density variations at different frequencies (from sound files
recorded at 2:05 a.m. each day). The repeating, but intermittent,
power density patterns, continuously derived day after day, enable
the source to be identified as consumption (in this case, related to
irrigation) even though individual spectrograms and noise measure-
ments on a day upon which the consumption is occurring suggest a
leak has occurred. Furthermore, by using continuous daily measure-
ments, noise sources on any one particular night, which might affect
all readings on that night (such as construction works, extended
irrigation, or rainfall), can be identified and isolated.
Data Assessment (Noise Magnitude): Circumferential
versus Longitudinal Cracks
When a circumferential or longitudinal crack begins, there is a leak
from the pipe that makes noise. Based on the observation of nine

© ASCE 05020020-3 J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage.

J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 2020, 146(10): 05020020

Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Carleton University on 08/09/20. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Fig. 3. (Color) Environmental traffic (including signal and passing vehicle): (a) and water meter; and (b) noise spectrograms and power spectral
density plots.

Fig. 4. (Color) (a) Environmental electrical; and (b) mechanical equipment noise spectrograms and power spectral density plots.

circumferential pipe cracks over 24 months (Table 1), it appears failure of the pipe. Instead, the circumferential crack propagated
that these cracks occur relatively quickly over a period of approx- around the pipe circumference but then stopped, without cracking
imately a few days or less (e.g., a few hours). However, none of the around the entire pipe circumference, leaving a significant dis-
circumferential cracks resulted in an abrupt and/or uncontrolled charging leak. It is believed that the load on the pipe causing

© ASCE 05020020-4 J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage.

J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 2020, 146(10): 05020020

Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Carleton University on 08/09/20. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Fig. 5. (Color) Diurnal environmental noise magnitude levels measured at Rosina Street.
Fig. 6. (Color) Power spectrum density variations over 30 days for
intermittent consumption (for example, from irrigation on Days 6,
8, and 10).
the crack was relieved after the crack (around part of the pipe cir-
cumference) formed.
When a longitudinal crack begins, there is a leak from the pipe
that makes noise just as when a circumferential crack begins. How-
ever, the initial longitudinal crack is typically shorter with differ-
ences between the characteristics and features of the noise from a
longitudinal crack when compared to that from a circumferential
crack. Based on the observation of 11 longitudinal cracks and an-
other 3 longitudinal cracks combined with pipe wall blow-out fail-
ures over 24 months (Table 1), it appears that these cracks occur
and evolve at different rates depending on the level of corrosion in
the pipe wall through which the crack is propagating. The rate of
longitudinal crack growth, and associated changes in noise magni-
tude and frequency over time, are discussed in more detail in the
subsequent section on the data frequency analysis.
Typical noise magnitude level records are shown in Fig. 7 for
a circumferential crack that formed along St. Johns Street and a
© ASCE 05020020-5
J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 2020, 146(10): 05020020
longitudinal crack that formed along Tapley Street, both in the
Adelaide CBD and in cast iron (CI) pipes, respectively. For the cir-
cumferential crack, the noise level increased relatively abruptly by
approximately 20–30 dB before reaching a uniform plateau (rela-
tively stable) for approximately 7 to 8 days before a repair was
completed. For the longitudinal crack, there was an abrupt increase
in noise level of approximately 15 dB for 2 to 3 days prior to the
pipe being repaired. Environmental noise variations are observable
before the cracks and afterwards with diurnal trend and magnitude
fluctuations from 15 to 50 dB (a range of 35 dB). These noise
fluctuations are largely subsumed by the leak noise from the cir-
cumferential crack but less so by the leak noise from the longitu-
dinal crack.
The period over which a longitudinal crack substantially devel-
ops is generally longer than for circumferential cracks (and the
period shown in Fig. 7, which was over the last days of the evo-
lution of the longitudinal crack). This observation is supported, in
most cases, for the longitudinal cracks listed in Table 1, by the noise
magnitude data. Fig. 8 shows an increase in noise magnitude of
approximately 5 dB near the end of October 2017 for a longitudinal
crack that formed in a cast iron (CI) pipe along Victoria Place in the
Adelaide CBD. This increase in noise magnitude was sustained un-
til the beginning of May 2018 at which time the noise magnitude
increased by approximately 10 to 15 dB over a period of 3 days
(refer to Table 2). It is suspected that the first increase in noise mag-
nitude of 5 dB in October 2017 was associated with an initial crack
and leak on the pipe, which then remained relatively stable for
6 months until the crack developed relatively quickly over a period
of 3 days (similar to the end period for the Tapley Street crack, as
shown in Fig. 7).
While increases in noise magnitude can be identified in the days
before a longitudinal crack is repaired, smaller increases in noise
magnitude are more difficult to identify ahead of the period of rapid
crack development. This may be due to a combination of the dis-
tance to the nearest logger, the effects of signal damping and
dispersion, variations in the physical features that relate to the mag-
nitude of noise from a crack, and the measurement of total noise
J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage.
 Table 1. Main break location, pipe type, crack type, logger location, and pipe junction data
Distance to logger (m)
Pipe Pipe age Nominal diameter Crack No. of
Repair no. Location type (years) (mm) type Fixed #1/(#2) Temp. #1/(#2) junctions
1 Liverpool Street CICL 88 100 CC 15 N/A 1×3 W
2 Flinders Street (East) CICL 49 150 CC 7 N/A 1×3 W
3 Penaluna Place CICL 53 100 LC/BO 115 10/(54) 2×3 W
4 Sturt Street CICL 53 200 LC 28 N/A 1×3 W
5 Gilles Lane (#1) CICL 51 100 CC 116 15 2×3 W
6 Waymouth Street (#1) CICL 57 150 LC/BO 70 70 2×3 W
7 Gilles Lane (#2) CICL 51 100 CC 15 N/A None
8 Wright Court CICL 63 100 LC/BO 25 N/A 2×3 W
9 St. Johns Street CICL 53 150 CC 42=ð82Þ N/A None
10 Hume Street CICL 53 150 LC 100 N/A 3 þ4 W
11 Victoria Place CICL 50 150 LC 38 N/A None
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Carleton University on 08/09/20. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

