Prahaar (Mains Wallah) - Modern India - English

PRAHAAR
MAINS WALLAH (STATIC + CURRENT)
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MODERN INDIA
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PRAHAAR 2024: Modern India
Table of Contents
Syllabus: Modern Indian history from about the middle of the eighteenth century until the present- significant events,
personalities, issues; The Freedom Struggle — its various stages and important contributors/contributions from
different parts of the country.
1. TRANSITION TO THE 18TH CENTURY ..... 1 Development Of Press…………………………………41

Advent Of Europeans ...........................................1 Role Of The Press In The Indian National Movement
......................................................................... 39
Why Britain Became The Dominant European
Evolution Of Civil Services In India………………..42
Power In India…………………………………………….5
Development Of Local Bodies Under British Rule
Socio- Economic And Political Condition Of India In
......................................................................... 42
18th Century……………………………………………..4
British Policy Towards Indian States ................. 42
Fragmented Polity In The 18th Century……………8
Economic Policies Of The British ....................... 43
Expansion And Consolidation Of British Power In Revenue Policies, Indian Agriculture And British
India………………………………………………………11 Rule……………………………………………………….46
Administration Before 1857…………………………13 The Decline Of Traditional Artisanal Industry And
2. PEASANT, TRIBAL AND OTHER MOVEMENTS The Crippling Of The Rural Economy ................ 47
............................................................. 12 Deindustrialisation And Ruralisation Of The Indian
Economy........................................................... 47
Introduction ...................................................... 12
Sudden Spurt In Famines In Colonial India Since
Civil Uprisings ................................................... 12
The Mid-Eighteenth Century ............................. 48
Peasants Revolt ................................................. 13 Development Of Modern Means Of Communication
Tribal Revolt…………………………………………….17 And Technology………………………………………...51
Military Uprisings in India……………………….….20 Social Policies……………………………………….….51
3. THE REVOLT OF 1857........................... 19 Comparison Between Mahatma Gandhi And
Causes Behind 1857 Revolt………………………….21 Rabindra Nath Tagor………………………………….55
Beginning And Spread Of The Revolt………………23 Social Reforms Initiated By Various Governors And
Viceroys……………………………………………….…55
Aftermaths Of The Rebellion .............................. 23
Nature Of The Revolt…………………………………..26
6. EMERGENCE OF INDIAN NATIONALISM
………………………………………………………55
4. SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS
Rise Of Indian Nationalism And Factors
............................................................. 27
Responsible ...................................................... 55
Introduction ...................................................... 27 Early Political Organisations In India And Their
Nature Of Socio-Religious Movements………….…29 Achievements…………………………………..………58
Hindu Reform Movements………………………..….31 Foundation Of Indian National Congress…………60
Muslim Reform Movements………………………….33 Approaches And Limitations Of Moderate Phase
Parsi Reform Movements……………………………..34 (1885 -1905)………………………………….………...61
Fight Against Caste Based Exploitation …………34 7. INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT – PHASE I
Issues Of Women In Socio-Religious (1905-1917) .......................................... 62
Movements……………………………………..……….35 Partition Of Bengal (1905) And Reactionary Policies
Role Played By Women……………………………….35 Of Curzon (1899 – 1905) ................................... 62
Common Features Of Socio-Religious Reform Swadeshi Movement (1905) ............................... 63
Movements……………………………......................36 Background And Actions Carried Out Throughout
Impact Of Socio-Religious Movements In Indian The Movement .................................................. 63
Freedom Struggle…………………………………..….36 Muslim League (1906)………………………………..67
Limitation Of Socio- Religious Movements……….36 Surat Split (1907) And Its Impact………………….68
5. ANALYSIS OF BRITISH POLICIES IN INDIA Rise Of Militant And Revolutionary Nationalism
……………………………………………………….…….69
(FROM 1757 -1947) ............................... 36
Comparison Between Revolutionary And Extremist
Administrative Policies ....................................... 36
......................................................................... 68
British Foreign Policy In India ............................ 38
Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) And Responses…..71
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First World War (1914 -1919), Its Impact And RIN Rating Mutiny (1946)................................ 100
Responses……………………………………….………71 Second World War And Aftermath ................... 101
Home Rule Movement…………………………………73 Election Of 1945 ............................................. 102
Lucknow Pact (December 1916), Its Significance Cabinet Mission (1946): Significance And
And Impacts…………………………………………….74 Consequences ................................................. 102
Montagu Chelmsford Reforms (1919)……………..75 Mountbatten Plan (1947) Or 3rd June Plan And
Contribution Of Chandrasekhar Azad…………….76 Responses To It By Various Stakeholders ........ 104
8. INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT – PHASE II The Role Of British Imperial Power In Complicating
(1918-1939)........................................... 76 The Process Of Transfer Of Power During The 1940s
Dawn Of Gandhian Era………………………………78 ....................................................................... 104
Gandhiji's Early Career And Truth Experiments In 10. ROLE OF DIFFERENT STAKEHOLDERS IN
South Africa……………………………………………..78 INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT ........... 106
Gandhi's Initial Satyagraha After Arriving In India Role Played By Women In The National Movement
……………………………………………………………..79 ....................................................................... 106
Gandhi's Major Ideologies…………………………...80 Limitations Of Women's Role In National Movement
Relevance Of Gandhian Thoughts In Present ....................................................................... 107
Context…………………………………………………..80 Role Of Gandhiji In Women’s Contribution For
Impact On Freedom Struggle After Gandhi’s Arrival National Movement ......................................... 107
……………………………………………………………..81 Role Of Capitalist Class In Freedom Struggle .. 108
The Khilafat And Non-Cooperation Movement (1919 Contribution Of Industrialists During National
To 1922)………………………………………………….82 Movement ....................................................... 111
Swaraj Party (1923)……………………………………84 Role Of Labour And Communist Class In Freedom
Struggle .......................................................... 111
The Simon Commission (1928)……………………..85
Role Of Labour And Communist Class ............ 111
The Nehru Report (1928)……………………………..86
Conspiracy Case Associated With Communist
Demand Of Purna Swaraj (1929)…………………..87 Class .............................................................. 112
Civil Disobedience Movement Of 1930…………….87 Role Of Princely States In Freedom Struggle .... 112
Gandhi – Irwin Pact Or Delhi Pact (March 1931) National Movement With Various Ideological
And Its Significance……………………………………89 Strands And Expanded Its Social Base ............ 112
Karachi Session (March 1931)………………………90 Foreign Participation In Freedom Movement .... 113
Second Round Table Conference, Its Significances 11. SIGNIFICANT PERSONALITIES AND THEIR
And Impacts…………………………………………….91 CONTRIBUTION IN INDIAN NATIONAL
Communal Award (1932) And Poona Pact (1933): MOVEMENT ........................................ 115
…………………………………………………….……….92 Bal Gangadhar Tilak - The Lion Of Maharashtra
Gandhi’s Harijan Campaign And Thoughts On ....................................................................... 115
Caste……………………………………………………..93 The Ideology Of Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel - The
Ideological Differences And Similarities Between Iron Man Of India ........................................... 116
Gandhi And Ambedkar……………………………….94 Contribution Of Jawaharlal Nehru - The Architect
The Government Of India Act Of 1935……………94 Of Modern India .............................................. 117
Elections Of 1937……………………………………..95 Contribution Of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose 117
9. INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT – PHASE III Comparison Of Ideologies: Jawaharlal Nehru And
Subhash Chandra Bose .................................. 118
(1939-1947)........................................... 95
Comparison Of Ideologies: Jawaharlal Nehru And
Second World War And India: Impacts ............... 95 Mahatma Gandhi ............................................ 118
August Offer (1940) ........................................... 95 Comparison Of Ideologies: Subhash Chandra Bose
Individual Satyagraha (1940) And Its Significance And Mahatma Gandhi ..................................... 119
......................................................................... 96 Dr B.R. Ambedkar's Contribution To The Indian
Cripps Mission (1942): Significance And Freedom Struggle ............................................ 120
Consequences ................................................... 96 Vinayak Damodar Savarkar ............................ 120
Quit India (1942) Or August Kranti .................... 97 Gopal Krishna Gokhale And His Contributions To
C R Formula Or Rajaji Formula And Gandhi - The Indian Freedom Struggle .......................... 121
Jinnah Talks (1944): .......................................... 98 Sarojini Naidu And Her Contributions To The
Shimla Conference And Wavell Plan (1945) ........ 99 Indian Freedom Struggle ................................. 122
India National Army (INA) Or Azad Hind Fauj And Brief Detail About Other Personalities ............. 122
INA Trials: Significance ...................................... 99
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IN
1 TRANSITION TO THE 18TH CENTURY
ADVENT OF EUROPEANS
Even before the British established formal dominion in India, trade between India and European countries was
common. India and Europe had economic links through Syria, Egypt, and the Oxus valley. In Europe, the 15th century
was a time of geographical discoveries of land and sea routes. Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer, found America
in 1492, while Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer, discovered a new maritime passage from Europe to India in
1498. He arrived in Calicut on the Malabar coast. This period, often called the Age of Exploration, began in the late
15th century and extended into the 19th century. It was characterised by European powers, primarily Portuguese,
Dutch, English, and French, seeking to establish trade routes and dominance in various parts of Asia, including India.
