Module-1

Semiconductor Diodes
Introduction
The term diode refers to a two-electrode or two-terminal device. A diode is a one way device,
offering a low resistance when forward-biased, and behaving almost as an open switch when
reversed-biased. A Semiconductor diode is simply a pn-junction with a connecting lead on each
side.
1.1 pn- Junction Diode
A PN junction is a device formed by joining p-type with n-type semiconductors and separated by
a thin junction is called PN Junction diode or junction diode. Fig. 1.1 shows such a PN Junction
Diode.

Fig. 1.1: PN Junction Diode.

Fig. 1.2 shows the graphic symbol of pn-Junction Diode. The arrowhead indicates the
conventional direction of current flow when the diode is forward biased. The p-side of the diode
is always the positive terminal for forward bias and is termed anode. The n-side, called the
cathode, is the negative terminal when the device is forward biased.

Fig. 1.2 Graphic symbol of pn-Junction Diode

No bias condition:

When pn junction is made electrons near the junction jump from N to P and Holes near the
junction jump from P to N .This phenomenon creates a space charge region or depletion region.

Forward bias condition:

When the p-region of the diode is connected to the positive terminal and n-region of the diode is
connected to the negative terminal of the battery, then the diode is said to forward bias. The
pressure is acting towards the junction to shrink. Due to this repulsion the depletion region
narrows down .If the voltage in the forward bias is above a specified range, the electrons in the n
region drifts through the junction and migrates to the p-region and the holes in the p-region drifts
through the junction and migrates to the n-region. Now the current flows across the circuit and
this current is called forward current.

Reverse bias condition:

In reverse bias a negative terminal of battery is connected to p-region and positive terminal of the
battery is connected to n-region. Electrons get attracted to the positive terminal of the battery and
holes get attracted to the negative terminal of the battery. This results in the increase of the
depletion region. Now the pn junction acts as an insulator and will not allow any current to flow
in the circuit.
1.2 V-I Characteristics of pn Junction Diode
When diode is in forward bias, no current flows until the barrier voltage (0.3V for Ge and 0.7 for
Si) is overcome. Then the curve has a linear rise and the current increases, with the increase in
forward voltage like an ordinary conductor. With reverse bias, potential barrier at the junction
increased. Junction resistance increases and prevents current flow. However, the minority
carriers are accelerated by the reverse voltage resulting in a very small current (REVERSE
CURRENT) and it is in the order of microamperes. With reverse bias, when reverse voltage is
increased beyond a value, called breakdown voltage, the reverse current increases sharply and
the diode show almost zero resistance. It is known as avalanche breakdown. Reverse voltage
above the specified limit destroys the junction permanently.

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.3: Typical forward and reverse Characteristics for (a) silicon diode (b) germanium diode
Forward and Reverse resistance of a diode:

Static or dc resistance

Problem 1: Calculate the forward and reverse resistances offered by a silicon diode with
characteristics shown in figure at IF =100mA and at VR=50V.

Solution:

At IF=100 mA, VF≈0.75 V

𝑉𝐹 0.75 𝑉
𝑅𝐹 = = = 7.5 Ω
𝐼𝐹 100 𝑚𝐴
𝑉𝑅 50𝑉
At VR= 50V , IR≈100 nA 𝑅𝑅 = = = 500 𝑀Ω
𝐼𝑅 100𝑛𝐴

Problem 2: Calculate the forward and reverse resistances offered by a germanium diode with
characteristics shown in figure at IF =60 mA and at VR=30 V.
Solution:

At IF=60 mA, VF≈0.35 V

𝑉𝐹 0.35 𝑉
𝑅𝐹 = = = 5.833 Ω
𝐼𝐹 60 𝑚𝐴

At VR=30 V , IR≈1 μA
𝑉𝑅 30 𝑉
𝑅𝑅 = = = 0.00003 Ω
𝐼𝑅 1 𝜇𝐴

Note: forward and reverse resistance calculated in problem 1 and 2 are static resistance or dc
resistance. When the input is AC signal we cannot use above equation to calculate resistance.