12 Waymouth Street (#2) CI 56 80 CC 25 N/A 2×3 W

13 Imperial Place CI 79 80 CC 7 (fault) 7 1×3 W
14 Cannon Street CICL 42 150 CC 36=ð94Þ N/A None
15 Pitt Street CICL 50 150 LC 67 (off) 10=ð59Þ None
16 Tapley Street CICL 68 150 LC 30 15 1×3 W
17 Pirie Street CICL 56 200 LC 34 (fault) 10 1×3 W
18 King William Street CICL 59 200 LC 46 N/A None
19 Willcox Street CICL 83 80 LC 25 N/A None
20 Rosina Street CICL 55 150 LC 20 N/A None
21 Field Street CICL 78 100 LC 45 N/A 1×3 W
22 Morialta Street CICL 54 150 LC 20 N/A None
23 Russell Street CICL 86 80 CC 25 N/A 1×4 W

Fig. 7. (Color) Circumferential crack on St. Johns Street and longitu-
dinal crack on Tapley Street, Adelaide CBD.
levels across all frequencies by the von Roll accelerometers and
data acquisition system (rather than the monitoring of specific noise
increases at particular frequencies).
Data Assessment (Frequency)
and Victoria Place pipes (as previously presented) have been deter-
mined at different stages of the development of the cracks. Fig. 9
shows the PSDs for the St. Johns Street and Victoria Place pipes
before the cracks (and associated leaks), the day they were first iden-
tified (i.e., in the frequency domain), and the day prior to the repair of
the leaks.
The extra energy from the initial leak for St. Johns Street was
relatively low and concentrated in a narrow frequency band near
1,100 Hz for a short period of time (less than 24 h) before a more
general increase in the noise magnitude data (between no leak and
first leak in Fig. 9). The power spectrum prior to the repair of the
leak became established soon after the first leak was detected
(i.e., the circumferential crack fully developed over hours). The
noise from the leak for St. Johns Street was first detected approx-
imately 7 days prior to repair.
The extra energy from the leak for Victoria Place was relatively
low and concentrated in a band between 900–1,200 Hz, apart from
the last 3 days prior to repair. Even though the change from no leak
to first leak was small, the change was sustained continuously from
the date of the first leak detection onwards. Higher and lower noise
frequencies changed and energy increased up to the day before the
repair. The leak was detected approximately 6.5 months prior to
repair and much earlier in the spectrum than in the noise magnitude
level data.

Circumferential versus Longitudinal Cracks Time Dependent Behavior of Circumferential versus

In addition to noise magnitude level data, sound files are recorded
(at 2:05 a.m.) and transmitted from each von Roll logger once per
day, as described previously. These sound files have been processed
to derive power spectral density (PSD) and spectrogram plots.
These plots enable the identification of the first date upon which
any new and sustained energy, and its associated frequency, appears
in relation to a leak through a crack on a pipe. These also enable
different types of environmental noise to be identified based on the
frequency characteristics of the noises. PSD plots for the circumfer-
ential and longitudinal cracks that occurred in the St. Johns Street
Longitudinal Cracks
The collection of continuous noise magnitude (10 min interval)
and frequency (daily) data enables the time dependent or varying
behavior of environmental noises to be identified. Further to this,
changes in noise magnitude and frequency(s) from developing
cracks can be used to identify crack types. This is useful in iden-
tifying repair response times and in specifying repair methods for
circumferential cracks (pipe bands) versus longitudinal cracks (cut
out pipe replacements). Fig. 10 shows the typical variation in the
frequency PSDs over time for circumferential and longitudinal

© ASCE 05020020-6 J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage.

