Module-2

2.1 Introduction
The transistor is a three-layer semiconductor device consisting of either two n-type and one p-
type layers of material or two p-type and one n-type layers of material. The former is called an
npn transistor, while the latter is called a pnp transistor. So, there are two types of BJT-npn
transistor and pnp transistor

Fig 1. Block diagram and circuit symbol of BJT Transistor.

A bipolar junction transistor is simply a sandwich of one type of semiconductor material (p-type
or n-type) between two layers of the opposite type. A block representation and circuit symbol of
an npn and pnp is shown in figure. The arrowhead on each symbol identifies the transistor
emitter terminal and indicates the conventional direction of current flow.
Classification of BJTs based on currents
 Low-power BJT-Passes currents of 1mA to 20mA
  High-power BJT-Passes currents of 100mA to several amps

2.2 BJT Voltages and Currents

BJT Terminal Voltages
Figure 2 (a) shows the terminal voltages in an npn transistor .The terminal voltages is as follows
VBE: Base voltage with respect to emitter
VCB: Collector voltage with respect to base
VCE: Collector voltage with respect to emitter
In order to forward bias emitter-base junction in an npn transistor, base voltage must be positive
with respect to the emitter. Hence the Polarity of VBE is shown positive at the base and negative
at the emitter. The collector voltage must be negative with respect to the base, in order to reverse
bias the collector-base junction. Hence the polarity of VCB is shown positive at the collector and
negative at thee base. Under this condition, the collector voltage will be positive with respect to
emitter
Figure 2(b) shows an npn transistor biased by the dc sources VB and VCC.The base bias voltage,
VB is connected via resistor RB and the collector supply, VCC is connected via RC.The negative
terminals of VB and VCC are connected at the transistor emitter terminal. To ensure reverse
biasing of Collector-base junction, VCC must be larger than VB. This keeps collector voltage
positive with respect to base voltage.

Fig.2
Figure 3(a) shows the terminal voltages in an pnp transistor .The terminal voltages is as follows
VBE: Base voltage with respect to emitter
VCB: Collector voltage with respect to base
VCE: Collector voltage with respect to emitter
In order to forward bias emitter-base junction in a pnp transistor, base voltage must be negative
with respect to the emitter. Hence the Polarity of VBE is shown negative at the base and positive
at the emitter. The collector voltage must be positive with respect to the base, in order to reverse
bias the collector-base junction. Hence the polarity of V CB is shown negative at the collector and
positive at the base. Under this condition, the collector voltage will be negative with respect to
emitter
Figure 3(b) shows a pnp transistor biased by the dc sources VB and VCC.The base bias voltage,
VB is connected via resistor RB and the collector supply, VCC is connected via RC.The positive
terminals of VB and VCC are connected at the transistor emitter terminal. To ensure reverse
biasing of Collector-base junction, VCC must be larger than VB. This keeps collector voltage
negative with respect to base voltage.

Fig.3
Note: VB is 0.7V for silicon and 0.3V for germanium and VCC is 3V to 20V.

BJT Transistor Currents

The various current components that flow within a transistor are shown in figure 4.
 Fig.4 Currents in pnp BJT

The current flowing into the emitter terminal is referred to as the emitter current and is identified
as IE. For pnp device, IE is due flow of holes from the emitter to the base.I E direction is the
conventional current direction from positive to negative. Base current I B and Collector current IC
are also shown as conventional current direction. Both I C and IB flow out of the transistor while
IE flows into the transistor.Therefore,Almost all of IE crosses to the collector and the only a small
portion flows out of the base terminal. Typically 96% to 95% of IE flows across the collector-
base junction to become the collector current.
IE=IB+IC----------(1)
IC=αdc *IE--------(2)
Where αdc(alpha dc) =IC/IE, αdc is known as emitter-to-collector gain or the ratio of collector
current to emitter current.
αdc =IC/ IE
Numerically, αdc is typically 0.96 to 0.955.So, the collector current is almost equal to the emitter
current, and in many circuits IC is assumed to be equal to IE.
Because the collector-base junction is reversed-biased, a very small reverse saturation current
(ICBO) flows across the junction .ICBO is named the collector-to-base leakage current, and it is
normally so small that it can be neglected.
Substituting equ (1) in equ (2)
IC=αdc(IC+IB)------(3)
IC=αdc *IB/(1-αdc )------(4)
Equation (4) can be rewritten as IC =βdc *IB βdc is known as emitter-to-Base gain
 Where βdc= αdc /(1- αdc )
βdc(beta dc) is the base-to-collector current gain ,or the ratio of collector current to base
current(seen in figure .
βdc=IC/IB
Typically, βdc(beta dc) ranges from 25 to 300.

