CHAPTER- 1

Prof. Samirsinh Parmar

Asst. Professor, Dept. of Civil Engg.
Dharmasinh Desai University, Nadiad, Gujarat, INDIA
Mail: samirddu@gmail.com

1
 Table of Contents

1.1. INTRODUCTION

1.2. VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS

1.3. STRESS AND STRAIN

1.4. MECHANICS OF CONTINUOUS BODIES

1.5. FINITE ELEMENT METHODS

2
1.2

VECTOR AND TENSOR

CALCULUS

3
 Vector and Tensor
• Vector: Collection of scalars
• Cartesian vector: Euclidean vector defined using Cartesian
coordinates
– 2D, 3D Cartesian vectors

 u1 
 u1   
u    , or u   u2 
 u2  u 
 3
– Using basis vectors: e1 = {1, 0, 0}T, e2 = {0, 1, 0}T, e3 = {0, 0, 1}T

u  u1 e1  u2 e2  u3e3

4
 Index Notation and Summation Rule
• Index notation: Any vector or matrix can be expressed in
terms of its indices
 v1   A11 A12 A13 
v  [vi ]   v2  A  [Aij ]   A21 A22 A23 
 v3   A31 A32 A33 
• Einstein summation convention
3
 akbk  akbk
k 1

– In this case, k is a dummy variable (can be j or i)

– The same index cannot appear more than twice
• Basis representation of a vector
– Let ek be the basis of vector space V N
– Then, any vector in V can be represented by w   wk ek  wk ek
k 1 5
 Index Notation and Summation Rule cont.
• Examples
– Matrix multiplication: C  A  B Cij  AikBkj
– Trace operator: tr(A)  A11  A22  A33  Akk
– Dot product: u  v  u1v1  u2v2  u3v3  uk vk
– Cross product: u  v  ujvk ( ej  ek )  eijkujvk ei

0 unless i, j,k are distinct

Permutation 
symbol
eijk   1 if (i, j,k) is an even permutation
 1 if (i, j,k) is an odd permutation

– Contraction: double dot product
3 3
J  A:B   AijBij  AijBij
i1 j1

6
 Cartesian Vector
X3
• Cartesian Vectors u
u  u1 e1  u2 e2  u3e3  uiei v e3

v  vjej e1 e2
X2

X1
• Dot product
u  v  (uiei )  (vjej )  uivj ( ei  ej )  uivjij  uivi
– Kronecker delta function
 1 if i  j
ij  
 0 if i  j
– Equivalent to change index j to i, or vice versa
• How to obtain Cartesian components of a vector
ei  v  ei  (vjej )  vjij  vi Projection

7
 Notation Used Here

Direct tensor notation Tensor component notation Matrix notation

  ab   ab
i i   aT b
A  ab Aij  ab
i j A  abT
b  Aa bi  Aijaj b  Aa
b  aA bj  aA
i ij bT  aT A

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 Tensor and Rank
• Tensor
– A tensor is an extension of scalar, vector, and matrix
(multidimensional array in a given basis)
– A tensor is independent of any chosen frame of reference
– Tensor field: a tensor-valued function associated with each point
in geometric space
• Rank of Tensor
– No. of indices required to write down the components of tensor
– Scalar (rank 0), vector (rank 1), matrix (rank 2), etc
– Every tensor can be expressed as a linear combination of rank 1
tensors
– Rank 1 tensor v: vi
– Rank 2 tensor A: Aij
– Rank 4 tensor C: Cijkl 9
 Tensor Operations
• Basic rules for tensors
Different notations
( TS)R  T(SR) TS  T  S
T(S  R)  TS  TR
Identity tensor
( TS)  (T )S  T(S) 1  [ij ]
1T  T1  T
• Tensor (dyadic) product: increase rank
A  u  v  uivjei  ej Aij  uivj
( u  v )  w  u( v  w)
w  ( u  v )  v ( w  u)
( u  v )( w  x)  ( v  w)u  x uv  vu

10
 Tensor Operations cont.
• Symmetric and skew tensors
– Symmetric S  ST
– Skew W   WT
– Every tensor can be uniquely decomposed by symmetric and
skew tensors
T SW
S  21 ( T  T T )
W  21 ( T  T T )
– Note: W has zero diagonal components and Wij = - Wji

• Properties – Let A be a symmetric tensor

A:W 0
A:T A:S
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 Example
• Displacement gradient can be considered a tensor (rank 2)
 u1 u1 u1 
 X1 X2 X3 
 u   u2 u2 u2 
u      X X X 
 X  1 2 3
 u3 u3 u3 
 X1 X2 X3 
 u1 1 ( u1  u2 ) 1 ( u1  u3 ) 
 X1 2 X2 X1 2 X3 X1 

sym(u)   21 ( X1  X2 ) 1 ( u2  u3 ) 

u u u2 Strain tensor
2 1 X2 2 X3 X2 
 1 u1 u3 1 u2 u3 u3 
 2 ( X3  X1 ) 2 ( X3  X2 ) X3 
 0 1 ( u1  u2 ) 1 ( u1  u3 ) 
 2 X2 X1 2 X3 X1 

skew(u)    21 ( X1  X2 ) 1 ( u2  u3 ) 

u u
0 2 X  X  Rotation
2 1 3 2
tensor
 1 u1 u3 1 u u 
  2 ( X3  X1 )  2 ( X3  X2 ) 0
2 3