This set the stage for significant cultural, economic, and political transformations on the Indian subcontinent.
WHY EUROPEANS CAME TO INDIA: A CATALYST FOR EXPLORATION
The arrival of Europeans in India wasn't a random event. Several key factors ignited the Age of Exploration:
• Blocked Trade Routes: Ottomans controlling land routes to Asia forced Europeans to find a sea route for cheaper
goods and access to lucrative markets, including those in India.
• The Sea Route Opens: Explorers like Diaz and da Gama found the sea route to India, bypassing Arab dominance.
• Royal Backing: Strong monarchs saw exploration as a path to wealth and glory, sponsoring expeditions.
• Tech Boosts Exploration: Advancements in navigation tools like the compass and astrolabe made long voyages
possible.
• Profit & Religion: Dreams of Asian riches and spreading Christianity motivated explorers and investors.
• Joint Stock Companies Emerge: This new business model shared risk and funded large-scale trade ventures.
These factors launched Europe's Age of Exploration, culminating in their arrival in India and a forever changed world
of trade.
PORTUGUESE RULE IN INDIA
Pioneering Arrivals (1498-1509):
• Vasco da Gama (1498): First Footsteps, Trade Domination - Established trading posts, aimed for monopoly
control.
• Francisco De Almeida (1505-1509): First Viceroy of Portuguese India - Implemented the Blue Water Policy to
ensure naval dominance.
Afonso de Albuquerque (1509-1515):
• Architect of Portuguese Supremacy: Strategic Control, Key Territories & Local Integration - Gained strategic
control of the Indian Ocean, seized Goa and Bhatkal, implemented policies like residing and marrying locally.
• "Policy of Imperialism": Trade Routes & Spices - Focused on controlling trade routes and securing spice sources.
• Expansion Across India: Established Portuguese settlements in various locations.
Consolidation Under Nino de Cunha (1529-1538):
• Nino de Cunha (1529-1538): Shifting Capital & Eastward Expansion - Moved the capital to Goa, expanded
Portuguese territory beyond the western coast, extended authority to the eastern shores.
CONTRIBUTION OF THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA:
• Medicine: Portuguese scholars, such as Garcia da Orta, enriched India's medical knowledge with the first treatise
on medicinal herbs in 1563.
• Tobacco Cultivation: Introduced tobacco cultivation to India, diversifying agricultural practices.
• Printing Press: Established the first printing press in Goa in 1556, advancing literacy and communication.
• Architecture: Influenced ecclesiastical architecture in the Deccan region, exemplified by elaborate Manuelesque
buildings along the western coast.
DUTCH RULE IN INDIA
• Beginning: Driven by commercial interests, the Dutch ventured eastward, with Cornelis de Houtman's visit to
Sumatra and Bantam marking their initial foray in 1596.
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• Charter of Dutch Parliament (1602): The Dutch Parliament's Charter in March 1602 formalized the
establishment of the United East India Company of the Netherlands, granting it extensive powers including the
authority to declare war, sign treaties, and establish forts.
• Dutch Factories in India: From Masulipatnam (1605) to Cochin (1663), the Dutch established numerous
factories across both the eastern and western coasts of India, including Pulicat, Surat, and Nagapatnam.
• Decline:
o Focus on Indonesia: With their primary commercial interests centered in the Spice Islands of Indonesia, the
Dutch prioritized trade over imperial expansion in India.
o Anglo-Dutch War: Following their defeat in the Anglo-Dutch conflicts, the Dutch redirected their attention
towards the Malay Archipelago, shifting away from their presence in India.
o Bedara Battle (1759): After a prolonged conflict, the Dutch suffered defeat at the hands of the English in the
Bedara Battle, further contributing to their decline in India.
BRITISH RULE IN INDIA
The Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies was the name of the Joint-Stock Company that later
became the British East India Company. It was founded in 1600. In 1612, the Mughal emperor Jahangir gave Sir Thomas
Roe, a representative diplomat of Queen Elizabeth I of England, permission to open a factory (a trade station) in Surat,
giving the British Company its first foothold in India.
Formative Years of the East India Company

1600 The East India Company was established.
1609 William Hawkins arrived at Jahangir's court.
1611 Captain Middleton obtained the permission of the Mughal governor of Surat to trade there.
1613 A permanent factory of East India Company was established at Surat.
Sir Thomas Roe, the ambassador of King James I, arrived at Jahangir's court. By 1618, the ambassador
1615 succeeded in obtaining two farmans (one each from the emperor and Prince Khurram) confirming free
trade with exemption from inland tolls.
1616 The Company established its first factory in the south in Masulipatnam.
The Company got the golden farman from the Sultan of Golconda which ensured safety and prosperity
1632
of their trade.
1633 The Company established its first factory in east India in Hariharpur, Balasore (Odisha).
1639 The Company got the lease of Madras from a local king.
1651 The Company was given permission to trade at Hooghly (Bengal).
The British King, Charles II, was given Bombay as dowry for marrying a Portuguese princess (Catherine
1662
of Braganza).
1667 Aurangzeb gave the English a farman for trade in Bengal.
The Company got the imperial order to continue their trade
1691
in Bengal in lieu of payment of Rs 3,000 a year.
The Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar issued a farman, called Magna Carta of the Company, giving the
1717
Company a large number of trade concessions.
FRENCH
French East India Company was founded in 1664 by Louis XIV's Minister Colbert, who also gave it a 50-year monopoly
on French trade in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
SETTLEMENTS IN INDIA
1667: Francois Caron established Surat.
1669: Mercara, Masulipatnam permission from the Sultan of Golconda.
1673: Chandernagore, near Calcutta permission from Shaista Khan, the Mughal Subhadra of Bengal.
THE DANES
The Danish East India Company, formed in 1616, established a factory at Tranquebar in 1620 and a main settlement
at Serampore. Their Indian ventures were not significant, and in 1845, their factories were sold to the British. The
Danes are more renowned for their missionary work than for commerce in India.