J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 2020, 146(10): 05020020

 (a) (b)
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Carleton University on 08/09/20. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

(a) (b)

Fig. 8. (Color) Longitudinal crack noise over longer term for a DN150 CICL pipe along Victoria Place with (a) initial increase shown; and (b) the
return to a no-leak noise level.

Table 2. First detectable noise magnitude changes, noise levels, and times before repair
Repair Date of first detectable noise First detectable noise Date of last noise magnitude Last noise magnitude level Time from noise
No. magnitude level increase magnitude level increase level before repair before repair increase to repair
1 07/22/2017 20.0 to 26.0 dB 07/24/2017 56.3 dB 2 days
2 12/11/2017 29.5 to 48.0 dB 01/02/2019 48.0 dB 22 days
3 12/12/2017 29.5 to 34.0 dB 01/05/2018 72.0=ð34.8Þ dB* 24 days
4 01/30/2018 from 34.0 dB 01/31/2018 41.6 dB 1 day
5 02/09/2018 at 83.5 dB* 02/13/2018 83.5 dB* 4 days*
6 02/20/2018 at 44.9 dB* 02/22/2018 44.9 dB* 2 days*
7 03/07/2018 34.0 to 40.0 dB 03/09/2018 to 83.5 dB 2 days
8 03/16/2018 34.0 to 37.5 dB 03/17/2018 39.1 dB 1.5 days
9 03/27/2018 30.9 to 49.5 dB 04/03/2018 49.5 dB 7 days
10 03/27/2018 34.0 to 56.9 dB 03/31/2018 56.9 dB 4 days
11 05/02/2018 23.5 to 35.6 dB 05/05/2018 35.6 dB 3 days
12 05/31/2018 26.0 to 34.0 dB 06/03/2018 34.0 dB 4 days
13 06/13/2018 at 68.8 dB* 06/22/2018 70.9 dB* 9 days*
14 06/18/2018 23.5 to 40.0 dB 06/25/2018 43.5 dB 7 days
15 07/14/2018 23.5 to 44.9 dB* 07/26/2018 44.9=ð40.0Þ dB* 12 days*
16 07/25/2018 23.5 to 36.9 dB 07/28/2018 48.8=ð70.2Þ dB* 2.5 days
17 08/02/2018 at 54.8 dB* 08/03/2018 60.8 dB* 1 day*
18 11/07/2018 34.0 to 40.0 dB 11/21/2018 56.9 dB 14 days
19 06/28/2018 26.0 to 48.0 dB 11/21/2018 62.3 dB 146 days
20 02/28/2019 26.0 to 43.5 dB 03/06/2019 52.0 dB 6 days
21 08/29/2018 48.0 to 50.9 dB 03/06/2019 53.1 dB 189 days
22 05/04/2019 26.0 to 38.1 dB 05/10/2019 48.0 dB 6 days
23 06/21/2019 29.5 to 82.3 dB 06/24/2019 83.5 dB 3 days

cracks for Cannon Street and Willcox Street in the Adelaide CBD,
respectively.
The precrack, first crack, Intermediate #1, Intermediate #2, In-
termediate #3, and before repair PSDs are plotted for the circum-
ferential and longitudinal cracks at each location. There is little
variation in the PSDs for the circumferential crack after the first
crack. In contrast, there is significant variation in the number,
frequencies, and magnitudes of the peaks in the PSDs for the lon-
gitudinal crack. This behavior was observed for approximately half
of the longitudinal cracks listed in Table 1 and enables the diag-
nosis of these cracks.
Plotting consecutive spectrograms (one per day) is informative
and shows the power density variations at different frequencies
(from sound files recorded at 2:05 a.m.) for circumferential and

© ASCE 05020020-7 J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage.

J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 2020, 146(10): 05020020

Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Carleton University on 08/09/20. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Fig. 9. (Color) Power spectral densities for the St. Johns Street circumferential and Victoria Place longitudinal cracks.