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 Contraction and Trace
• Contraction of rank-2 tensors
a : b  aijbij  a11b11  a12b12   a32b32  a33b33
– contraction operator reduces four ranks from the sum of ranks of
two tensors
• magnitude (or, norm) of a rank-2 tensor
a  a:a
• Constitutive relation between stress and strain
  D : , ij  Dijklkl
• Trace: part of contraction
tr(A)  Aii  A11  A22  A33
– In tensor notation

tr(A)  A : 1  1 : A
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 Orthogonal Tensor
• In two different coord. e3 e3*
e1*
u  uiei  uj* ej*
e2
• Direction cosines e1
e2*
ei*  ej  ij ei*  ijej
We can also show
• Change basis ej  ijei* u*   u
u  ujej  ui* ei* u  T u*  T ( u)  (T )u
 ui*ijej
 1  T
uj  ijui* T   T  1 det()  1
Orthogonal tensor
u  T u* Rank-2 tensor transformation
T *   T T , Tij*  ikTkljl 14
 Permutation
• The permutation symbol has three indices, but it is not a
tensor

1 if ijk are an even permutation : 123, 231, 312


eijk   1 if ijk are an odd permutation : 132, 213, 321
0 otherwise

• the permutation is zero when any of two indices have the
same value
• Identity
eijk elmk  il jm  im jl

• vector product
u  v  eieijkujvk
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 Dual Vector
• For any skew tensor W and a vector u
u  Wu  u  WT u  u  Wu  0
– Wu and u are orthogonal
 0 W12 W13   W23 
• Let Wij  eijk wk  
W   W12 0 W23   w   W13 
 W13 W23 0   
 W12 

• Then, Wijuj  eijk wkuj  eikjwkuj

Wu  w  u

Dual vector of skew tensor W

wi   21 eijkWjk

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 Vector and Tensor Calculus
• Gradient
f( X)
 
  ei  
X Xi
– Gradient is considered a vector
vi
– We will often use a simplified notation: vi , j 
X j
• Laplace operator
2        
       ei    ej  
 Xi   X j  X j X j
• Gradient of a scalar field f(X): vector
f
f ( X)  ei
Xi

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 Vector and Tensor Calculus
• Gradient of a Tensor Field (increase rank by 1)
 f j
f    f  ei  f j ej  ei  ej
Xi Xi
• Divergence (decrease rank by 1)
   fi
  f   ei  
 f j ej  
 Xi  Xi
– Ex)      jk , j ek
• Curl
  v  ei eijkvk , j

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 Integral Theorems
• Divergence Theorem

   A d   n  A d n: unit outward normal vector

• Gradient Theorem

 A d   n  A d c

• Stokes Theorem

 n  (  v ) d  c r  v dc r
• Reynolds Transport Theorem
d A

dt 
Ad    t d   (n  v )A d
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 Integration-by-Parts
• u(x) and v(x) are continuously differentiable functions
• 1D
b b b
a u(x)v(x) dx   u(x)v(x)  a  a u(x)v(x) dx
• 2D, 3D
u v
 xi v d   uvni d   u xi d
• For a vector field v(x)

 u  v d   u( v  n) d   u  v d
• Green’s identity

 u   v d   uv  n d   u2v d

20
 Example: Divergence Theorem
• S: unit sphere (x2 + y2 + z2 = 1), F = 2xi + y2j + z2k
• Integrate S F  n dS
S F  n dS     F d
 2 (1  y  z) d

 2 d  2 y d  2 z d
  
 2 d

8

3

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1.3

STRESS AND STRAIN

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 Surface Traction (Stress)
F
• Surface traction (Stress) f1

– The entire body is in equilibrium with n

external forces (f1 ~ f6) P
A
– The imaginary cut body is in equilibrium due f2
to external forces (f1, f2, f3) and internal f3
forces
– Internal force acting at a point P
on a plane whose unit normal is n: f6

F
f1
f5
(n)
t  lim
A 0 A
– The surface traction depends on the unit f4
f2
normal direction n.
z f3
– Surface traction will change as n changes.
y
– unit = force per unit area (pressure) x

t (n)  t1 e1  t2 e2  t3e3
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 Cartesian Stress Components
• Surface traction changes according to the direction of
the surface.
• Impossible to store stress information for all directions.
• Let’s store surface traction parallel to the three
coordinate directions.
• Surface traction in other directions can be calculated
from them.
• Consider the x-face of an infinitesimal cube
x
t (x)
 t1(x) e1  t2(x) e2 + t3(x) e3
z
t (x)
 11 e1  12 e2 + 13e3 13
z F

Normal Shear
11 12
stress stress y
x y 24
 Stress Tensor
– First index is the face and the second index is its direction
– When two indices are the same, normal stress, otherwise shear
stress.
– Continuation for other surfaces.
– Total nine components
– Same stress components are defined for the negative planes.