Fig. 5 Terminal Currents for a pnp BJT

Equations derived for pnp device is same for npn device. One difference in the case of an npn
transistor is that IB and IC are assumed to flow into the device(conventional current direction),
and IE is taken as flowing out(seen in figure 6) because electrons are the majority charge carriers
in an npn transistor ,and they move in a direction opposite to conventional current direction.

Fig.6 Terminal Currents for a npn BJT

Problem: Calculate IC and IE for a Transistor that has αdc=0.98 and IB=100 μA. Determine the
value of βdc for the transistor.
Problem: Calculate αdc and βdc for the transistor shown in figure if IC is measured as 1mA and
IB is 26 μA. Determine the new base current to give IC=5mA.
Problem: Determine αdc and IB for a transistor that has IC equal to 2.5 mA and IE equal to 2.55
mA. Calculate βdc for the transistor.
Problem: A transistor has measured currents of IC=3mA and IE=3.03 mA. Calculate the new
current levels when the transistor is replaced with a device that has βdc =75. Assume that IB
remains constant.

BJT Amplification
Current Amplification
Current Amplification or Current gain is given by the ratio of output current to the input current.
A small change in the base current (ΔIB) produces a large change in collector current (ΔIC) and a
large emitter current change (ΔIE) as seen in figure below

βac=ΔIC/ΔIB
The increasing and decreasing levels of input and output currents may be defined as alternating
quantities .AC quantities are represented by upper case letter with lower case subscript.
ΔIB=Ib=ac base current
ΔIC=Ic=ac collector current
Thus, βac is ac current gain from base to collector. Hence βac=Ic/Ib.
βac is alternatively represented by hfe in transistor data sheets
For a transistor, βac≈βdc

Voltage amplification
Figure 7 shows BJT voltage amplification circuit .Increasing and decreasing the input VB voltage
(±ΔVB) produces IB changes .This results in larger IC changes and output VC variations (±ΔVC)
that are larger than the input voltage changes.
 Fig.7
The circuit ac input is the base voltage change (ΔVB), and the ac output is the collector voltage
change (ΔVC).
 Because the output voltage is greater than the input, the circuit has a voltage gain: it is a
voltage amplifier.
 The voltage gain (Av) is the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage
Av= ΔVC/ ΔVB

 The increasing and decreasing levels of voltage can be referred to as ac quantities.

 The ac signal voltage (vi) produces the ac base current (Ib), and this generates the ac
collector current (Ic), which produces the ac voltage changes across R1.
The equation for ac voltage gain is
Av=Vo/Vi
Transistor characteristics of BJT
1. Input characteristics- plot of input current vs input voltage, keeping the output voltage
constant
2. Output characteristics- plot of output current vs output voltage, keeping the input current
constant
3. Current gain characteristics- plot of output current vs input current, keeping the output
voltage constant.
Let us study these characteristics for all the three configurations of BJT transistor

Common-Base characteristics
Figure 8 shows a pnp transistor with its base terminal common to both the input (emitter base)
terminals and the output (collector-base) terminals. The transistor is said to be connected
in common base configuration. R1 is used to control the emitter current at constant level.
Voltages and currents are measured using voltmeter and ammeter.