Dynamic resistance or AC resistance

𝛥𝑉𝐹
𝑟𝑑 = 𝛥𝐼𝐹

or
26𝑚𝑉
𝑟𝑑 =
𝐼𝐹
Problem 3: Determine the dynamic resistance for diode characteristics shown in figure and also
estimate dynamic resistance at forward current of 70 mA using equation.

Solution:
From figure ΔIF=60 mA and ΔVF≈0.025 V
𝛥𝑉𝐹 0.025 𝑉
𝑟𝑑 = = = 0.42 Ω
𝛥𝐼𝐹 60 𝑚𝐴

26 𝑚𝑉 26𝑚𝑉
Using equation 𝑟𝑑 ′ = = = 0.37 Ω
𝐼𝐹 70𝑚𝐴

Problem 4: Determine the dynamic resistance for diode characteristics shown in figure and also
estimate dynamic resistance at forward current of 50 mA equation.

Solution:
From figure ΔIF=80 mA and ΔVF≈0.05 V
𝛥𝑉𝐹 0.05 𝑉
𝑟𝑑 = = = 0.62 Ω
𝛥𝐼𝐹 80 𝑚𝐴

26 𝑚𝑉 26𝑚𝑉
Using equation 𝑟𝑑 ′ = = = 0.52 Ω
𝐼𝐹 50𝑚𝐴

Diode parameters

The diode parameters are

1) Forward voltage drop (VF)-It is the voltage drop across a diode when it conducts. For
si=0.7 and ge=0.3
2) Reverse saturation current (IR)-It is the nominal current which flows through the diode
when it is reversed biased. For si diode I R is nA and for ge diode IR is μA
3) Reverse breakdown voltage (VBR)-It is the reverse bias voltage at which the pn junction
breaks down and permanently damages the diode. For a si diode V BR is 75V and for a ge
diode VBR is 50V
4) Dynamic resistance or AC resistance (rd)-It is the resistance offered to changing levels
of forward voltage. It is the reciprocal of the slope of the forward characteristics beyond
the knee.
 5) Maximum forward current (IFmax )-It is the maximum current a diode can pass under
forward bias condition without permanent damage to pn junction due to overheating.

1.3 Diode Approximations

Ideal diodes and practical Diodes
A diode is one way device, offering low resistance when forward biased and a high resistance
when reverse biased. On the other hand an ideal diode (a perfect diode) have zero forward drop
and infinite reverse resistance and thus behave electrically open circuit. Figure 1.4(a) below
shows the characteristics of ideal diode.
Although an ideal diode does not exist, some situations demand such assumptions where diodes
can be assumed to be near ideal devices (practical diodes). In situations, for example, when
supply voltages much larger than the diode forward drop VF is used then the diode forward can
be ignored without introducing any serious error. Also, the diode reverse current is normally so
much smaller than the forward current that the reverse current can be ignored. These
assumptions lead to the near-ideal, or approximate characteristics for Si and Ge diodes as shown
in figure 1.4(b) and 1.4(c).

(a)Ideal diode
(b) Si diode (c) ge diode Approximate
Characteristics
Approximate Characteristics
Characteristics

Fig 1.4: Ideal diode characteristics

Piecewise Linear Characteristic
When the forward characteristic of a diode is not available. A straight-line approximation, called
the piecewise linear characteristic, may be employed. To construct the piecewise linear
characteristic, VF is first marked on the horizontal axis, as shown in Fig. 1.5. Then, starting at
VF, a straight line is drawn with a slope equal to the diode dynamic resistance.
 Fig.1.5: Piecewise Linear Characteristic of a diode
Problem 5: A silicon diode used in the circuit shown in figure. Calculate the diode current

Solution: Applying KVL

E-IFR1-VF=0
E= IFR1+VF

𝐼𝐹=𝐸−𝑉𝐹
𝑅1
15𝑣 − 0.7𝑣
= = 3.04𝑚𝐴
4.7𝑘Ω

Problem 6: Calculate the diode current in the circuit when D1 is replaced with two series-
connected silicon diodes in problem 5.