• Rank-2 Stress Tensor

33
  ijei  ej x

31 32
• Sign convention z
13 23
z
sgn(11 )  sgn(n)  sgn( Fx ) 12 21
11 22
sgn(12 )  sgn(n)  sgn( Fy ) y
x y

25
 Symmetry of Stress Tensor
– Stress tensor should be symmetric
9 components 6 components 21
– Equilibrium of the angular moment A B
y
 M  l(12  21 )  0 12 l O x 12
 12  21
– Similarly for all three directions: l
C D
12  21 , 23  32 , 13  31 21

 11 
– Let’s use vector notation:     11 12 13 
 22 
Cartesian components  33  [ij ]   12 22 23 
{ }   
 12 
of stress tensor
 13 23 33 
 23 
 
 13  26
 Stress in Arbitrary Plane
– If Cartesian stress components are known, it is possible to
determine the surface traction acting on any plane.
– Consider a plane whose normal is n.
– Surface area (ABC = A) y
B
PAB  An3 ; PBC  An1 ; PAC  An2
n
– The surface traction 31 33 t(n)
13
11 32
t (n)
 t1( n) e1  t2( n) e2  t3( n) e3
12 P 23 A x
21
– Force balance 22
z C
 1 1 A  11An1  21An2  31An3  0
F  t (n)

t1( n)  11n1  21n2  31n3

27
 Cauchy’s Lemma
• All three-directions
t1( n)  11n1  21n2  31n3
t2(n)  12n1  22n2  32n3
t3(n)  13n1  23n2  33n3
• Tensor notation

t(n)  n    t(n)    n
– stress tensor; completely characterize the state of stress at a
point
• Cauchy’s Lemma
– the surface tractions acting on opposite sides of the same surface
are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction

t ( n )   t ( n)
28
 Projected Stresses
• Normal stress (n)  t n  n  n    n  ijnn
i j
n 2
• Shear stress (n)  t  2 (n) (n)  t n  n(n)
• Principal stresses t n / /n  1 , 2 , 3
• Mean stress (hydrostatic pressure)
1 1
p  m  tr()  (11  22  33 )
3 3
• Stress deviator
s    m 1  Idev :  Iijkl  31 (ik  jl  il jk )
 11  m 12 13 
Rank-4 identity tensor
s   12 11  m 23 
 13 23 11  m  Idev  I  31 1  1
Rank-4 deviatoric identity tensor
Which stresses are frame indifferent?
29
 Strain
• Strain: a measure of deformation
– Normal strain: change in length of a line segment
– Shear strain: change in angle between two perpendicular line
segments
• Displacement of P = (u, v, w)
• Displacement of Q & R
u u
uQ  u  x uR  u  y
x y
R'
v v
vQ  v  x vR  v  y
x y Q'

w w
P'(x+u,y+v,z+w)
wQ  w  x
R
wR  w  y
x y y y
x
P(x,y,z) Q
x

z
30
 Strain
– Strain is defined as the elongation per unit length

uy

y

P x ux P

– Tensile (normal) strains in x- and y-directions

ux ux
11  lim 
x  0 x x Textbook has different, but
more rigorous derivations
uy uy
22  lim 
y  0 y y
– Strain is a dimensionless quantity. Positive for elongation and
negative for compression
31
 Shear Strain
– Shear strain is the tangent of the change in angle between two
originally perpendicular axes
ux
uy
q1 ~ tan q1 
x q2

ux y
/2 – g12
q2 ~ tan q2 
y P
q1 uy
x
– Shear strain (change of angle)
uy ux uy ux
g12  q1  q2  lim  lim  
x  0 x y  0 y x y
1 1  uy ux 
12  g12    
2 
2  x y 
– Positive when the angle between two positive (or two negative)
faces is reduced and negative when the angle is increased.
– Valid for small deformation
32
 Strain Tensor
• Strain Tensor
  ijei  ej
 11 12 13 
 
• Cartesian Components [ij ]   12 22 23 
 13 23 33 
• Vector notation
 11   11 
   
 22   22 
 33   33 
{}    
 212   g12 
 223   g23 
   
 213   g13 

33
 Volumetric and Deviatoric Strain
• Volumetric strain (from small strain assumption)
V  V0
V   (1  11 )(1  22 )(1  33 )  1  11  22  33
V0
V  11  22  33  kk

• Deviatoric strain x3

e    31 V 1 eij  ij  31 V ij e22

e33
e  Idev :  1
x2 1
1
e11 x1

Exercise: Write Idev in matrix-vector notation

34
 Stress-Strain Relationship
• Applied Load shape change (strain) stress
• There must be a relation between stress and strain
• Linear Elasticity: Simplest and most commonly used