Fig. 10. (Color) Power spectral densities (PSDs) for the Cannon Street circumferential and Willcox Street longitudinal cracks plotted over their
evolution from precrack, first crack, intermediate times (Inter #1, #2, and #3) to before repair.

longitudinal cracks. The two types of cracks are clearly distinguish-

able in the plots. Fig. 11 shows spectrograms plotted over consecu-
tive days for two circumferential cracks that occurred for Flinders
Street (East) and Cannon Street in the Adelaide CBD. Recurring
background environmental noise can be seen before and after
the period during which the Flinders Street circumferential crack
occurred and was then repaired (crack between Days 70 and 92).
Recurring and intermittent environmental noise can be seen before
and after the period during which the Cannon Street circumferential
crack occurred and was then repaired (crack between Days 58 and
65). The spectrograms over the period through which the cracks
were discharging are relatively consistent and dominated by the
leak noise.
Fig. 12 shows spectrograms plotted over consecutive days for
two longitudinal cracks that occurred for Wright Court and King
Fig. 11. (Color) Power spectrum density variations over longer time
William Street in the Adelaide CBD. Strong recurring environmen-
periods showing environmental noise and embedded circumferential
tal noise can be seen throughout the period during which the Wright
crack events for Flinders Street (East) and Cannon Street.
Court longitudinal crack developed and was then repaired (crack

© ASCE 05020020-8 J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage.

J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 2020, 146(10): 05020020

 relatively less dominant at this location although a strong environ-
mental noise does arise immediately after the repair of the crack
after Day 80. This environmental noise was associated with a valve
that was not properly closed after the repair works were completed.

Summary of Main Break Prevention Data

Tables 1–3 provide information regarding some of the cracks
(and associated leaks) that have been detected on pipes between
July 1, 2017, and June 30, 2019. Table 1 lists the pipe repair num-
ber, location, type [cast iron or cast iron cement lined (CICL)],
age, nominal diameter, and crack type [circumferential crack (CC),
longitudinal crack (LC), and/or corrosion patch blow out (BO)].
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Carleton University on 08/09/20. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Fig. 12. (Color) Power spectrum density variations over longer time
periods showing environmental noise and embedded longitudinal crack
events for Wright Court and King William Street.
between Days 55 and 135). The environmental noise dominates,
apart from the 2 days just before the repair of the crack, but growth
in the energy at the leak frequency (about 1800–1900 Hz) is clear
before this. Subtle variations in the spectrograms over time near the
initial crack frequency are apparent but there are no major shifts in
the number or frequency of the peaks associated with the crack.
There are a couple of interruptions in the noise measurements and
a change to the measured background environmental noise between
Days 95 and 110 due to interference with the logger contact.
Intermittent environmental noise can be seen throughout the
period during which the King William Street longitudinal crack de-
veloped and was then repaired between Days 7 and 80. The initial
crack energy is focused around 1,200 Hz and gradually intensifies
at around this frequency as the days progress with step increases
at approximately Days 35 and 62. The environmental noise is
Table 1 also lists the distance from the nearest fixed (permanently
deployed) and any temporary (nonpermanently deployed) acoustic
loggers to the location of the crack on the pipe. For Pipe repair
numbers 13 and 17, the fixed acoustic logger was faulty prior to
the crack being detected. For Pipe repair number 15, the fixed
acoustic logger had been removed due to construction works. Not
applicable (N/A) is listed if temporary loggers were not deployed.
Table 1 also shows the number and configuration of junctions
through which the acoustic noise from the crack propagated before
reaching the nearest fixed logger [three way (3W) and four way
(4W) pipe junctions are identified].
The distance from the fixed loggers to the pipe cracks ranged
between 7 m and 116 m. However, there have also been instances in
which the condition of a pipe, the number of junctions between a
crack and logger location, and/or the presence of either asbestos
cement (AC) or plastic (PVC) pipe sections between the crack and
logger location have reduced the effective noise propagation dis-
tance to 20 m or less. The average distance from the fixed loggers
to the pipe cracks is approximately 42 m, using the nearest fixed
logger that was on, and 31 m from all fixed and temporary loggers
(the latter being deliberately deployed closer to the cracks).