Problem 7: Construct the piecewise linear characteristics for a silicon diode which has a 0.25 Ω
dynamic resistance and a 200 mA maximum forward current.

Problem 8: A germanium diode has a maximum forward current of 100 mA and 0.5 Ω dynamic
resistance. Construct the piecewise linear characteristic of this diode.
Problem 9: Calculate the circuit current when the germanium diode is forward-biased in series
with a 15 Ω resistor and a 3 V battery.
Note: Problem 6,7,8,9 Refer class notes for solution

DC Equivalent circuits
An equivalent circuit for a device is a circuit that represents the device behavior. Usually, the
equivalent circuit is made up of a number of components such as resistors and voltage cells. A
diode equivalent circuit may be substituted for the device when investigating circuits may also be
used as device models for computer analysis.

Figure :DC equivalent circuits for a junction diode

Problem 10: Calculate IF for the diode circuit shown in figure assuming that the diode has
VF=0.7 V and rd=0.Then recalculate the current taking rd=0.25 Ω
Note: Refer class notes for solution

1.4 DC Load Analysis of Diode Circuits

A load line is used in graphical analysis of nonlinear electronic circuits; representing the
constraint other parts of the circuit place on a non-linear device, like a diode or transistor. It is
usually drawn on a graph of the current v/s the voltage in the nonlinear device, called the device's
characteristic curve. A load line, usually a straight line, represents the response of the linear part
of the circuit, connected to the nonlinear device. The points where the characteristic curve and
the load line intersect are the possible operating point(s) (Q points) (Quiescent point) of the
circuit, at these points the current and voltage parameters of both parts of the circuit match.
Let’s us consider a very simple circuit, which is shown in Fig.1.5

Fig. 1.5: Drawing the load line and finding the point of operation.
Problem 11: Draw the dc load line for the circuit shown in figure on the diode forward
characteristic given in figure.
Note: Refer class notes for solution
Assignment
Problem 12: Using the device characteristics shown in figure, Determine the required load
resistance for the circuit to give IF=30 mA.

Problem 13: Determine a new supply voltage for the circuit shown in figure to give a 50 mA
diode forward current when R1=100 Ω
 Diode Applications
Introduction
One of the most important applications of diodes is rectification: conversion of a sinusoidal AC
waveform into single-polarity half cycles. Rectification may be performed by rectifier circuits
such as half-wave or full wave rectifier. Other important diode applications include clipping,
clamping, dc voltage multiplication, and logic circuits. Diode Clipping is used for clipping off
(Remove) an unwanted portion of a waveform. Clamping circuits change the dc voltage level of
a waveform without affecting the wave shape.DC voltage multipliers are applied to change the
level of a dc voltage source to a desired higher level. Logic circuits produce a high or low output
voltage. Here, we will be studying rectification application. Rectification is achieved with Step-
down Transformer, Rectifier, Filter and Voltage regulator circuits as shown in figure 1.

Fig. 1.Block diagram of power supply

Rectifier
A rectifier is a device, which converts AC voltage (bi-directional) to pulsating DC voltage
(Unidirectional).
Classification of Rectifiers

Using one or more diodes in the circuit, following rectifier circuits can be designed.

1.1 Half - Wave Rectification

a)Positive Half - Wave Rectifier

A positive Half -wave rectifier as shown in Figure 2(a), which converts AC voltage into a
pulsating DC voltage using only one half cycle of the applied AC voltage.
 Fig. 2: Positive half-wave rectifier circuit.

Operation: For the positive half-cycle of input AC voltage, the diode D1 is forward biased and
hence it conducts. Now a current flows in the circuit and there is a voltage drop across R L.