Ultimate
Fracture
stress
Yield stress

Proportional
limit Young’s
modulus


Strain Necking
hardening

35
 Generalized Hooke’s Law
• Linear elastic material   D : , ij  Dijklkl
– In general, Dijkl has 81 components
– Due to symmetry in ij, Dijkl = Djikl
– Due to symmetry in kl, Dijkl = Dijlk 21 independent coeff
– from definition of strain energy, Dijkl = Dklij
• Isotropic material (no directional dependence)
– Most general 4-th order isotropic tensor

Dijkl  ijkl  ik  jl  il jk

 ijkl  (ik  jl  il jk ) D  1  1  2I

– Have only two independent coefficients

(Lame’s constants)

36
 Generalized Hooke’s Law cont.
• Stress-strain relation
ij  Dijklkl  [ijkl  (ik  jl  il jk )]kl  kk ij  2ij

– Volumetric strain: kk  11  22  33   v

– Off-diagonal part: 12  212  g12  is the shear modulus

– Bulk modulus K: relation b/w volumetric stress & strain

I1  3m   jj  kk  jj  2 jj  (3  2)kk

m  (  23 )kk  Kv
Bulk modulus
– Substitute   K  23  so that we can separate volumetric part

• Total deform. = volumetric + deviatoric deform.

37
 Generalized Hooke’s Law cont.
• Stress-strain relation cont.
ij  (K  23 )kk ij  2ij
 Kkk ij  2ij  23 kk ij
 Kijklkl  2[ik  jl  31 ijkl ]kl
  Kijkl  2(Idev )ijkl  kl

 σ   K1  1  2Idev  : ε
Deviatoric part
e  Idev : 
Volumetric part Deviatoric strain
 σ  Kv 1  2e s  Idev : 
σ  m 1  s Deviatoric stress

Important for plasticity; plastic deformation only occurs in deviatoric part

volumetric part is always elastic
38
 Generalized Hooke’s Law cont.
• Vector notation
– The tensor notation is not convenient for computer implementation
– Thus, we use Voigt notation 2nd-order tensor vector
4th-order tensor matrix
– Strain (6×1 vector), Stress (6×1 vector), and C (6×6 matrix)

 11   u1,1   11 

   u   
 22   2,2   22 
 33   u3,3   33 
      D
 212   u1,2  u2,1   12 
 223   u  u   23 
   2,3 3,2 
 
 213   u1,3  u3,1  
 13 

12 + 21 = 212 You don’t need 2 here

39
 3D Solid Element cont.
• Elasticity matrix 1 
 2 1 1 0 0 0
 31 23 3

1  3 3 3
1 0 0 0
D  K1  1  2Idev    1  1 2 0 0 0
1 
1   Idev  3 3 3 
 0 0 0
0  0 0 1
 2 
• Relation b/w 0   0 0 0 1
0 2 0
Lame’s constants    
0  0 0 21 
 0 0 0
and Young’s modulus
and Poisson’s ratio    2   0 0 0
    2  0 0 0 
 (3  2) 
 , E
2(  )       2 0 0 0
D 
E E  0 0 0  0 0
 , 
(1  )(1  2) 2(1  )  0 0 0 0  0
 
 0 0 0 0 0 

40
 Plane Stress
• thin plate–like components parallel to the xy–plane
• the plate is subjected to forces in its plane only
• 13 = 23 = 33 = 0

 11  1  0   11 
  E   
{  }   22   2   1 0   22 
   1   0 0 1 (1  )   g 
 12   2   12 

• 13 = 23 = 0, but 33 ≠ 0

41
 Plane Strain
• the strains with a z subscript are all equal to zero
• deformation in the z–direction is constrained, (i.e., u3 = 0)
• 13 = 23 = 33 = 0
• can be used if the structure is infinitely long in the z–
direction

 11  1    0   11 
  E   
{  }   22     1 0   22 
   (1  )(1  2)  0 0 1  g 
 12   2   12 

• 13 = 23 = 0
E
33 
(1  )(1  2)
 11  22 

42
1.4

MECHANICS OF
CONTINUOUS BODIES

43
 Balance of Linear Momentum
• Balance of linear momentum

 fb d   t n d   a d fb: body force

 tn: surface traction

• Stress tensor (rank 2):

 11 12 13 
  ijei  ej  ij    21 22 23 
  
 31 32 33 

• Surface traction

X
tn  n  
• Cauchy’s Lemma X3
t n   t n e3
n
e1 X2
e2
tn  n   t n  n   X1 tn

44
 Balance of Linear Momentum cont
• Balance of linear momentum

 ( fb  a) d    n   d       d
 

Divergence Thm
 [    ( fb  a)] d  0

    ( fb  a)  0
– For a static problem

    f b  0 ij,i  fjb  0

• Balance of angular momentum

 x  fb d   x  t n d   x  a d


  T ij   ji
45
 Boundary-Valued Problem
• We want to determine the state of a body in equilibrium
• The equilibrium state (solution) of the body must satisfy
– local momentum balance equation
– boundary conditions