Table 3. First detectable noise frequency changes, frequency peaks, and times before repair
Repair Date of first detectable First detected noise frequency Date of last noise frequency Last noise frequency Time from frequency
No. frequency change associated with crack before repair before repair change to repair
1 07/22/2017 1,700 Hz 07/24/2017 1,700 Hz peak 2 days
2 08/16/2017 1,100 Hz 12/19/2017 1,100 Hz peak 125 days
3 Unknown Unknown 01/05/2018 2,000=1,000 Hz* Unknown
4 Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown
5 02/09/2018 2,000 Hz* 02/13/2018 2,000 Hz peak* 4 days*
6 02/20/2018 750=2,000 Hz* 02/22/2018 750=2,000 Hz peaks* 2 days*
7 03/07/2018 2,000 Hz 03/07/2018 2,000 Hz peak 2 days
8 12/27/2017 1,900 Hz 03/17/2018 1,900=2,300 Hz peaks 80 days
9 03/27/2018 1,000=1,800 Hz 04/03/2018 1,000=1,800 Hz peaks 7 days
10 01/19/2018 1,800 Hz 03/31/2018 1,500=2,300 Hz peaks 71 days
11 10/20/2017 1,100 Hz 05/05/2018 1,000 þ Hz peaks 197 days
12 05/31/2018 200=900 Hz 06/03/2018 200=900 Hz peaks 4 days
13 06/13/2018 900=1,400 Hz* 06/22/2018 900=1,400 Hz peaks* 9 days*
14 06/18/2018 1,800 Hz 06/25/2018 1,800 Hz peak 7 days
15 07/14/2018 1,000 þ Hz* 07/26/2018 1,000 þ =ð700Þ Hz* 12 days*
16 12/23/2017 1,000 Hz 07/28/2018 800=ð1500Þ Hz peaks* 217 days
17 08/02/2018 1,600 Hz* 08/03/2018 1,600 Hz peak* 1 day*
18 09/08/2018 1,200 Hz 11/20/2018 1,200 Hz 73 days
19 06/29/2018 1,500=1,800 Hz 11/21/2018 1,800=2,400 Hz peaks 145 days
20 02/12/2019 1,750=2,000 Hz 03/06/2019 500=2,100 Hz peaks 22 days
21 12/22/2017 1,400=1,600 Hz 03/05/2019 1,400 Hz 438 days
22 05/05/2019 1,800=2,200 Hz 05/10/2019 2,000 Hz 5 days
23 06/22/2019 2,300 Hz 06/27/2019 2,300 Hz 5 days
Note: Bolded elements represent the time from the detection of the first new noise frequency to the time of the repair of each pipe, ranging between 71 days and
438 days, for seven of the longitudinal cracks.

© ASCE 05020020-9 J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage.