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COMPARISON OF RULE UNDER VARIOUS IMPERIALISTS
Portuguese
Aspect British Rule in India French Rule in India Dutch Rule in India
Rule in India
Time Period 1498-1961 1600-1947 1664-1954 1605-1824
Geographical Mainly Widespread across Presence in various Presence in Coromandel
Scope concentrated in Indian subcontinent regions, including Coast, Malabar Coast,
Goa Pondicherry and and Bengal
Chandernagore
Focus of Rule Trade, Economic Economic exploitation, Economic exploitation,
missionary exploitation, administrative reforms trade dominance,
activities, administrative establishment of trading
military control reforms, plantation posts
economies
Cultural Imposed Introduced English Introduced French Introduced Dutch
Influence Portuguese language, legal language, legal systems, language, legal systems,
language, systems, education education education
culture, and
religion
Resistance Limited Significant Movements for Resistance from local
Movements resistance due to movements for independence and rulers and European
authoritarian independence and resistance competitors
governance resistance
End of Rule Ended in 1961 Ended with Indian Ended On November 1, Diminished due to
with Indian independence in 1947 1954 British dominance,
military action formally ended in 1825
Legacy Legacy of Legacy of English Legacy of French Legacy of Dutch
Portuguese language, legal language, architecture, architecture, place
language, system, and and culture names, and influence on
architecture, and institutions local customs
Christianity
Religious Inspired by Rule influenced by Rule influenced by Inspired by
Inspiration Catholicism and Protestantism Catholicism and secular Protestantism and
orthodox Enlightenment ideals commercial interests
Christianity
Maritime vs. Concentrated Focused on colonising Coastal presence with Coastal presence with
Mainland around coastal mainland India based focus on trading posts emphasis on trade
areas due to on diplomatic and dominance
maritime military successes
strength
WHY BRITAIN BECAME THE DOMINANT EUROPEAN POWER IN INDIA
I. Advantages of the British East India Company:
• Structure and Leadership: Unlike state-controlled companies of other European powers, the English East India
Company had a more dynamic structure. Elected directors influenced by shareholders ensured better decision-
making and focus on profitability.
• Naval Power: Britain's Royal Navy, the largest and most advanced of its time, gave them a significant advantage in
trade routes and military conflicts with other European powers in India.
II. Broader Societal and Technological Factors:
• Industrial Revolution: Britain's industrial revolution led to advancements in textile production, metallurgy, and
steam power. This economic and technological edge allowed them to outpace other European nations.
• Military Strength: Well-trained and disciplined British soldiers, coupled with technological advancements, made
their military a formidable force.
• Stable Government: Compared to the political instability faced by other European powers like France during the
revolution and Napoleonic Wars, Britain enjoyed a period of relative stability, allowing for better strategic planning.
3
• Financial Strength: Britain's innovative use of debt markets through the Bank of England allowed them to outspend
competitors on military campaigns.
III. Exploiting the Situation in India:
• Power Vacuum: The decline of the Mughal Empire and conflicts among regional rulers created an opportunity for
the British to establish themselves in India.
• Leadership: Robert Clive, Warren Hastings, Elphinstone, Munro, and others demonstrated excellent leadership
abilities. The British also benefited from second-line leaders like Sir Eyre Coote, Lord Lake, Arthur Wellesley, and
others
• Financial Resources: Strong financial backing from the company and increased trade wealth allowed the British to
sustain their military campaigns in India.
IV. Weaknesses of Indian Rulers:
• Internal Divisions: The British skillfully exploited the lack of national unity among Indian rulers, often inciting
internal conflicts.
• Military Inferiority: Despite employing European weapons and personnel, Indian rulers lacked effective military
strategies compared to the British.
• Diplomacy: The British cleverly used diplomatic tactics like the Doctrine of Lapse and Subsidiary Alliance to expand
their control over Indian territories.
V. Cultural and Psychological Warfare:
• Promotion of Western Education and Enlightenment Ideals: The British promoted Western education and
Enlightenment ideals, which gradually shifted the intellectual and cultural milieu of India. This was part of a broader
strategy to establish cultural dominance and create a class of people who were "Indian in blood and color, but English
in tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellect," which facilitated easier governance and administration.
• Use of Propaganda: British propaganda depicted them as bearers of civilization and modernity, which helped
legitimize their rule in the eyes of both Indians and Europeans, reducing the resistance to their expansion.
VI. Legal and Administrative Reforms:
• Introduction of British Laws: Introduction of British legal practices and administrative reforms such as the
Permanent Settlement, which restructured land revenue systems to favour British economic interests, often at the
expense of the local agrarian community.
• Civil Service: Establishment of a civil service that was loyal to the British Crown, which helped in the efficient and
effective administration of a vast and diverse country like India.
In conclusion, a combination of factors – the efficient structure of the East India Company, advancements during the
Industrial Revolution, a strong and stable government, and the ability to exploit internal divisions within India – allowed
Britain to emerge as the dominant European power in India.
SOCIO- ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL CONDITION OF INDIA IN 18TH CENTURY
SOCIAL CONDITIONS
• Land of Contrast: Extreme riches and magnificence coexisted with extreme poverty. The affluent and powerful
nobility who lived in luxury and comfort on the one hand, and the backward, downtrodden, and impoverished
peasants on the other,
• Caste System: Hindus were split up into a number of castes (Jatis) in addition to the four varnas based on where
they lived. Castes were strictly established, and each person's social standing was set for life.
• Position of Women: Women lacked individuality at the time. However, exceptions like Ahilya Bai successfully
administered Indore from 1766 to 1796, and many other Hindu and Muslim women played important roles in 18th-
century politics.
• Education:
o Higher education institutions: They could be found all over the nation and were frequently supported by
affluent zamindars, nawabs, and rajas.
o Elementary education: It was widespread. Maulvis taught it to Muslims in maktabs in mosques and to Hindus
in municipal and village schools.
o Literacy Level: Unexpectedly, the literacy rate was not lower than it would subsequently be under the British.
Despite being inadequate by today's standards, basic education was adequate for the time's specific needs.
4
SCHOLARS' PERSPECTIVE
Irfan Habib made the case that Delhi's high land income demands led to widespread rural exploitation, peasant
migration and rebellion, and an agricultural disaster.
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
• Background: The pre-colonial state's economic structure allowed it to be distinguished from the colonial state.
• Burton Stein put forth a number of possible causes for the 18th-century financial crises, including the
standardisation of means of exchange in terms of money and metal content in coinage.
• Increased Indebtedness: According to Ashin Das Gupta, the company's corporate mercantile institutionalisation
transcended political boundaries, and the abundance of credit caused the rate of debt to rise in both inland and
export trade.
• Dependence on Company: In his depiction of commercial dependence on the company in North India, BR Grover
claims that the vicissitudes led to a boom in foreign trade and the cotton industry.
• Wealth accumulation by Zamindars: The amassed wealth of the Zamindars and the high revenue settlements with
the peasantry might be considered as the cause of the economic prosperity in the Mughal Empire's periphery.
• Rise in demand for luxury goods: East India's rise to prominence. The establishment of the company was the result
of increased demand for upscale goods and labour coercion by local landlords and chieftains.
SCHOLARS' PERSPECTIVE
Satish Chandra believed that the fiscal crisis of the late seventeenth century was caused by structural problems in
the functioning of the Mughal institutions of Jagir and Mansab.
POLITICAL CONDITIONS
• Background:
o The Mughal Empire started to fall apart in the first decade of the seventeenth century.
o By the start of our study period in 1739, Delhi had already been devastated by Nadir Shah's invasion in 1739.
o In 1761, the Marathas, not the Mughals, engaged in battle with Abdali. The Mughal emperor was a British
pensioner by 1783.
• Constant Political Flux: After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the threatening British presence actually materialised.
The British could advance further into North India because of the fall of Shaja-ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Awadh.
• Assertion of Regional Identities: Consistent resistance to the Mughal Empire was shown through the expression
of regional identities, particularly in Deccan India. This resistance was bolstered by the assertion of the Sultanates
in the territories of Golconda and Bijapur.
• Rise of Northern Powers: Due to rival northern powers like the Afghans, Sikhs, and aspiring Marathas, the Mughals
lost their grasp on Delhi.
• Lack of Strong Monarch: According to William Irvine, this empire-centric strategy depended on a powerful
emperor, and when the monarch's power waned, the system as a whole weakened India's political map.
• Political Nexus with Merchants: When investigating Bengal and Gujarat, respectively, MN Pearson and Phillip
Calkins bring attention to the growing political importance of the business sector, specifically the Omichands and
Jagat Seths of Bengal.
• Jagirdari Crisis: The eventual collapse of the Mansabdari system, which was based on a person's loyalty, service,
and Jagirdari status (land revenue holding), with a surge in Jagirdars towards the end of Aurangzeb's reign.
18TH CENTURY: A DARK AGE
• Disorder and instability: The 18th century was once thought of as a Dark Age during which disorder and
instability reigned.