When the diode is forward-biased (shown in figure 2 (b)), the voltage drop across it is VF and the
output voltage is input Voltage –VF. So, the peak output voltage is

Vpo=Vpi-V

Vpi=1.414 Vi, where Vi is the input rms level of the sinusoidal input voltage to the rectifier
circuit (from the transformer output).

The diode peak forward current is

Ip=Vpo/RL

For the negative half-cycle of input (shown in figure 2 (c)), the diode D1 is reverse biased and
hence it does not conduct. Now no current flows in the circuit i.e., I L=0 and Vo=0. Thus for the
negative half- cycle no power is delivered to the load.

Note: But very small negative voltage levels produced by the diode reverse saturation current
During negative half cycle of the input, the reversed-biased diode offers a very high resistance
.so there is only a very small reverse current (I R), giving an output voltage

–Vo= – IR*RL

While the diode is reverse-biased, the peak voltage of the negative half cycle of the input is
applied to its terminals. Thus the peak reverse voltage or peak inverse voltage (PIV), applied to
the diode is

VR=PIV=Vpi

The average and rms output values of the half-wave rectified waveform can be determined as

Vo (avg) =Vpo /π and Vo (rms) =Vpo/2

Note: Most rectifier circuits use a Reservoir capacitor at the output terminals to smooth the
rectified voltage wave into direct voltage as shown in figure 2(d)

b)Negative Half-wave Rectifier

Figure 3(a) shows the effect of reversing the diode polarity in the circuit and negative half-cycle
of the ac input waveform (instead of the positive half-cycle) is passed to the load resistor.
Consequently, the peak output voltage and current are negative quantities.

Figure 3 (b) shows a positive half-wave rectifier circuit with the positive output terminal
grounded. When the transformer output waveform is at its peak positive level, the load waveform
is actually a peak negative quantity as shown in figure 3 (b), because output terminal B is
negative with respect to the grounded terminal A. The diode is reversed-biased during the
negative half-cycle of the transformer output, and so the load voltage is zero. Thus, a negative
half-wave rectified waveform can be generated simply by grounding the positive output terminal
of a positive rectifier circuit.
 Fig. 3: Negative half-wave rectification

Problem 1: A diode with VF=0.7 V is connected as a half wave rectifier .The load resistance is
500 Ω, and the (rms) ac input is 22 V.Determine the peak output voltage ,the peak load current
,and the diode peak reverse voltage.

Note: Refer class notes for solution

Problem 2: A half-wave rectifier has a 15 V ac input and a 330 Ω load resistance. Calculate the
Peak output voltage, the Peak load current, and the diode maximum reverse voltage.

Note: Refer class notes for solution

Problem 3: A half-wave rectifier produces a 40 mA peak load current through a 1.2 kΩ resistor.
If the diode is silicon, calculate the rms input voltage and the diode PIV.

Note: Refer class notes for solution

1.2 Full wave rectification

Two-diode full wave rectifier

a)Positive FWR
The full-wave rectifier circuit using two diodes and its input voltage is supplied from a
transformer with a centre-tapped secondary winding is shown in figure 4.The circuit is
essentially a combination of two half-wave rectifier circuits, each supplied from one half of the
transformer secondary.

Fig. 4: Full wave rectification using two diodes

Operation:

During positive half of the input signal, anode of diode D 1 becomes positive and at the same time
the anode of diode D2 becomes negative. Hence D1 conducts and D2 does not conduct. The load
current flows through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage as
shown in figure 5 .

Fig.: 5
During the negative half cycle of the input, the anode of D 1 becomes negative and the anode of
D2 becomes positive. Hence, D1 does not conduct and D2 conducts. The load current flows
through D2 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage. It is noted that the
load current flows in the both the half cycles of ac voltage and in the same direction through the
load resistance.

b) Negative FWR

Fig.: 6 Negative FWR

If the polarity of the diode is reversed, the output waveform is a series of sinusoidal negative
half-cycles: negative full wave rectification. The centre tap of the transformer is normally
grounded as shown in figure 6 to obtain negative output from the circuit when diode polarity is
reversed.