• Strong form of BVP

X
– Given body force fb, and traction t
on the boundary, find u such that fb
X3
    fb  0 (1)
e3
and e1 n
e2 X2
u0 on h essential BC (2) X1 t
t  n on  s natural BC (3)

• Solution space

DA  u  [C2 ()]3 | u  0 on x  h ,   n  t on x   s  46
 Boundary-Valued Problem cont.
• How to solve BVP
– To solve the strong form, we want to construct trial solutions that
automatically satisfy a part of BVP and find the solution that
satisfy remaining conditions.
– Statically admissible stress field: satisfy (1) and (3)
– Kinematically admissible displacement field: satisfy (2) and have
piecewise continuous first partial derivative
– Admissible stress field is difficult to construct. Thus, admissible
displacement field is used often

47
 Principle of Minimum Potential Energy (PMPE)
• Deformable bodies generate internal forces by
deformation against externally applied forces
• Equilibrium: balance between internal and external forces
• For elastic materials, the concept of force equilibrium can
be extended to energy balance
• Strain energy: stored energy due to deformation
(corresponding to internal force)
1
U( u)  
2 
( u) : ( u) d ( u)  D : ( u)
Linear elastic material

• For elastic material, U(u) is only a function of total

displacement u (independent of path)
48
 PMPE cont.
• Work done by applied loads (conservative loads)

W( u)   u  fb d   s u  t d.


• U(u) is a quadratic function of u, while W(u) is a linear

function of u. g
u3
fb
u1 u2
x3 h

• Potential energy fs
x2

( u)  U( u)  W( u) x1

1
  ( u) : ( u) d   u  fb d   s u  t d.
2   

49
 PMPE cont.
• PMPE: for all displacements that satisfy the boundary
conditions, known as kinematically admissible
displacements, those which satisfy the boundary-valued
problem make the total potential energy stationary on DA
• But, the potential energy is well defined in the space of
kinematically admissible displacements


Z  u  [H1 ()]3 | u  0 on x  h , 
H1: first-order derivatives are integrable

• No need to satisfy traction BC (it is a part of potential)

• Less requirement on continuity
• The solution is called a generalized (natural) solution
50
 Example – Uniaxial Bar
• Strong form
EAu  0 x  [0, L] x F
u0 x0
L
EAu(L)  F xL
• Integrate twice: EAu(x)  c1x  c2
Fx
• Apply two BCs: u(x) 
EA
• PMPE with assumed solution u(x) = c1x + c2
• To satisfy KAD space, u(0) = 0,  u(x) = c1x
• Potential energy: U  1 L EA(u)2 dx  EALc12
2 0
W  Fu(L)  FLc1
d d F Fx
 (U  W)  EALc1  FL  0 c1   u(x) 
dc1 dc1 EA EA
51
 Virtual Displacement Field
• Virtual displacement (Space Z)
– Small arbitrary perturbation (variation) of real displacement
1 d
u  lim [( u  )  ( u)]  ( u  )    u.
 0  d  0
– Let ū be the virtual displacement, then u + ū must be kinematically
admissible, too
– Then, ū must satisfy homogeneous displacement BC

u u  u  V  u Z


Z  u u  [H1 ()]3, u h
0 
– Space Z only includes homogeneous
essential BCs In the literature, u is often used instead of ū

• Property of variation
 du  d(u)
  
 dx  dx 52
 PMPE As a Variation
• Necessary condition for minimum PE
– Stationary condition <--> first variation = 0
1 d
( u; u )  lim [( u  u )  ( u)]  ( u  u ) 0
 0  d  0
for all u  Z
• Variation of strain energy
 u  d  u  u  u
     
 x  d  x   0 x
( u)  ( u )     D : 

U( u; u )    (u ) : D : (u)  (u) : D : ( u )  d

1
2

  ( u ) : D : ( u) d

 a( u, u ) Energy bilinear form
53
 PMPE As a Variation cont.
• Variation of work done by applied loads

W( u; u )   u  fb d   s u  t d  ( u ) Load linear form



( u; u )  U( u; u )  W( u; u )  0

• Thus, PMPE becomes
a( u, u )  ( u ), u  Z

– Load form ( u ) is linear with respect to ū

– Energy form a(u, ū) is symmetric, bilinear w.r.t. u and ū
– Different problems have different a(u, ū) and ( u ), but they share
the same property
• How can we satisfy “for all ū ” requirement?
Can we test an infinite number of ū?
54
 Example – Uniaxial Bar
• Assumed displacement u(x) = cx 
– virtual displacement is in the same space with u(x): u(x)  cx
• Variation of strain energy
d 1 L 2  1 L
U  
d  2 0
EA  (u  u)  dx    2EA(u  u)u dx
  0 2 0  0
L
 0 EAuu dx  EALcc
• Variation of applied load
d
W   F  u(L)  u(L)    0  Fu(L)  FLc
d
• PMPE
Fx
  U  W  c(EALc  FL)  0 u(x)  cx 
EA
55
 Principle of Virtual Work
• Instead of solving the strong form directly, we want to
solve the equation with relaxed requirement (weak form)
• Virtual work – Work resulting from real forces acting
through a virtual displacement
• Principle of virtual work – when a system is in equilibrium,
the forces applied to the system will not produce any
virtual work for arbitrary virtual displacements
– Balance of linear momentum is force equilibrium     fb  0
– Thus, the virtual work can be obtained by multiplying the force
equilibrium equation with a virtual displacement