• Failure of Regional nations: They failed to create empires after the fall of the Mughal Empire, and stability was
only restored with the expansion of British control in the late 18th Century.
o The influence of the Mughal Empire was not as extensive or profound as often thought.
o Numerous social groups and substantial portions of India, particularly the North East and South, remained
outside of it.
o Therefore, the decline of the Mughals cannot be used as a sufficient theme to illustrate changes occurring
throughout India.
• Scholars' View: According to historian Jadunath Sarkar, India's Middle Ages came to an end on June 23, 1757,
and her Modern Age began. In the twenty years following Plassey Warren Hastings, everyone experienced the
energising influence of the Western impetus.
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FRAGMENTED POLITY IN THE 18TH CENTURY
The difficulties this time period faced added to the threat of a divided democracy, creating a complicated and unstable
political environment.
• The Fall of the Mughal Empire:
o In the middle of the eighteenth century, the once-dominant Mughal Empire began to gradually crumble.
o The empire was weakened by weak leaders, succession conflicts, and economic difficulties, which led to a loss of
centralised authority. The fall of the Mughal Empire left a power vacuum, which allowed for the ascension of
regional powers.
• Rise of Regional Powers:
o Several regional powers, like the Marathas, Sikhs, Rajputs, and various province kingdoms, formed during this
time.
o Conflicts and polity disintegration resulted from these regional rulers' attempts to solidify their control and
expand their spheres of influence.
o Each authority followed its own objectives, further resulting in a fractured political system.
• Resurgence of Local Economies and Crafts:
o Despite the overall economic difficulties caused by warfare and political instability, some regions experienced a
resurgence in local crafts and trades. For example, regions like Awadh and Bengal saw a revival in textile
production and trade, benefitting from decentralised control and local patronage, which allowed them to develop
economic networks relatively independent of the imperial center.
• European Colonial Influence:
o The fragmented polity was used by European colonial powers like the British, French, and Portuguese to increase
their dominance.
o They played off tensions amongst regional powers and used them to their advantage in order to gradually take
over different territories.
o By implementing the divide and conquer strategy, the colonial powers further splintered the political system.
In conclusion, it is clear that the eighteenth century was a remarkable historical era that historians approached from
two different angles. According to one school of historians, the tragic collapse of the Mughal Empire brought to "chaos
and anarchy." Another school of historians used a regionalist perspective, focusing on how the nearby communities
grew into vibrant centres of socioeconomic activity.
DECLINE OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE IN INDIA
After Aurangzeb's death (1707), who left them with
control of the largest empire, the later Mughals gradually
came to the end of their era, which lasted for roughly 50
years. The following are the main reasons behind the
Mughal Empire's decline.
• Weak Successors And Foreign Invasion:
Aurangzeb's successors were powerless to stop the
collapse of the empire. The later Mughals did not
adhere to any succession laws, and a new battle
started every time an emperor passed away.
• Financial Issues: At this point, there was not enough
money or jagirs to give to different authorities.
• Weak Military Administration: There were far too
many high-ranking officials. Additionally, the army's
effectiveness was not kept up.
• Economic Failure: Luxurious living was another
aspect of Mughal India, which consumed much of the income from the land and from trade leaving peasants and
artisans with a difficult life.
• Size of the Empire and Threat from Regional Powers: As the Mughal Empire grew, Delhi was no longer able to
serve as its capital.
• Neglect of North-West border: Later Mughal emperors neglected the northwestern boundary which made it
possible for Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah Abdali to repeatedly pillage Delhi.
• Lack of Innovation: No substantial innovation in science or technology made the issue worse.
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RISE OF REGIONAL STATES
The decline of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century created a power vacuum in India, leading to the rise of several
regional states. These states exhibited a range of characteristics that contributed to their emergence and shaped their
trajectories. Here's a critical assessment of some key features:
Military Strength:
• Adoption of Gunpowder Technology: Most states incorporated Mughal-style gunpowder weaponry and fortresses
into their military strategies.
• Emphasis on Cavalry: Most regional states relied heavily on cavalry, a legacy of the Mughals. However, some, like
the Marathas, with their guerilla tactics and adaptability, proved to be more successful against larger, less mobile
forces.
• Firearms and European Influence: The adoption of firearms from European powers like the Portuguese and
Ottomans played a significant role in warfare. States like the Sikhs and Mysore actively incorporated these
technologies.
Leadership and Administration:
• Charismatic Leaders: Several states rose to prominence under the guidance of charismatic leaders like Shivaji of
the Marathas, Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan of Mysore, and Raja Todar Mal of Mewar. These leaders' vision, military
prowess, and administrative acumen were crucial to state formation.
• Varied Administrative Systems: The structures differed. The Marathas had a relatively decentralized system with
semi-autonomous chiefs, while Mysore under Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan had a strong centralized administration.
The effectiveness of these systems depended on leadership and regional context.
Economic Policies:
• Focus on Revenue Generation: Most states focused on maximizing revenue collection through land taxes and
control of trade routes. Mysore, for instance, promoted commercial crop cultivation. The efficiency of revenue
collection varied depending on the state's administrative structure.
• Trade and Commerce: Some states, like the Marathas and Gujarat Sultanate, actively participated in regional and
international trade, leveraging their geographical location. This trade provided them with wealth and resources for
expansion.
Social and Religious Landscape:
• Religious Tolerance: While some states like Mysore
under Haider Ali were known for religious tolerance,
others like the Sikh kingdom under Ranjit Singh had a
more specific religious identity.
• Social Reforms: Some rulers, like Tipu Sultan of Mysore,
attempted social reforms to address issues like sati
(widow burning) and female infanticide. However, the
effectiveness and reach of such reforms varied.
• Religious Identity: In other cases, religion played a more
unifying role. The Sikh kingdom, For example, was
founded on a distinct religious identity that motivated its
people.
Political Systems:
• Monarchical Forms: Most states were monarchies, with
hereditary rule by kings or Nawabs. However, legitimacy
often relied on military strength and administrative
efficiency rather than solely on lineage.
• Decentralization: While some states like Mysore under
Haider Ali had strong central administration, others like
the Marathas exhibited a more decentralized structure
with semi-autonomous chiefs.
• Varying Degrees of Stability: The stability of these states
differed. Kingdoms like Travancore under the Dharma Raja administration enjoyed relative stability, while the
Maratha Confederacy faced internal conflicts between different factions.
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Limitations and Vulnerabilities:
• Limited Technological Advancement: While some states adopted firearms, they generally lagged behind European
powers in military technology and modernization. This technological gap proved critical in the later conflicts with
the British.
• Power Struggles and Fragmentation: The competition for dominance among these regional states often led to
ongoing conflicts, contributing to a fragmented political landscape in India.
• Laying the Groundwork for the Future: Despite the challenges, these regional states experimented with diverse
political and economic systems, paving the way for future developments in Indian governance.
• Resistance to Colonialism: Some states, like Mysore, actively resisted British East India Company expansion,
showcasing a spirit of anti-colonialism.
CONCLUSION
The emergence of regional states after the Mughals presented a complex and multifaceted picture of Indian politics.
While military strength, leadership, and economic policies were crucial for their emergence, internal rivalries and
limited technological advancements ultimately contributed to their vulnerability in the face of a rising British Empire.
Understanding these characteristics allows for a nuanced analysis of this dynamic period in Indian history.
RISE OF MARATHAS: FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE RISE OF MARATHAS
• Language and literature have an impact: Eknath encouraged pride in the Marathas' native tongue, which helped
foster a sense of community and belonging among the Marathas.
• The geographical circumstances: The Maratha Empire's rise to power was facilitated by Maharashtra's location
and other natural characteristics.
• Training in managing affairs: Long before Shivaji came to power, the Marathas had acquired knowledge and
training in managing affairs.
• The unstable political condition of the South: The Muslim kingdoms in the South were in danger of disintegrating
due to the unsteady political situation there. The political environment was favourable for the Marathas to seize
control.
• The charismatic nature of Shivaji: Prior to Shivaji Maharaj's ascendance, the Maratha race was dispersed over a
number of Deccan kingdoms like atoms.