J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 2020, 146(10): 05020020

 Magnitude Variations from First Detection
to Before Repair
Table 2 lists the first date and magnitude level of the noise detected
by the nearest acoustic logger for each pipe repair number. Table 2
also lists the last date and magnitude level of the noise detected by
the nearest acoustic logger for each pipe repair number and the time
from the detection of the first noise magnitude level increase to the
time of repair of each pipe (any second noise level in brackets is for
the next nearest logger if relevant). In some instances in which no
fixed logger was deployed near a cracked pipe (at the time it
cracked), a temporary logger(s) was deployed once the leak from
the cracked pipe was detected by operational staff. Instances in
which only a temporary logger(s) was deployed are marked with
an asterisk (in the last column). Finally, for Pipe repair numbers 3
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Carleton University on 08/09/20. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
and 16, fixed loggers were deployed throughout but were supple-
mented with temporary loggers closer to the pipe crack before re-
pair [in these two cases, the last noise magnitudes listed in Table 2
are for the nearest fixed and temporary (in brackets) loggers]. The
time from the detection of the first noise magnitude level increase to
the time of repair of each pipe ranges between 1 day and 24 days.
There is no significant difference between the time from detection
(based on noise level magnitude increase) to repair for circumfer-
ential versus longitudinal cracks as a result of current operational
prioritization rules, which do not discriminate between crack types.
The noise level from the cracks can be plotted against distance
to the nearest logger, using all fixed and temporary logger data, as
shown in Fig. 13. One plot (dotted line) includes an outlier that was
detected 100 m from a logger and the other (dashed line) excludes
this data point. Typical minimum and maximum environmental
noise levels are also plotted to show when the crack noise will
be above these levels (in all cases, the crack noise is above the mini-
mum environmental noise levels). While these data points are
indicative only, due to variations in accelerometer contact to pipe
fittings and the damping and dispersion along the acoustic path-
ways (sometimes through junctions) between the crack and logger,
the data provides a useful point of reference for the design of the
density of a sensor network.
Frequency Variations from First Detection
to Before Repair
Table 3 lists the first date and new frequency of the noise detected
by the nearest acoustic logger for each pipe repair number. Table 3
Fig. 13. (Color) Noise magnitudes (before repair) for circumferential
and longitudinal cracks versus distance to nearest logger (fixed and
temporary).
© ASCE 05020020-10
J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 2020, 146(10): 05020020
also lists the last date and frequency of the noise detected by the
nearest acoustic logger for each pipe repair number and the time
from the detection of the first new noise frequency to the time
of the repair of each pipe. If more than one new frequency is mea-
sured by the same logger, then two new frequencies are listed sep-
arated by a slash. A second frequency is listed in brackets (after the
slash) for any temporary logger(s) that were deployed after the ini-
tial crack and leak was detected (e.g., for Pipe repair numbers 3 and
16, for both of which the furthest logger from the crack recorded
the lower frequency). Instances in which only a temporary logger(s)
was deployed are marked with an asterisk (in the last column).
The time from the detection of the first new noise frequency to
the time of the repair of each pipe ranges between 71 days and
438 days for seven of the longitudinal cracks that occurred for Pipe
repair numbers 8, 10, 11, 16, 18, 19, and 21 (bolded in Table 3).
This result is operationally significant as it allows for the detection
of the first pipe crack weeks to months ahead of the time at which a
repair is required to avoid an unplanned failure. Issues with logger
faults or relocations prevented the identification of the first (or
sometimes any) new noise frequency for the longitudinal cracks
that occurred for Pipe repair numbers 3, 4, 15, 17, and 20. Further-
more, the first new noise frequency for the longitudinal crack that
occurred for Pipe repair number 6 was only recorded after the de-
ployment of a temporary logger. The longitudinal crack that oc-
curred for Pipe repair number 22 occurred more abruptly over a
few days.
It is the identification of new and/or changes in energy at
particular frequencies that enables the earlier detection relative to
the use of changes in noise magnitude levels averaged across all
frequencies. The circumferential cracks appear to occur more
abruptly with only one with a duration of more than a few days,
being for Pipe repair number 2, for which there was a period of
125 days between the detection of a new noise frequency and the
pipe repair [although the crack itself evolved rapidly to a stable
state over a single day (Fig. 11)].
The peak frequencies in the PSDs (and from Table 3) can be
plotted when the crack is first detected and immediately prior to
repair for the circumferential and longitudinal cracks, as shown
in Fig. 14. Fig. 14(a) plots all first circumferential cracks versus
before repair frequencies (including cases with multiple peaks)
with a fitted trendline. The data shows that there is almost no
change between the first and last measured peak frequencies for
circumferential cracks. Fig. 14(b) plots all first longitudinal cracks
versus before repair frequencies (including cases with multiple
peaks) with a fitted trendline. While the fitted trendlines for circum-
ferential and longitudinal cracks are similar, there is significant
scatter in the case of the longitudinal crack data. Variation in the
number of peaks and their frequencies over time is an indicator of a
longitudinal crack.
Practical and Economic Outcomes
The leak-before-break system deployed for the Adelaide CBD has
been successful in detecting noises from a significant number of
cracked pipes despite the practical issues with some of the loggers
and/or third party construction activities. Fig. 15 shows, for exam-
ple, circumferential cracks detected for Pipe repair numbers 2, 7,
and 14 at (a) Flinders Street (East), (b) Gilles Lane (#2), and (c)
Cannon Street, respectively. Fig. 15 also shows longitudinal cracks
detected for Pipe repair numbers 6, 11, and 15 at (d) Waymouth
Street (#1), (e) Victoria Place, and (f) Pitt Street, respectively.
The flows from these leaks through cracks can only be estimated
as the pressure was reduced before excavation to ensure safe work-
ing conditions for repair crews. However, on four occasions, full
J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage.
 (a) (b)

Fig. 14. (Color) (a) First versus before repair circumferential crack peak frequencies; and (b) first versus before repair longitudinal crack peak
frequencies.
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Carleton University on 08/09/20. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 15. (Color) Pipes with (a), (b), and (c) circumferential; and (d), (e), and (f) longitudinal cracks detected throughout the Adelaide CBD water pipe
network via the noise from the leaks through the cracks.

pressure was reestablished with pipe bracing, and leak flows were
estimated to be between 0.01 and 0.5 L=s for the shortest and lon-
gest cracks, respectively.
The cost versus benefit analysis for the deployment of the per-
manent acoustic leak detection system was assessed in June 2019
for the 105 pipe crack events over 2 years of system operation. It
was found, for the 47 cracks that were proactively repaired, that
there was a 27% reduction in repair costs and 37% reduction in
customer interruption times. In time, these direct benefits will bal-
ance the costs of the system (conservative estimate). Furthermore,
the improved management of cast iron pipes under main roads, and
near buried essential services, throughout the Adelaide CBD, has
resulted in significant indirect benefits with regard to reduced third
party disruption and economic loss. Finally, the system has facili-
tated the early detection and repair of many hundreds of water
meter and/or valve leaks with a beneficial reduction in the system
leakage. SA Water’s current position is that there is a positive eco-
nomic business case (in Adelaide) for a leak-before-break type
system in the built-up city (CBD) type area (with significant pro-
portions of cast iron pipe) but that there is insufficient economic
evidence to support deployment beyond the CBD area.
Conclusions
The establishment of a system for undertaking leak-before-break
detection and the analysis of noises from circumferential and lon-
gitudinal cracks, developing through corroded and/or brittle cast
iron water pipes, has been described. The noise and crack develop-
ment characteristics for circumferential and longitudinal cracks are
different. Circumferential cracks appear to occur relatively quickly
(typically over less than a few days) and reach a stable condition
once the load (that contributed to the crack occurring) has been
relieved. Longitudinal cracks appear to be relatively small when
they begin and generally take weeks to months to develop to a size
(length) in which a noise level approximately equivalent to that
from a circumferential crack is reached. If fixed loggers are located
within range of a new longitudinal crack, and are operating con-
tinuously, then there is a significant period in which to conduct re-
pairs if the noise from a crack is detected.
The analysis of relative changes in noise magnitude and/or fre-
quency at specific locations, with no change to logger contact qual-
ity, provides sufficient information with which to diagnose faults
(including cracks). Loggers nearer to crack noise sources hear