W  (    fb )  u d

– If the above virtual work becomes zero for arbitrary ū, then it

satisfies the original equilibrium equation in a weak sense
56
 Principle of Virtual Work cont
• PVW (ij,i  fjb )uj d  0
 u  Z

  ij,iuj d   fjbuj d



– Integration-by-parts
b
   ij j ,i ij j,i 
 (  u )   u  d    j uj d
f
– Divergence Thm
  niijuj d   ijuj,i d   fjbuj d
 

– The boundary is decomposed by   h   s

uj  0 on h and niij  tj on  s
b
  t u
S j j
d    ij j,i

 u d    j uj d

 f

57
 Principle of Virtual Work cont
• Since ij is symmetric
1  ui uj 
ijuj,i  ijsym(uj,i )  ij ij sym(ui,j )      ij

2  Xj Xi 
• Weak Form of BVP

 ij ij d   fjbuj d   s tjuj d u  Z



Internal virtual work = external virtual work

Starting point of FEM
• Symbolic expression

a( u, u )  ( u ) u  Z [K]{ d}  {F }
FE equation
– Energy form: a( u, u )    :  d
– Load form: (u )   u  fb d   s u  t d
 58
 Example – Heat Transfer Problem
• Steady-State Differential Equation
T = T0
  T     k T 
k
x  x x

 y  y
y Q  0 domain A ST


• Boundary conditions qn Sq Q

 T  T0 on ST

 dT dT
 qn  nxkx dx  nyky dy on Sq n = {nx, ny}T

• Space of kinematically admissible temperature

Z  T  H1 () T( x)  0, x  ST 
• Multiply by virtual temperature, integrate by part, and
apply boundary conditions
 T T T T 
  x x x y y y
k  k  d 

 TQ d  S Tqn dSq,
q
T  Z
59
 Example – Beam Problem
• Governing DE f(x)

d4 v
EI 4
 f(x), x  [0, L] L
dx x

• Boundary conditions for cantilevered beam

dv d2 v d3 v
v(0)  (0)  (L)  (L)  0
dx dx 2
dx 3

• Space of kinematically admissible displacement

 dv 
Z   v  H2 [0, L] v(0)  (0)  0 
 dx 

• Integrate-by-part twice, and apply BCs

L d2v d2v L
0 EI dx2 dx2 dx  0 fv dx, v  Z
60
 Difference b/w Strong and Weak Solutions
• The solution of the strong form needs to be twice
differentiable   k T     k T   Q  0
x  x
x  y  y
y 
• The solution of the weak form requires the first-order
derivatives are integrable bigger solution space than
that of the strong form  k T T  k T T  d
  x
x x y
y y 
• If the strong form has a solution, it is the solution of the
weak form
• If the strong form does not have a solution, the weak
form may have a solution

61
1.5

FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

62
 Finite Element Approximation
• Difficult to solve a variational equation analytically
• Approximate solution n
– Linear combination of trial functions u(x)   cifi (x)
– Smoothness & accuracy depend on i1
the choice of trial functions
– If the approximate solution is expressed in the entire domain, it is
difficult to satisfy kinematically admissible conditions
• Finite element approximation
– Approximate solution in simple sub-domains (elements)
– Simple trial functions (low-order polynomials) within an element
– Kinematically admissible conditions only for elements on the
boundary u(x)
Nodes Approximate
solution
Piecewise-
x
linear
approximation
Finite elements
Exact solution 63
 Finite Elements
• Types of finite elements

1D 2D 3D

• Variational equation is imposed on each element.

1 0.1 0.2 1
0 dx  0 dx  
0.1
dx  
0.9
dx

One element

64
 Trial Solution
– Solution within an element is approximated using simple polynomials.
1 2 n1 n
1 2 3 n1 n n+1

xi xi+1
li
– i-th element is composed of two nodes: xi and xi+1. Since two
unknowns are involved, linear polynomial can be used:

u(x)  a0  a1x, xi  x  xi1

– The unknown coefficients, a0 and a1, will be expressed in terms of
nodal solutions u(xi) and u(xi+1).