• Guerrilla warfare: The Marathas were able to deploy guerilla warfare to a great extent because of the difficult
terrain.
SCHOLAR’S PERSPECTIVE
• Historian Grant Duff had the opinion that the Marathas came out of the Sahayadri mountains like wild fire.
• Grant Duff awarded Bajirao I the moniker "Napoleon of Maratha" in recognition of his extraordinary talent for
horseback riding, Sanskrit literature, many sports, and guerilla warfare.
WARS AND TREATIES
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FALL OF MARATHAS: WHY THE MARATHAS COULDN'T REPLACE THE MUGHALS
• War of Succession: After Shivaji's death, his sons- Shambaji and Rajaram engaged in a fight for succession.
• Political organisation (within): It had the characteristics of a confederacy where the heads or sardars (Bhonsle,
Holker, etc.) shared power.
• Weak tax administration: The Chauth and Sardeshmukhi collections, as well as their exploits in stealing and
looting, were crucial to the Marathas. They were unable to create a productive revenue administration system.
• Weak Diplomacy: The Marathas failed to forge alliances with forces around them because they did not take the time
to learn what was going elsewhere and what their rivals were doing.
• Subsidiary Alliance and the Anglo-Maratha Wars: By signing the Treaty of Bassein in 1802, Peshwa Baji Rao II
agreed to a subsidiary alliance. This marked the downfall of the Maratha empire.
The Maratha Empire, afterwards known as the Maratha Confederacy, ruled a sizable portion of early modern India in
the 18th century. The rise of the Marathas in the seventeenth century is a major and fascinating development in Indian
history. Shivaji and the conditions that shaped his and his allies' personalities are primarily to blame for this rise.
PANIPAT (HARYANA) AS FAVOURITE BATTLEFIELD

• Strategic Significance of Location:
o Its location along the Yamuna River's banks made it the perfect spot for the transportation of troops and
supplies.
o The Grand Trunk Road, which served as the primary commerce route between North India and Central Asia,
is also where it is situated.
o Served as a natural gateway for armies from the north and northwest, including the formidable Khyber Pass
route, aiming to capture the political hub of northern India, Delhi.
• Political Relevance:
o North India was split up into several minor kingdoms that were continually striving for dominance during the
mediaeval era.
o At the intersection of numerous significant kingdoms, including Delhi, Agra, and Jaipur, stood Panipat.
• Unbiased ground: Its remote location made it less susceptible to political pressure because it was removed from
the other kingdoms' political hotspots.
• Proximity to Delhi: Panipat's proximity to Delhi facilitated the swift deployment of troops, weaponry, and
supplies to the battleground while safeguarding the capital from immediate threats.
• Terrain Advantages: The flat terrain in the Panipat region was well-suited for mounted cavalry, which was the
predominant mode of warfare during those times.
• Climate Considerations: The region's relatively shorter monsoon season, compared to other areas, made it an
ideal setting for military confrontations.
• Local Craftsmanship and War Equipment Supply: Local craftsmen excelled in the production of war equipment,
ensuring a convenient supply of weaponry for both opposing armies. This factor played a crucial role in the battles
fought at Panipat.
Notable Battles at Panipat
• The First Battle of Panipat (1526): The first Battle of Panipat in 1526 was a pivotal clash between Babur and
Ibrahim Lodi. This battle laid the foundation for the Mughal Empire, bringing an end to the rule of the Delhi
Sultanate.
• The Second Battle of Panipat (1556): In 1556, the Second Battle of Panipat took place, with Akbar facing off
against Hemu. This battle decided in favor of the continuation of Mughal rule in India.
• The Third Battle of Panipat (1761): The Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 witnessed the Marathas pitted against
Ahmad Shah Abdali. This battle marked the termination of the Maratha's ambitions to rule over India.
The location of Delhi itself was ideal: Delhi was well situated between two affluent agricultural regions, namely
the plains of the Indus and the plains of the Ganges.
EXPANSION AND CONSOLIDATION OF BRITISH POWER IN INDIA
The British expanded and consolidated their power by annexing states right from the Battle of Plassey in 1757 to the
annexation of Punjab in 1849.
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ANNEXATION OF STATES WITH WARS
States Annexed Policy of Annexation

Bengal • Battle of Plassey, 1757: Robert Clive’s victory over Siraj-ud-daula laid the territorial
foundation of British rule in India
• Battle of Buxar, 1764: Clive’s victory over the combined armies of Nawab of Bengal,
Nawab of Awadh
• and the Mughal ruler laid the real foundation of the English power
• Treaty of Allahabad, 1765: Granted the Diwani Rights of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the
English
• Dual government from 1765 to 1772
Mysore • 1st Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69): Treaty of Madras
• 2nd Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84): Treaty of Mangalore
• 3rd Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92): Treaty of Seringapatam
• 4th Anglo-Mysore War (1799): Mysore conquered by the British forces
Maratha • 1st Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82): Treaty of Surat, Treaty of Purandhar, Treaty of Salbai
• 2nd Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05): Treaty of Bassein
• 3rd Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19): Complete annexation of the Maratha kingdom by the
British
Sindh • In 1843, under Governor-General Ellenborough, Sindh was merged into the British
empire by the efforts of Charles Napier
• Treaty of Amritsar
Punjab • 1st Anglo-Sikh war (1845-46)
• 2nd Anglo-Sikh war (1848-49)
ANNEXATION OF STATES WITHOUT WAR
Administrative Policy States Annexed
• Policy of Ring Fence (1765-1813): • Awadh was used as a buffer state post the Battle of
o To fortify the Company's frontiers by establishing Buxar
buffer zones.
o In general, it was a strategy of defending their
neighbours' borders to protect their territories.
• Subsidiary Alliance (1798 onwards) • Hyderabad
o The company's soldiers had to be installed under this • Mysore
method by the Indian kings. • Tanjore etc
o They also had to cover all the costs associated with
running the troops and the rulers must continue to
host British citizens in their courts.
o They were forbidden from negotiating with any
other Indian rulers without British consent.
o The alliance was a strategy to counter the Napoleon
menace, which posed a real danger to the company.
• Doctrine of Lapse (1848-1859) • Satara
o According to the doctrine, if a princely state subject • Jhansi
to the company's vassalage fails to produce an heir, • Nagpur
the land will be annexed by the British. • Udaipur etc
• Doctrine of Mis-governance (1848-1856) • Awadh
o Annexation of the Indian states based on
maladministration by the Indian ruler.
• Policy of Masterly Inactivity (1864) • Afghanistan
o The English shouldn't interfere in Afghanistan's
domestic affairs and there was no need to maintain
an English representative at its court.
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• Policy of Proud Reserve (1874) • Afghanistan

o Lytton started a new foreign policy of 'Proud
Reserve', which was aimed at having scientific
frontiers and safeguarding 'spheres of influence'.
o Relations with Afghanistan could no longer be kept
ambiguous.
CONTRADICTION: ARMIES OF THE BRITISH EAST INDIA COMPANY WITH INDIAN SOLDIERS WIN AGAINST
ARMIES OF THE INDIAN RULERS
The British East India Company, which relied heavily on Indian soldiers, was able to continually defeat the armies of
Indian rulers for a number of reasons:
1. Diplomatic Mastery and Strategic Alliances: The British East India Company adeptly exploited divisions among
Indian rulers through strategic alliances, fracturing opposition forces and consolidating their own power base.
2. Technological Supremacy: Armed with modern weaponry like muskets and cannons, the British enjoyed a
decisive technological advantage over indigenous forces, bolstering their battlefield prowess.
3. Organisational Efficiency: The British Army's superior organisation and training stood in stark contrast to the
often disorganised and untrained Indian forces, enhancing their combat effectiveness.
4. Financial Superiority: The substantial financial resources of the British East India Company facilitated the
recruitment and equipping of sizable armies, while also enabling the manipulation of local authorities through
bribery, further solidifying their dominance.