© ASCE 05020020-11 J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage.

J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 2020, 146(10): 05020020

 louder noises, and sometimes with higher frequencies, relative to
more distant loggers. Further work is required to improve and
standardize logger connections to fittings and/or pipes such that
more reliable conclusions can be drawn regarding the effects of
noise propagation on the magnitude and frequency content of the
noise.
There are numerous forms of transient environmental noise
(e.g., traffic and signal) as well as more semicontinuous (water
meter and water consumption) and continuous (electric and mechani-
cal) sources of noise that can (and do) affect measured noise mag-
nitude levels. However, frequency characteristics can enable the
separation of these sources of noise. Diurnal variations in combina-
tions of the environmental noise occur to form repeating patterns,
which can be learned to enable the differentiation of these environ-
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Carleton University on 08/09/20. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
mental noise sources from the noise from leaks associated with new
or developing pipe cracks.
The current coverage that is achieved using the system is limited
by the loss of the acoustic signal as it is damped and dispersed trav-
eling along pipes and through junctions (and sections of asbestos
cement and plastic pipe), the number of accelerometer loggers de-
ployed and their effective listening range, faults with sensors (or the
removal of sensors due to construction works), and the effects of
temporary and/or continuous (and variable) environmental noise
sources. Leak localization between approximately 20 to 50 m,
based on the data from the fixed accelerometer loggers, is all that
is possible at this stage. Further and more accurate leak localization
is required, once a noise and suspected leak from a cracked pipe is
detected, using trained field staff with portable noise correlators,
ground microphones, and listening sticks.
There are many opportunities for improving the system ranging
from improvements in the analysis of the noise magnitude level
and frequency data (and the development of differential change de-
tection methods) to increasing the number of deployed loggers
and making each logger more reliable and sensitive. The results
achieved with the system thus far have justified further investment
by SA Water. At the time of reporting, SA Water has improved the
detection system and automated most of the analysis through ma-
chine learning algorithms.
Data Availability Statement
Some or all data, models, or code generated or used during the
study are available from the corresponding author by request (in-
cluding noise magnitude data, sound files, and/or data processing
scripts).
Acknowledgments
The research presented in this paper has been supported by the South
Australian Water Corporation through a collaborative research pro-
ject with the University of Adelaide (Project Code: 56118947) and
the Australian Research Council through a Linkage Project (Project
Code: LP180100569). The authors thank staff from Allwater (the
operating partner for the South Australian Water Corporation) for
their support during the field investigations.
References
Arreguín-Cortes, F. I., and L. H. Ochoa-Alejo. 1997. “Evaluation of water
losses in distribution networks.” J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage.
123 (5): 284–291. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9496(1997)
123:5(284).
© ASCE 05020020-12
J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 2020, 146(10): 05020020
Bourga, R., P. Moore, Y. J. Janin, B. Wang, and J. Sharples. 2015.
“Leak-before-break: Global perspectives and procedures.” Int. J. Press.
Vessels Pip. 129 (May): 43–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpvp.2015.02
.004.
Farah, E., and I. Shahrour. 2017. “Leakage detection using smart water
system: Combination of water balance and automated minimum night
flow.” Water Resour. Manage. 31 (15): 4821–4833. https://doi.org/10
.1007/s11269-017-1780-9.
Farley, B., S. R. Mounce, and J. B. Boxall. 2013. “Development and field
validation of a burst localization methodology.” J. Water Resour. Plann.
Manage. 139 (6): 604–613. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943
-5452.0000290.
Jiang, R., D. Robert, C. R. Hutchinson, X. L. Zhao, and J. Kodikara. 2017.
“Leak-before-break in cast iron mains: A failure analysis of a cata-
strophic pipe burst on Harris Street, Sydney.” Water Pract. Technol.
12 (2): 487–494. https://doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2017.058.