65
 Trial Solution cont.
– Substitute two nodal values
 u(xi )  ui  a0  a1xi

 u(xi1 )  ui1  a0  a1xi1
– Express a0 and a1 in terms of ui and ui+1. Then, the solution is
approximated by

xi1  x x  xi
u(x)  (e)
ui  (e)
ui1
L L
N1 (x) N2 (x)
– Solution for Element e:

u(x)  N1 (x)ui  N2 (x)ui1, xi  x  xi1

– N1(x) and N2(x): Shape Function or Interpolation Function

66
 Trial Solution cont.
• Observations
– Solution u(x) is interpolated using its nodal values ui and ui+1.
– N1(x) = 1 at node xi, and =0 at node xi+1.
N1(x) N2(x)

xi xi+1

– The solution is approximated by piecewise linear polynomial and its

gradient is constant within an element.
u ui+2 du
ui dx
ui+1

xi xi+1 xi+2 xi xi+1 xi+2

– Stress and strain (derivative) are often averaged at the node.

67
 1D Finite Elements
2
• 1D BVP d u  p(x)  0, 0  x  1s
2
dx
u(0)  0 

du  Boundary conditions
(1)  0 
dx  Space of kinematically
admissible displacements
1  d2u
• Use PVW 0  2  p  u dx  0 
Z  u  H(1) [0,1] u(0)  0 
 dx 

• Integration-by-parts
1
du du du
1 1
u  dx    pu dx
dx 0
0 dx dx 0

– This variational equation also satisfies at individual element level

68
 1D Interpolation Functions
• Finite element approximation for one element (e) at a time

u(e) (x)  uN
i 1 (x)  u N
i1 2 (x)  N (e)
 d(e)

(e)  ui 
d   N(e)   N1 N2 
 ui1 
u(e) (xi )  ui
• Satisfies interpolation condition
u(e) (xi1 )  ui1
• Interpolation of displacement variation (same with u)
u (e) (x)  uN
i 1 (x)  u N
i1 2 (x)  N (e)
 d (e)

• Derivative of u(x)

du(e)  dN1 dN2   ui   1 1   ui  (e) (e)

       (e) 
(e)  u   B  d
dx  dx dx   ui1   L L   i1 
69
 Element-Level Variational Equation
• Approximate variational equation for element (e)
 du 
 (x
 dx i  )
(e)T  xj B(e)T B(e) dx  d(e)  d (e)T xj N(e)T p(x) dx  d (e)T
 xi xi
d  
 du
 (xi1 ) 
 dx 
– Must satisfied for all u (e) (x)  Z
– If element (e) is not on the boundary, d (e) can be arbitrary

• Element-level variational equation

 du 
 (x
 dx i  )
 xj B(e)T B(e) dx  d(e) xj (e)T
 xi
 N p(x) dx   
 xi du
 (xi1 ) 
 dx 
2x2 matrix 2x1 vector
 du 
 (x
 dx i  )

[k (e) ]{ d(e) }  f(e)  
du

 (xi1 ) 
 dx 
70
 Assembly
• Need to derive the element-level equation for all elements
• Consider Elements 1 and 2 (connected at Node 2)
 du 
 k11 k12 
(1) (1)  (x
 dx 1  )
 u1   f1 
      
 k21 k22   u2   f2   du
(x2 ) 
 dx 
 du 
(2) (2)  (x
 dx 2  )
 k11 k12   u2   f2 
      
k k
 21 22   u3   f3   du
(x3 ) 
 dx 
• Assembly
Vanished
 du 
(1)
 k11 (1)
k12 0   u1   f1(1)    (x )
1 
unknown term
 (1)   (1)   dx
(1) (2) (2)   (2) 
 k21 k22  k11 k12   u2    f2  f2 
  0 
 (2) (2)   u   (2)   du 
 0 k21 k22   3   f3   (x ) 
 dx 3 
71
 Assembly cont.
• Assembly of NE elements (ND = NE + 1)
 (1)   du 
 k11
(1)
k12 0 0 u   f1(1)  
 dx 1  (x )
1
 (1) (1) (2) (2)     (1) (2)
  
k
 21 k22  k11 k12 0 u
 2   f2  f 2   0 
 0      
(2)
k221 (2)
k22 (2)
 k11 0   u3    f3(2)  f3(3)   0 
      
      
  NE  (NE )   u   f(NE )   du 
 0 0 0 k21 k22  N 1
 N  N   (x )
  D   ND 1   dx N 
 ND ND   ND 1 
[K]{ q}  {F }
• Coefficient matrix [K] is singular; it will become non-
singular after applying boundary conditions

72
 Example
• Use three equal-length elements
d2u
2
 x  0, 0  x  1 u(0)  0, u(1)  0
dx
• All elements have the same coefficient matrix
(e) 1  1 1   3 3 
k 
 22  L(e)  1 1    3 3  , (e  1,2,3)
   
• RHS (p(x) = x)

(e) xi1  N1 (x)  1 xi1  x(xi1  x) 