5. Naval Dominance and Logistical Edge: Control over the seas granted the British East India Company unparalleled
logistical flexibility, allowing for swift troop movements and supply lines, a capability beyond the reach of
indigenous rulers.
6. Unified Command Structure and Professionalism: Under a centralised and well-organised command structure,
the British forces exhibited greater coordination and efficiency in military operations compared to the
fragmented commands of their adversaries.
7. External Support and Exceptional Leadership: Backed by the crown, Parliament, and guided by exemplary
leadership, the British forces enjoyed crucial external support and leadership, which further fortified their
military endeavours and ensured sustained success on the battlefield.
Through a combination of diplomatic finesse, technological supremacy, organisational efficiency, financial leverage,
naval dominance, unified command, external support, and exceptional leadership, the British East India Company
established military hegemony over the Indian subcontinent, laying the foundation for enduring colonial rule.
ADMINISTRATION BEFORE 1857
Administration in India till 1858 was in the hands of the East India Company, a monopoly trading body. To regulate its
management of Indian affairs, the British Parliament passed two major Acts, the Regulating Act and Pitt's India Act.
Subsequently, Acts of 1793, 1813, 1833 and 1853 were passed by which the Company was steadily deprived of its
authority and power in India and its privileges curtailed.
FEATURES OF THE ADMINISTRATION OF EAST INDIA COMPANY:
• Commercial in Nature: Basically government by Council, which had executive and legislative powers with the
Governor or the Governor-General having the casting vote.
• A Government by Boards: viz, Board of Trade, Revenue Board, Military Board etc
• A Government by Record: When transactions were commercial, records were brief and manageable. But political
dealings made record-keeping cumbersome and voluminous.
• Mismanaged the administration of acquired territories: One example is Clive's Double or Dual Government of
Bengal, Bihar and Orissa which resulted in rampant corruption and bankruptcy.
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
1. Why did the armies of the British East India Company – mostly comprising of Indian soldiers – win 2022
consistently against the more numerous and better-equipped armies of the Indian rulers? Give
reasons
2. Clarify how mid-eighteenth-century India was beset with the spectre of a fragmented polity. 2017
3. The third battle of Panipat was fought in 1761. Why were so many empire-shaking battles fought 2014
at Panipat?
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2 PEASANT, TRIBAL AND OTHER MOVEMENTS
INTRODUCTION
The British acquisition of power in India unfolded gradually, marked by incremental conquests and subsequent efforts
to control the economy and society, sparking dissatisfaction and opposition. Indian resistance against British rule
encompassed diverse societal groups—peasants, artisans, tribals, ruling classes, military personnel, and religious
leaders—who joined forces to protect their interests. According to historian Bipan Chandra, resistance took three main
forms: civil rebellions, tribal uprisings, and peasant movements. Military revolts by Indians in the Company's forces
added depth to this historical period.
CIVIL UPRISINGS
The civil uprising included sections of society that were impacted by the British. Peasants, artisans, tribes, ruling classes,
militar personnel, religious leaders, etc. all engaged in conflict to protect their respective interests.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CIVIL UPRISINGS
• Traditional protest: The semi-feudal leaders of civil uprisings were backwards looking and traditional in outlook.
• Aim to establish traditional customs: Their basic objective was to restore earlier forms of rule and social relations.
For instance, Sanyasi Revolt
• Centred at the Local Level: These uprisings were the result of local causes and grievances and were also localised
in their consequences.
• Affected traditional sections of society: At a time when the newly created class of urban intelligentsia was reaping
the benefits of British rule, it was the traditional sections of society, whose lives had been almost completely changed
for the worse, who rebelled.
• Represented common conditions: Even though they occurred at different times and locations, these uprisings
typically mirrored widespread conditions.
THE MAJOR FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE PEOPLE’S RESENTMENT AND UPRISINGS AGAINST THE
COMPANY'S RULE
• Economic Exploitation:
o Loss to Peasants and Zamindars: British
land revenue systems and economic
changes hurt peasants and zamindars,
leading to suffering and discontent.
o Eviction and Exploitation: Peasants faced
eviction and exploitation by revenue
collectors, tenants, and moneylenders,
fueling resentment.
o Destruction of Handicraft Industry:
British promotion of manufactured goods
and heavy duties destroyed Indian industries, causing unemployment and poverty.
o Transition to Agriculture and Pressure on Land: Destruction of industries forced people into agriculture,
increasing pressure on land.
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Social and Cultural Discontent:
• Impact on Priestly Class: British policies disrupted the social order, impacting the priestly class who protested
against interference.
• Encroachment on Tribal Land: Expansion of revenue administration into tribal territories threatened their way of
life, leading to resistance.
• Personal Factors and Cultural Disdain: British arrogance and disregard for Indian culture alienated rulers and the
populace, fueling resentment.
PEASANTS REVOLT
• The peasant's movements created an atmosphere for post-independence agrarian reforms, for instance, the abolition
of Zamindari.
• They eroded the power of the landed class, thus adding to the transformation of the agrarian structure.
• The peasants suffered from high rents, illegal levies, arbitrary evictions and unpaid labour in Zamindari areas. In
Ryotwari areas, the Government itself levied heavy land revenue.
• The exploitation of natural and human resources by the British led to the rise of popular resistance movements,
mainly by Peasants, Tribals and Sainiks.
• The simmering discontent of the peasants and tribal people broke out into popular uprisings in different parts of
India at different points in time in the first hundred years of British rule.
PEASANT MOVEMENTS – CAUSES, SIGNIFICANCE AND LIMITATIONS
CAUSES:
• Burdensome Land Revenue System: The
British land revenue systems, including the
Rayatwari system, were oppressive and often
inflexible. Coupled with unpredictable
weather and low crop prices, these policies
severely impacted peasants' livelihoods.
(Example: Deccan Riots)
• Fluctuating Cash Crop Demands: The rise
and fall in demand for cash crops like cotton
(e.g., Indigo Revolt) created instability for peasants. While a surge in demand might bring temporary benefits, it
often led to exploitation by planters and traders.
• Predatory Moneylenders: Moneylenders collaborated with the British to exploit peasants through high-interest
loans, further deepening their economic hardship. (Example: Deccan Riots)
• Economic Focus: Peasant movements primarily addressed immediate economic concerns. They aimed to protect
themselves from exploitation by zamindars, moneylenders, and the colonial government through rent reductions,
fairer land revenue systems, and better working conditions. (Example: Pabna Rebellion)
• Limited Scope: These movements targeted specific grievances and local oppressors, including foreign planters,
zamindars, and moneylenders. They lacked a broader vision to dismantle the entire colonial system. (Examples:
Bardoli Satyagraha, Indigo Revolt)
• Redressal of Immediate Problems: Peasant movements sought immediate solutions to specific problems, like
unfair revenue assessments or exploitative labor practices. They focused on achieving short-term goals rather than
long-term systemic change. (Examples: Bardoli Satyagraha, Indigo Revolt)
• Limited Organization and Reach: These movements were often localized and lacked central organization. They
primarily focused on specific regions or communities, hindering their overall impact. This also meant there was less
continuity in their struggles.
SIGNIFICANCE
• Launching pad for future movements: Peasant causes served as catalysts for subsequent movements like the 1857
insurrection as soldiers were peasants in uniform.
• Legal Awareness: Peasant movements offered insights into rights and how to legally oppose oppressors. This
sparked widespread anti-colonial sentiment.
• Complement National Movement: Both the national and peasant revolutions thrived off of one another. The
peasants served as a large-scale support base for the freedom struggle, while nationalism and Gandhi's Satyagraha
philosophy spread to the villages, leading to more organised and peaceful peasant uprisings.
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• Transformed rural power structure: In rural areas, peasant movements changed the balance of power by
undermining the landed class's influence. For example, The Hyderabad feudal government was overthrown by the
Telangana movement, which was led by peasants.
• Post-Independence reforms: Even though peasant protests were not immediately fruitful, they influenced post-
independence changes that led to the abolition of zamindari and the guarantee of tenancy for tenants.
LIMITATIONS
• Lack of innovative approach: The 19th-century peasants did not possess a new ideology and a new social,
economic and political programme.