Figure 8
Input characteristics
The input characteristics of Common-Base configuration is obtained by plotting, the input
current, IE, as a function of input voltage ,VEB, keeping the output voltage ,VCB, constant. The
output voltage, VCB, is kept constant and the input voltage, VEB is set at several convenient
levels. At each level of VEB, the corresponding input current, IE, is recorded. When this
procedure is repeated for different VCB levels, a family of input characteristic curves are obtained
as shown in figure 9.
 Figure 9

Output characteristics
The output characteristics of Common-Base configuration is obtained as follows IE is held
constant and the output voltage VCB is adjusted in convenient steps ,and the corresponding values
of output current, IC are recorded. If the procedure is repeated for different I E settings, we get a
family of output characteristics as shown in figure 10.

Figure.10
The following regions of operation are indentified on the output characteristics
a) Saturation region-when is VCB is positive the collector current is reduced to zero.
Positive VCB for pnp transistor implies forward bias on collector-base junction and the
transistor is said to operate in saturation region. The region on the graph to the left of Ic
axis is called saturation region. In saturation region emitter-base junction and collector-
base junction are both forward biased.
b) Active region-The region which lies to the right of I C axis and above the characteristics
curve corresponding to IE=0 is called the active region. This is the normal operating
region for the transistor. In the active region emitter-base junction is forward biased and
collector-base junction is reversed biased.
c) Cut-off region-The region to the right of IC axis and below the characteristics curve
corresponding to IE=0 (very close to VCB axis) is called the cut-off saturation.

Note: if an excessive reverse-bias voltage, VCB is applied to the collector-base junction, the
device breakdown may occur. Breakdown can also result from the collector base depletion
region penetrating into the base (as the reverse bias is increased) until it makes contact with the
emitter-base depletion region (seen in figure 11). This condition is known as punch-through and
very large currents can flow when it occurs, possibly destroying the device.

Figure.11
Current Gain characteristics
The current gain characteristics for a BJT plot is output current (IC) versus input current (IE) with
the output voltage VCB held constant as shown in figure 12.

Figure. 12

Example: Obtain the current gain characteristics for VCB= -3V from the common base output
characteristics shown below
Common -Emitter (CE) Transistor Characteristics
Figure 13 shows a pnp transistor with its emitter terminal common to both the input (base
emitter) terminals and the output (collector-emitter) terminals. The transistor is said to be
connected in common emitter configuration. R1 is used to control the base current at constant
level. Voltages and currents are measured using voltmeter and ammeter.

Figure 13

Input characteristics
The common-emitter input characteristic shows the variation of IB as a function of VBE at
constant VCE. VCE is set a convenient value .VBE is varied in suitable steps and at each step IB
value is recorded .The same procedure is repeated for different settings of V CE.when these results
are plotted, a family of input characteristics is obtained as shown in 14.

Figure 14
Output characteristics
The common-emitter output characteristics shows the variation of IC as a function of VCE at a
constant IB.IB is set to a convenient value, VCE is varied in suitable steps and at each step IC value
is recorded. The same procedure is repeated for different setting of I B.when these results are
plotted a family of output characteristics is obtained as shown in figure 15.

Figure 15
Current Gain characteristics

The current gain characteristics for a BJT plot is output current (I C) versus input current (IB) with
the output voltage VCE held constant as shown in figure 16.

Figure 16
Common-collector characteristics
Figure 17 shows a pnp transistor with its collector terminal common to both the input (base
collector) terminals and the output (emitter-collector) terminals. The transistor is said to be
connected in common emitter configuration. R1 is used to control the base current at constant
level. Voltages and currents are measured using voltmeter and ammeter.

Figure: 17
Input characteristics
The common-collector input characteristic shows the variation of I B as a function of VBC at
constant VEC. VEC is set a convenient value .VBC is varied in suitable steps and at each step IB
value is recorded .The same procedure is repeated for different settings of V EC. When these
results are plotted, a family of input characteristics is obtained as shown in 18.

Figure: 18
Output characteristics
The common-collector output characteristics shows the variation of I E as a function of VEC at a
constant IB.IB is set to a convenient value, VEC is varied in suitable steps and at each step IE value
is recorded. The same procedure is repeated for different setting of IB.when these results are
plotted a family of output characteristics is obtained as shown in figure 19.

Figure: 19

Current Gain characteristics

The current gain characteristics for a BJT plot is output current (I E) versus input current (IB) with
the output voltage VEC held constant as shown in figure 20.

Figure: 20