Bridge Rectifier

The centre-tapped transformer used in Two-diode full wave rectifier is usually more expensive
and requires more space than additional diodes. So a bridge rectifier is more frequently used for
full-wave rectification.

The bridge rectifier circuit is shown in figure 7 consists of four diodes connected with their
arrowhead symbols all pointing toward the positive output terminal of the circuit. Diodes D 1 and
D2 are series connected and D3 and D4 are series connected. The ac input terminals are the
junction of D1 and D2 and the junction of D3 and D4.The positive output terminal is at the
cathodes of D1 and D3 and the negative output is at the anodes of D2 and D4.

Fig. 7:Full wave bridge rectifier circuit

During the positive half-cycle of input voltage ,diodes D1 and D4 are in series with RL as shown
in figure 8.Load current (IL) flows from the positive input terminal through D1 to RL and then
through RL and D4 back to negative input terminal. During this time, D2 and D3 are reversed
biased.

Fig. 8:D1 and D4 conducts

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D2 and D3 conduct in series, but diodes D1
and D4 switch off as they are now reversed biased as shown in 9. The current flowing through
the load is the same direction as before.
 Fig. 9:D2 and D3 conducts

The peak output voltage of bridge rectifier is

Vpo=Vpi-2VF

The average and rms values of the full-wave rectified waveform can be determined as

2
Vo(avg)=𝛑 *Vpo and Vo(rms)=Vpo/√2

More Bridge Rectifier Circuits

Figure 10 shows two common methods of drawing a bridge rectifier circuit. Although they both
look more complex than the circuit in figure 7, they are exactly the same circuit .the cathodes of
D1 and D3 in all three circuits are connected to the positive output terminal, and the anodes of D 2
and D4 are connected to the negative output terminal .The ac input is applied to the junction of
D1 and D2 and to the junction of D3 and D4.

Fig. 10.More bridge rectifier circuit diagram

Problem 4: Determine the peak output voltage and current for the bridge rectifier circuit when
Vi=30 V ,RL=300 Ω, and the diodes have VF=0.7 V.

Note: Refer class notes for solution

Problem 5: Determine the peak load voltage, peak current, and power dissipation in a 470 load
resistor connected to a bridge rectifier circuit that has a 24 V ac input .The rectifier diodes are
germanium.

Note: Refer class notes for solution

Problem 6: A bridge rectifier with silicon diodes and a 680 Ω load resistor has an 18 V peak
output. Calculate the power dissipated in the load resistor and the rms input voltage.

Note: Refer class notes for solution

1.3 Full-wave Rectifier Power Supply

Capacitor Filter Circuit

When a sinusoidal AC voltage is rectified and the resulting output waveform is a series of
positive half cycles but it is not direct voltage. To convert to direct voltage (dc voltage), a
smoothing circuit or filter circuit is used.

Figure 11 shows (a) full wave rectifier circuit with a single capacitor filter (C 1) and a Load
resistor(RL) are connected in Parallel .In addition to that a surge-limiting resistor is used to limit
the amount of current that can surge when power supply is switched on.
 Figure 11.(a)FWR Capacitor Filter Circuit

Figure 11 (b) shows the output waveform .The capacitor termed a reservoir capacitor is charged
when Vpi>Vc and discharged when Vpi<Vc.

Figure 11(b) output waveform

Where,

Eave=average dc output voltage

Eo(max)= maximum output voltage
Eo(min)= minimum output voltage
Vr=ripple voltage peak to peak amplitude
T=time period of the ac input waveform
t1=capacitor discharging time
t2=capacitor charging time
𝜃1=phase angle of the input waveform from zero to Eo(min)
𝜃2=phase angle of the input waveform from Eo(min) to Eo(max)
IL=Load Current
C1=reservoir capacitor
Calculation formula for above waveform quantities