• Societal hurdle: These struggles, however militant, occurred within the framework of the old societal order lacking
a positive conception of an alternative society.
• Localized spread: Most of the 19th-century peasant movements were localised in specific regions. For instance,
The deccan revolt was in Maharashtra.
• Colonial understanding: There was a lack of an adequate understanding of colonialism. They did not target
colonialism but instead focused on grievances redressal.
CHANGED NATURE OF PEASANT MOVEMENTS POST 1857
• Main streaming of Peasants: Peasants emerged as the main force in agrarian movements, fighting directly for their
own demands.
• Objectives: The demands were centred almost wholly on economic issues.
• Against immediate enemies: The movements were directed against the immediate enemies of the peasant foreign
planters and indigenous zamindars and moneylenders.
• Not against colonialism and subordination: Colonialism was not the target of these movements. It was not the
objective of these movements to end the system of subordination or exploitation of the peasants.
• Limited Objectives: The struggles focused on specific, limited objectives and the redressal of particular grievances,
such as opposition to moneylenders.
• Limited territorial extent: Territorial reach was limited. There was no continuity of struggle or long-term
organization.
• Awareness of Legal Rights: The peasants developed a strong awareness of their legal rights and asserted them
outside the courts.
COMPARISON BETWEEN 19TH & 20TH CENTURY PEASANT MOVEMENTS
Features 19th Century Peasant Movements 20th Century Peasant Movements
Objective • The movement was almost entirely • The struggle against colonialism started with
focused on economic matters, instead of Champaran, Kheda, and later Bardoli
putting an end to • movements.
• the exploitation of the peasants.
Leadership • Leaders emerged from the peasants • The movements were led by the Congress
themselves. and the Communist Party. Ex, Kheda
• Satyagraha led by Sardar Vallabhai Patel
Spread of • Limited Territorial spread Ex. Pabna • All India Movements, Ex. All India Kisan
Movements Revolt in Bengal Sabha
Colonialism • Not target Colonialism grievances • Emergence of anti-colonialism
Issues redressal Instead focus on consciousness among peasants
Formal • There was as such no formal organisation • All India Kisan Sabha Sahjahanad Saraswati
Organisation at the national level established by
CONTRIBUTION OF SOCIAL REFORMERS TOWARDS THE PEASANT MOVEMENT
• Mahatma Jotirao Phule:
o He decided to create an awakening among the farmers and travelled on foot through many villages and went from
place to place.
o He went to the Junnar and actively participated.
o He wrote a book entitled ‘cultivators whipcord’ in which he narrated the sorrows of the cultivators.
o The weekly journal ‘Deenbandhu’ highlighted the problems of the peasants.
o He addressed the sorrows of the peasants to the Duke of Connaught when he visited Pune in 1888.
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• Vitthal Ramji Shinde and Peasants’ Problem:
o In 1928, Shinde stepped out to prevent the catastrophe of the Small Holding Bill.
o He emphasized that the corrupt officials, employees, and moneylenders had robbed the farmers of their land.
• Pandurang Sadashiv Sane:
o Sane Guruji, also known as Pandurang Sadashiv Sane, was a key figure in the peasant movement.
o He took a tour of the area and pressed for the land tax exemption.
o He also put a lot of effort into the Faizpur Congress session.
• Dr B. R. Ambedkar and Peasant Movement:
o His effective campaign against Mahar Vatan freed a sizable portion of the rural poor from a state of virtual
serfdom.
o He was successful in his fight against the prevalent Khoti system of land tenure, and he aimed to free the vast
majority of people.
o Furthermore, he spearheaded the Chirner Satyagraha of peasants.
o Dr Ambedkar founded the "Independent Labour Party" as a political organization to combat the problems
including farmers, migrant labour, and textile workers on August 15, 1936.
INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (INC) AND PEASANT MOVEMENTS
• Prioritise peasant issues from the beginning: It addressed the issue of Indian peasants from the beginning of the
moderate phase. Extremist leaders also brought up the concerns of the rural class.
• Faizpur session and Peasants:
o A significant number of resolutions for the benefit of the peasants were approved during the Faizpur session.
o The meeting urged that the recovery of agricultural loans be postponed.
o Additionally, it stipulated that landless labourers get an adequate minimum salary.
o Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the session's president, invited workers and peasants to take part in congress activities.
• Peasant movement as a pressure group: The growth of peasant movements exerted considerable pressure on the
Indian National Congress. Despite this, the Karachi Congress Charter did not even touch the fringe of the peasant
problem. However, the political pressure of the Kisan Sabha succeeded in the Faizpur Congress agrarian program.
TRIBAL REVOLT
Tribal uprisings in some parts of the Indian subcontinent dramatically increased in frequency and severity under British
control. The Kol rebellion, Santhal revolt, and Munda uprising occurred in the 19th century. With the development
of modern education, a surge of intellectual youth, and the establishment of the Indian National Congress, the national
movement also started to take shape in the second half of the 19th century.
SIGNIFICANCE
• Beginning of settled agriculture: With the influx of non-tribal people into the traditional lands of the tribes, settled
agriculture was created.
• Started working as labour: The British forced the tribal people to work as mineworkers and other menial labour
since they had destroyed their traditional economic framework.
• Importance to natural resources: Tribal didn't like how the British exploited the earth's resources for their own
material advancement.
VARIOUS ASPECTS OF TRIBAL UPRISINGS
• Categories of Uprisings:
o Mainland tribal revolts: These uprisings focused on issues within mainland India.
o Northeastern frontier tribal revolts: These uprisings occurred in the northeastern region and often aimed for
autonomy within India.Examples:The Santal Rebellion (1855) in Bengal and Bihar exemplifies a mainland
tribal revolt triggered by changes in land ownership customs.
• Mainland Tribal Revolts: Addressed issues of land ownership and exploitation by outsiders. Example: The
Santhal Rebellion was a response to British attempts to impose taxes and seize tribal lands.
• Northeastern Frontier Tribes:Sought independence or autonomy within the Indian Union, merging with the
national movement over time. Example: The Naga Rebellion sought independence for the Naga people in
northeastern India.
• Colonial Disruptions:Displacement and resentment due to British policies disrupted traditional tribal relationships
with forests.Example: The Munda Rebellion arose from displacement caused by British forest policies.
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• Oppression and Forced Labor: Militant movements arose in response to oppression and forced labor imposed
by the British. Example: The Khasi and Jaintia tribes revolted against British taxes and forced labor in coal mines.
• Tribal Identity and Resistance: Driven by a strong sense of ethnic identity and resistance to colonial
encroachment. Example:The Bhil Rebellion asserted Bhil autonomy against British land encroachments.
• Selective Violence:Revolts targeted colonial authorities and collaborators while sparing sympathetic locals.
Example: The Munda Rebellion selectively targeted British officials and settlers, sparing sympathetic villagers.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR TRIBAL MOVEMENTS
• Protest against the encroachment of the British: The tribes were not pleased with the British gaining power in
their own sphere of influence. They revolted and united against the government to protest the use of natural
resources.
• Biased act passed by the authority: The Indian Forest Act of 1878 and the Government Forest Act of 1865, granted
the government complete jurisdiction over all areas covered in trees.
• Missionaries' activities: The efforts of Christian missionaries, which the tribes detested, also caused social
upheaval.
• Oppressive approach of Moneylenders: Moneylenders took advantage of the disadvantaged and ignorant tribal
members. The British government provided security to the moneylenders.
• Lack of understanding of colonial power: Unlike Indian rulers, the British were unable to fully understand the
tribes' commitment to their original habitat.
LIMITATIONS OF TRIBAL REVOLT
The early tribal movements had several drawbacks, even if they helped to develop an atmosphere that encouraged the
voicing of local protest against authority. There were the following limitations of Tribal Revolt -
• Localised and Isolated Spread: They were localized and isolated events from a national standpoint that failed to
grab the popular imagination of the country as a whole. This reduced the potential impact of these revolutions.
• Sparked on local issues: Additionally, the majority of these revolutions were sparked by local problems, and the
rest of the country was unable to empathise with those who were protesting or connected with their plight.