Kang, D., and K. Lansey. 2014. “Novel approach to detecting pipe bursts in
water distribution networks.” J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage. 140 (1):
121–127. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0000264.
Kodikara, J., S. Rathnayaka, J. Zhang, C. Crawly, D. Zhang, and F. Blaha.
2017. Lessons learned from large-diameter pipe failure case studies,
561–571. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Lee, S. J., G. Lee, J. C. Suh, and J. M. Lee. 2016. “Online burst detection
and location of water distribution systems and its practical applica-
tions.” J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage. 142 (1): 04015033. https://doi
.org/10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0000545.
Misiunas, D., J. P. Vítkovský, G. Olsson, A. R. Simpson, and M. F.
Lambert. 2005. “Pipeline break detection using transient monitoring.”
J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage. 131 (4): 316–325. https://doi.org/10
.1061/(ASCE)0733-9496(2005)131:4(316).
Rathnayaka, S., B. Shannon, J. Rui, and J. Kodikara. 2018. “New
laboratory test facility developed to investigate the leak-before-break
window of large-diameter cast iron water pipes.” J. Pipeline Syst.
Eng. Pract. 9 (3): 04018010. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)PS.1949
-1204.0000329.
Rathnayaka, S., B. Shannon, C. Zhang, and J. Kodikara. 2017. “Introduc-
tion of the leak-before-break (LBB) concept for cast iron water pipes on
the basis of laboratory experiments.” Urban Water J. 14 (8): 820–828.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1573062X.2016.1274768.
Romano, M., Z. Kapelan, and D. A. Savić. 2014. “Automated detection of
pipe bursts and other events in water distribution systems.” J. Water
Resour. Plann. Manage. 140 (4): 457–467. https://doi.org/10.1061
/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0000339.
Roos, E., K. H. Herter, P. Julisch, G. Bartholome, and G. Senski. 1989.
“Assessment of large scale pipe tests by fracture mechanics approxima-
tion procedures with regard to leak-before-break.” Nucl. Eng. Des.
112 (Mar): 183–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/0029-5493(89)90156-8.
SA Water. 2016. “Smart network for the Adelaide CBD.” Accessed
December 18, 2017. https://www.sawater.com.au/about-us/announcement
-of-the-smart-network-for-the-adelaide-cbd.
Srirangarajan, S., M. Allen, A. Preis, M. Iqbal, H. B. Lim, and A. J. Whittle.
2013. “Wavelet-based burst event detection and localization in water
distribution systems.” J. Sig. Process. Syst. 72 (1): 1–16. https://doi
.org/10.1007/s11265-012-0690-6.
Stephens, M., D. Misiunas, M. Lambert, A. Simpson, J. Vitkovsky, and J.
Nixon. 2005. “Field verification of a continuous transient monitoring
system for burst detection in water distribution systems.” In Proc.,
8th Int. Conf. on Computing and Control for the Water Industry. Exeter,
UK: Univ. of Exeter.
Stephens, M. L., J. Gong, A. Marchi, L. Dix, and M. F. Lambert. 2018a.
“Field testing of Adelaide CBD smart network acoustic technologies.”
In Proc., 1st Joint Int. Conf. on Water Distribution Systems Analysis
(WDSA) and Computing and Control for the Water Industry (CCWI).
Kingston, ON: Computing and Control for the Water Industry.
Stephens, M. L., J. Gong, A. Marchi, L. Dix, A. Wilson, and M. F.
Lambert. 2018b. “Leak detection in the Adelaide CBD water net-
work using permanent acoustic monitoring.” In Proc., Ozwater’18.
Melbourne, Australia: Australian Water Association.
Stephens, M. L., J. Gong, A. Marchi, M. F. Lambert, and A. R. Simpson.
2017a. “Transient pressure data collection and characterisation in
J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage.
 identifying options for reducing pipe fatigue.” In Proc., 13th Hy-
draulics in Water Engineering Conf. Engineers Australia. Barton,
Australia: Engineers Australia.
Stephens, M. L., A. Marchi, J. Gong, M. F. Lambert, M. Leonard, and
A. R. Simpson. 2017b. “Understanding the range of influence of
moderate-sized and short-duration transients in water distribution
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Carleton University on 08/09/20. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
systems.” In Proc., 15th Int. Conf. on Computing and Control for
the Water Industry (CCWI 2017). Sheffield, UK: Univ. of Sheffield.
Zhang, C., S. Rathnayaka, B. Shannon, J. Ji, and J. Kodikara. 2017.
“Numerical interpretation of pressurized corroded cast iron pipe tests.”
Int. J. Mech. Sci. 128 (Aug): 116–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci
.2017.04.015.

© ASCE 05020020-13 J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage.

J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 2020, 146(10): 05020020