𝐸𝑜(𝑚𝑖𝑛) = 𝐸𝑜(𝑎𝑣𝑒) − 0.5𝑉𝑟

𝐸𝑜(𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) = 𝐸𝑜(𝑎𝑣𝑒) + 0.5𝑉𝑟

𝐸𝑜(𝑚𝑖𝑛)
sin 𝜃 1 =
𝐸𝑜(𝑚𝑎𝑥)

𝐸𝑜(𝑚𝑖𝑛)
𝜃1 = sin−1
𝐸𝑜(𝑚𝑎𝑥)

𝜃2 = 900 − 𝜃1

1
𝑇=
𝑓
𝑡 𝑇
=
𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 3600
𝜃2𝑇
𝑡2 =
3600

𝑇
𝑡1 = ( ) − 𝑡2
2
𝐼𝐿 𝑡1
𝐶1 =
𝑉𝑟
Problem: A full wave rectifier dc power supply is to provide 20 V to a 500 load. The peak-to-
peak ripple voltage is not to exceed 10% of the average output voltage and the ac input
frequency is 60 Hz. Calculate the required reservoir capacitance and also recalculate by
assuming t2 is very much smaller than t 1.
Note: Refer class notes for solution

1.4 RC π Filter
The ripple voltage that appears across the reservoir capacitor in a rectifier power supply can be
attenuated by the use of an additional resistor and capacitor, which together function as an ac
voltage divider.
 Figure 12: RC π Filter
Figure 12(a) shows the circuit,C1 being the reservoir capacitor and R1 and C2 the additional
components .The combination of C1,R1 and C2 is refered to as a π Filter, because of the π-shaped
arrangement of the circuit components. As illustrated in figure 12 (b) the sawtooth waveform is
composed of a fundamental ac voltage (same frequency as the ripple) and a number of smaller-
amplitude, higher-frequency harmonics components. Due to their higher frequencies, the
harmonic components are more severely attenuated than the fundamental frequency component
by the voltage division across R1 and C2.This combined with the smaller input amplitude of the
harmonics means that the waveform developed across C2(the filter output) is essentially an
attenuated version of the sinusoidal fundamental component.
 Figure:12 sawtooth waveform
The peak value of the fundamental component of the saw tooth waveform is given by
𝑉𝑟
𝑉𝑝 =
π
Where Vr is the ripple voltage peak-to-peak amplitude
The ac voltage developed across C2 is the filter ac output and is given by
𝑉0= 𝑉𝑖 𝑋𝐶2
√ 1 2+𝑋𝐶2 2
𝑅

Where vi is the filter ac input voltage applied across capacitor C1

From above equation

𝑅1
𝑋𝐶2 =
√(𝑉𝑖/𝑉𝑜)2 − 1
If (Vi/Vo)2 >>1

R1
𝑋𝑐2 ≈
vi/vo
 Zener Diodes
1.1 Junction Breakdown in diodes
When the junction diode is reversed biased, only a very small reverse saturation current Is flows
through the junction. When the reverse voltage is sufficiently high, the junction breaks down and
a large reverse current flows. The large reverse current may destroy the diode due to excessive
power dissipation. The reverse current and hence the power dissipation can be kept at a safe level
by connecting a resistor R1 in series with the diode as shown in figure 1 (a).Figure 1 (b) shows
the reverse characteristics of the diode.

Fig 1:(a)current limiting for safe operation under reversed break down (b) reverse characteristics
of diode
Under this condition, the diode may be operated continuously in reverse breakdown. The reverse
current returns to its normal level when the reverse voltage is reduced below the reverse
breakdown level.
There are two mechanisms that cause breakdown in reversed biased pn-junction.
1. Avalanche breakdown –Breakdown occurs due to the rapid collision of electrons with other
atoms. Avalanche breakdown occurs in diodes having wide depletion region and is normally
produced by reverse voltage levels above 5V.
2. Zener breakdown- Breakdown occurs because of the high electric field. The reverse voltage
required for Avalanche breakdown can be greatly reduced to a value less than 5 V,by increasing
the doping level in the p and n type semiconductor. This strong electric field can disrupt the
bonding forces within the atom and generate the carriers. This mechanism is called zener
breakdown and its results in a sharp change in the characteristic. This sharp change in
characteristics at low levels of reverse voltage is called the zener region and the voltage at which
the zener breakdown occurs is called the zener breakdown voltage, Vz as shown in figure 2