{f }   p(x)   dx  (e) x   dx
xi
 N2 (x)  L i  x(x  xi ) 
 xi xi1 
  

(e) 3 6
L   , (e  1,2,3)
 xi  xi1 
 6 3 

73
 Example cont.
• RHS cont.  f1(1)  1 1 
(2)
 f2  1 4
(3)
 f3  1 7 
 (1)    ,  (2)    ,  (3)    
 f2  54  2   f3  54  5  f
 4  54 8
• Assembly
ìï 1 du ü
ïï - (0) ïïï
ïï 54 dx ïï Element 1
é 3 - 3 0 ì ü
0 ùï u1 ï ï 2 ïï
ê úïï ïï ïï 4 Element 2
ê- 3 3 + 3 - 3 0 úïï u2 ïï ïï 54 + 54 ïïï Element 3
ê úí ý = í ý
ê0 - 3 3+ 3 ú ï ï
- 3 ï u3 ï ï 7ï 5 ïï
ê úï ï ï + ï
êë 0 0 - 3 ú ï ï ï
3 ûïî u4 ïþ ï 54 54 ïï
ïï 8 du ïï
ïï + (1) ïï
ïî 54 dx ïþ
• Apply boundary conditions
– Deleting 1st and 4th rows and columns
4
 6 3   u2  1  1  u2  81
 3 6   u   9  2  5
  3   u3  81

74
 EXAMPLE cont.
• Approximate solution
 4 1
 x, 0x
 27 3
0.08
u-approx.
u-exact

4 1  1 1 2
u(x)    x , x
0.06

  
 81 27  3 3 3

u(x)
0.04

5 5  2 2
 x  , x1
0.02

  
 81 27  3 3 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x

• Exact solution
1

u(x)  x 1  x2
6

– Three element solutions are poor
– Need more elements

75
 3D Solid Element
• Isoparametric mapping
– Build interpolation functions on the reference element
– Jacobian: mapping relation between physical and reference elem.
• Interpolation and mapping
8 8
u(x)   NI (x)uI x( x )   NI (x)xI
Same for mapping
and interpolation
I 1 I 1
1
NI (x)  (1  xxI )(1  I )(1  zz I )
8
z
x8 x7 (–1, –1,1) (–1,1,1)

x5 (1, –1,1)
(1,1,1)
x6 
x4 x3 (–1,1,–1)
x1 (1, –1,–1)
x3
(1,1,–1)
x2 x
x2
x1 (a) Finite Element (b) Reference Element
76
 3D Solid Element cont.
• Jacobian matrix
8
dx dNI (x) J : Jacobian
J33    xI
dx I 1 dx
 x1 x1 x1 
• Derivatives of shape functions  x  z 
 
 NI NI NI   NI NI NI   x2 x2 x2 
  
 x  z   x1 x2 x3   x  z 
 
 x3 x3 x3 
NI NI  x  z 
 J
x x
NI NI
  J 1
x x
– Jacobian should not be zero anywhere in the element
– Zero or negative Jacobian: mapping is invalid (bad element shape)
77
 3D Solid Element cont.
• Displacement-strain relation  NI,1 0 0 
8  
 0 N 0 
 BI uI
I,2
( u)   0 0 NI,3 
I 1 BI   
8  NI,2 NI,1 0 
 
  ( u )   BI uI  0 NI,3 NI,2 
I 1 N 0 NI,1 
 I,3
Ni
NI,i 
xi

78
 3D Solid Element cont.
• Transformation of integration domain
1 1 1
 d  1 1 1 J dxddz
• Energy form
8 8
 1 1 1 BT DB J dxddz  u  { d }T [k]{ d}
a( u, u )   uIT
 1 1 1 I J  J
I 1 J 1

• Load form
8
T 1 1 1
(u )     
uI
1 1 1
NI (x)fb J dxddz  { d }T { f }
I 1

• Discrete variational equation

{ d }T [k]{ d}  { d }T { f }, { d }  Z h

79
 Numerical Integration
• For bar and beam, analytical integration is possible
• For plate and solid, analytical integration is difficult, if
not impossible
• Gauss quadrature is most popular in FEM due to simplicity
and accuracy
• 1D Gauss quadrature
NG
1
1 f(x) dx  
i1
wif(xi )

– NG: No. of integ. points; xi: integ. point; wi: integ. weight
– xi and wi are chosen so that the integration is exact
for (2NG – 1)-order polynomial
– Works well for smooth function
– Integration domain is [-1, 1]
80
 Numerical Integration cont.
• Multi-dimensions
NG NG
1 1
1 1 f(x, ) dxd  
i1 j1
wiwjf(xi, j )

NG NG NG
1 1 1
1 1 1 f(x, , z) dxddz    wiwjwk f(xi, j, zk )
i1 j1 k 1

Integration
NG Weights (wi)
Points (xi)
1 0.0 2.0
2 .5773502692 1.0 x
.7745966692 .5555555556
3
0.0 .8888888889  (a) 11 
.8611363116 .3478546451
4
.3399810436 .6521451549
.9061798459 .2369268851 x x
5 .5384693101 .4786286705
0.0 .5688888889 (b) 22 (c) 33
81
82