Fig 2:Zener region

The diodes employing the zener region of the characteristics of a p-n junction are called zener
diodes.
Circuit Symbol and Package
Zener diode is a breakdown diode with a very narrow depletion region, specially designed to
breakdown at small reverse voltage (<5 V).when the applied reverse voltage exceeds the
breakdown voltage Vz,the reverse current in the diode increases sharply with the voltage across
the diode remaining constant at Vz.Figure 3 shows the circuit symbol of Zener diode. The
symbol is same as that of an ordinary diode but with the cathode bar approximately in the shape
of a letter Z.

Fig 3: circuit symbol of Zener diode

Zener diodes are available having zener voltages of 1.8 to 200v with power rating from 0.25 to
50W
For operation in reverse bias, the voltage drop, Vz is positive on cathode and negative on anode.
Characteristics and Parameters of Zener diode

Fig 4: characteristics of Zener diode

Figure 4 shows the typical characteristics of Zener diode. Observe that, the forward characteristic
is same as that of an ordinary forward biased p-n junction diode. The values of Vz, IZT and IZM
indicated on the characteristics are the typical values of the diode.
1.Zener Breakdown voltage,Vz
It is the reverse-bias voltage at which the zener diode enters the breakdown region, maintaining
a constant voltage Vz across the diode.
2. Minimum Reverse current ,IZK
It is the reverse current at the knee of the reverse characteristic and is the minimum reverse
current to sustain the breakdown condition.
3. Test current,IZT
It is the current that must be passed through the zener diode while measuring the breakdown
voltage Vz.
4. Maximum Reverse current, IZM
It is the maximum current the diode can carry without exceeding the maximum power dissipation
(Pd).
5. Dynamic Impedance, Zz
It defines how Vz changes with variations in diode reverse current. It is defined by Zz=ΔVz/ΔIz
6. Maximum power Dissipation
It is the maximum power which the zener diode can dissipate without destruction, It is the given
by the product of Vz and Izm.ie Pd=Vz* IZM

Problem 1: The circuit shown in figure uses a Zener with Vz=7.5 V .Find the diode current and
the power dissipation.
Refer class notes for solution
Problem 2: A 4.3 V zener diode is connected in series with a 820 Ω resistor and a dc supply of
12 V.Find the diode current and the power dissipation.
Refer class notes for solution

Equivalent Circuit of Zener diode

1.dc equivalent circuit-It consists of a voltage source with a voltage of Vz volts. This equivalent
circuit is used for all dc analysis.

2.ac equivalent circuit-It consists of a voltage source with a value Vz volts in series with an
impedance Zz.The ac equivalent circuit is used in analysis where the zener current varies by
small amounts.
Applications of Zener Diode
 It is used as voltage regulator in dc power supplies
 Since it limits the voltage under reverse bias, it is used to protect measuring instruments
from over voltages
Voltage regulator
A voltage regulator is a circuit which accepts unregulated dc as input and provides a constant dc
output voltage irrespective of changes in the line voltage and the load current.
The output of a full-wave rectifier with capacitor filter may be called unregulated dc since it
varies with changes in load current and line voltage .Most of the electronic circuits require a
stable dc voltage for their proper operation.Hence, it is necessary to regulate the output of full-
wave rectifier with filter. A voltage regulator is connected between the full-wave rectifier with
filter and the load as shown in figure 5

Fig 5: Block diagram of regulated dc power supply.

Zener diode voltage regulator
 An important application of Zener diode is in dc voltage regulator circuit .The reason is
that under reverse breakdown condition ,the voltage across zener remains constant over a
wide range of reverse current ,IZK<Iz<IZM as shown in figure below.
  IZK is the minimum reverse current to sustain breakdown.
 IZM is the maximum Zener current, limited by the maximum power dissipation (Pd).

Zener diode voltage regulator under no load(i.e IL=0)

Figure 6 shows the Zener diode used as voltage regulator under no load(i.e I L=0)

Fig 6:Zener diode voltage regulator under no load

Vs is the unregulated dc voltage, which may be the output from a full-wave rectifier with
capacitor filter.
Since the zener diode is connected across the output terminals
Vo=Vz=constant
Also, since Vs is unregulated dc voltage, it is likely to change .The change in Vs is absorbed
across R1 since Vo is a constant
For the circuit to work properly
 The unregulated dc voltage ,Vs, must be greater than the zener breakdown voltage ,Vz
 The current Iz must satisfy the condition I ZK<Iz<IZM
 Iz>IZK, ensures the minimum reverse current to sustain breakdown.
 Iz<IZM, ensures the safe operation of zener diode by keeping the power dissipation less
than the maximum permissible value (Pd).
Applying KVL to the circuit, we have
Vs-Iz R1-Vz=0
𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑧
𝐼𝑧 =
𝑅1
Note: Normally Iz is selected as IZT(the specified test current) in order to obtain the most stable
reference voltage. IZT lies between IZK and IZM .
Problem 3: A 12 V reference source is to use a series-connected Zener diode and resistor
connected to a 30 V supply. Select suitable components and calculate the circuit current when
the supply voltage drops to 25 V.
Refer class notes for solution
Problem 4: Design a 9 V dc reference source consisting of a zener diode and series connected
resistor to operate from a 24 V supply. Determine the effect on the diode current when the supply
voltage drops to 20 V.
Refer class notes for solution
Problem 5: A zener diode has a breakdown voltage of 10 V .it is supplied from a voltage source
varying between 20 V and 40 V in series with resistance of 820 Ω .Using an ideal zener diode
model obtain minimum and maximum zener currents.
Refer class notes for solution

Zener diode voltage regulator with Load

Figure 7 shows the circuit of Zener diode voltage regulator supplying the load current I L,to the
Load RL.
 Figure 7:Zener diode voltage regulator supplying a load current

Current through R1 is the sum of IL and Iz

I1=Iz+IL -------- equ(1)

Applying KVL to the path containing Vs-I1R1-Vz, we have

Vs-I1R1-Vz=0 -------- equ(2)
Voltage across R1 is
I1R1=Vs-Vz=constant
 I1 is a constant
From equ(2),we get
𝑉𝑠−𝑉𝑧
𝐼1 = equ(3)
𝑅1

In a practical voltage regulator, the load current varies between zero(no load) and a maximum,
ILmax.
When the load current is maximum i.e IL= ILmax, from equ(1) we find that ,Iz is a minimum i.e
IZ= IZmin.Care must be taken to ensure that, IZmin is large enough to keep the diode in reverse
breakdown.
From eqn(1),with IL=ILmax,we get,
I1= IZmin+ ILmax equ(4)
For a zener diode with an IZT of 20mA,the typical value of IZmin is 5mA.
When the load current is zero, the entire I 1 flows through zener diode. The circuit design must
ensure that the total current does not exceed the maximum zener diode current, I ZM.
From eqn(1) with IL=0,we get
I1=IZM equ(5)
Combining equations (4) and(5) we get
IZM=IZmin+ILmax equ(6)
Using eqn(5),we can also write eqn(3) as
𝑉𝑠−𝑉𝑧
𝑅1 = equ(7)
𝐼𝑍𝑀

Problem 6: Design a 6V dc reference source to operate from a 15 V supply .The circuit has to
provide a maximum possible load current. Calculate R1, power dissipation in R1 and the
Maximum load current that can be drawn from the circuit. Use a suitable low power diode.
Refer class notes for solution