• Lack of Ideology: The uprisings were merely outward demonstrations of protests over specific grievances; they did
not involve revolutionary ideas, thoughts, or ideology.
• Absence of Alternative approach: They did not provide the people with an alternative solution or inspire them to
take action. Most of these revolutions had semi-feudal leaders who, as a result, held traditional, conservative views.
• Lack of bargaining skill: So long as the British made even small concessions or acceded to their specific requests,
they might be easily satisfied.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRIBAL MOVEMENT AND MAINSTREAM LIBERATION MOVEMENT
The earliest phase of the tribal uprisings, however, was distinct from the mainstream liberation movement
in the following ways:
• Distinct Grievances: Unlike nationalists, tribal people sought to reclaim customary authority over their land
and traditions. They had no aspirations for the nation to become independent.
• Use of Violence: The tribes turned to the use of traditional weaponry and violence to further their goals, in
contrast to mainstream nationalist leaders who advocated peaceful criticism.
• Local organizational structures: In the early years, the tribes organized their own military, collected taxes, and
banded together based on kinship ties, and the educated middle class provided little support.
• Lack of intellectual support: The targets of tribal people were the local officials and moneylenders who had
driven them from their land, in contrast to the goals of the Nationalists.
The oppressive and cruel actions of the British administration and moneylenders were repelled with resolute resistance
by the tribes. Even though they were unable to end British rule, their actions encouraged their fellow citizens to stand
together and oppose British practices. The Ramoshi, Bhill, and Koli initiatives in the Indian freedom war were
instrumental in achieving independence in 1947.
TRIBAL MOVEMENTS: PERIOD, REGION, CAUSES AT A GLANCE
1. Pahariyas’ Rebellion by the martial Pahariyas (1778; Raj Mahal Hills); against the British expansion on their
lands.
2. Chuar Uprisings by the Chuar aboriginal tribesmen (1776); against rise in demands and economic privation by
the British.
3. Kol Uprisings by the Kols of Chottanagpur led by Buddho Bhagat (1831); against expansion of British rule on
their lands and transfer of their lands to outsiders; the revolt was suppressed.
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4. Ho and Munda Uprisings (a) by Ho tribals led by Raja Parahat (1827; Singhbhum and Chottanagpur); against
occupation of Singhbhum by British. (b) by Ho tribals and the Mundas (1831); against the newly introduced farming
revenue policy. (c) by the Mundas led by Birsa Munda (1899-1900; south of Ranchi); Birsa was captured and
imprisoned. (d) the Ulgulan uprising, supported by Birsa Munda (1860-1920); against introduction of feudal,
zamindari tenures and exploitation by moneylenders and forest contractors.
5. Santhal Rebellion by the Santhals led by Sido and Kanhu (1855- 56; Bihar); against the practices of zamindars
and moneylenders; the rebellion later turned anti-British and was suppressed.
6. Kondh uprisings led by Chakra Bisnoi (1837-56 and later in 1914; hilly region extending from Tamil Nadu to
Bengal; in Orissa in 1914); against interference in tribal customs and imposition of new taxes.
7. Naikada Movement (1860s; Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat); against British and caste Hindus.
8. Kharwar Rebellion by the Kharwars (1870s; Bihar); against revenue settlement activities.
9. Khonda Dora Campaign by Khonda Doras led by Korra Mallaya (1900; Dabur region in Visakhapatnam).
10. Bhil Revolts (1817-19 and 1913: region of Western Ghats); against Company Rule (in 1817-19) and to form Bhil
Raj.
11. Bhuyan and Juang Rebellions by the Bhuyans, Juangs and Kals; first uprising was led by Ratna Nayak; second
uprising was led by Dharni Dhar Nayak (1867-68; 1891-93; Kheonjhar, Orissa); against the installation of a British
protege on the throne after the death of their raja in 1867.
12. Koya Revolts by the Koyas and the Khonda Sara Chiefs – led by Tomma Sora in 1879-80 – led by Raja
Anantayyar in 1886 (eastern Godavari region Andhra Pradesh); against oppression by police, moneylenders; new
regulations and denial of their rights over forest areas.
13. Bastar Revolt (1910; Jagdalpur); against new feudal and forest levies.
14. Tana Bhagat Movements among the Mundas and Oraon tribes led by Jatra Bhagat, Balram Bhagat who preached
that God’s benevolent delegate would arrive to free the tribals (1914-1915; Chottanagpur); against interference of
outsiders; began as Sanskritisation movement.
15. Rampa Revolts led by Alluri Sitarama Raju of the Koyas (1916, 1922-1924; Rampa region in Andhra Pradesh);
against British interference; capture and execution of Raju in 1924.
16. Jharkhand Uprising by tribals of Chottanagpur region (1920 onwards; parts of Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal);
The Adivasi Mahasabha, a significant organisation for tribal rights and representation, was formed in 1938 and was
replaced by the Jharkhand Party in 1949.
17. Forest Satyagrahas (a) by Chenchu tribals (1920s; Guntur district in Andhra), (b) by Karwars of Palamau (1930s;
Bihar); against increasing British control over forests.
18. Gond Uprising (1940s) to bring together the believers of Gonddharma.
NORTH-EAST FRONTIER TRIBAL MOVEMENTS: YEAR, REGION, MAJOR CAUSES MOVEMENTS BEFORE 1857
1. Ahoms’ Revolt (1828-33; Assam); against the non-fulfilment of the pledges of the Company after the Burmese
War; the uprising was suppressed by the Company by dividing the kingdom.
2. Khasis’ Revolt (1830s; hilly region between Jaintia and Garo Hills); led by the Nunklow ruler, Tirath Singh; against
the occupation of the hilly region.
3. Singphos’ Rebellion (1830s; Assam); led to murder of British political agent of Assam by Singphos in 1839; was
ultimately suppressed.
MOVEMENTS AFTER 1857
1. Kukis’ Revolt (1917-19; Manipur) against British policies of recruiting labour during the first World War.
2. Revolts in Tripura against hike in house tax rates and against settlement of outsiders in the region (a) led by
Parikshit Jamatia (1863) (b) the Reangs’ revolt led by Ratnamani (1942-43) (c) led by Bharti Singh (1920s)
3. Zeliangrong Movement (1920s; Manipur) led by the Zemi, Liangmei and Rongmei tribes; against the failure of
the British to protect them during the Kuki violence in 1917-19.
4. Naga movement (1905-31; Manipur) led by Jadonang; against British rule and for setting up a Naga raj.
5. Heraka Cult (1930s; Manipur) led by Gaidinliu, the movement was suppressed but the Kabui Naga Association
was formed in 1946.
6. Other Smaller Movements were the revolt of the Syntengs of Jaintia Hills in 1860-62, the Phulaguri peasants’
rebellion in 1861, the revolt of the Saflas in 1872-73; the uprising of the Kacha Nagas of Cachhar in 1882; and a
women’s war in Manipur in 1904.
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MILITARY UPRISINGS IN INDIA
These uprisings, fueled by discontent among soldiers, political issues, and social factors, were crucial precursors to the
1857 Rebellion. They sowed the seeds for a wider revolt against British rule.
CAUSES
• Unequal Treatment: Sepoys faced lower pay and fewer promotions compared to British soldiers.
• Mistreatment: Sepoys endured harsh treatment from British officials.
• Foreign Service: The government denied extra pay for deployments outside India.
• Religious Concerns: The General Service Enlistment Act (1856) clashed with Hindu sepoys' beliefs.
• Shared Grievances: Sepoys sympathized with civilian struggles against British rule.
• Religious Conflicts: Service requirements, like replacing turbans with hats (Vellore Mutiny, 1806), clashed with
religious practices.
MAJOR SEPOY MUTINIES
Before the Indian Rebellion of 1857, several significant mutinies occurred:
• Bengal Sepoy Mutiny (1764): A mutiny among sepoys in Bengal, indicating early signs of discontent within the
ranks.
• Vellore Mutiny (1806): Sepoys in Vellore protested against interference in their social and religious practices,
raising the flag of the ruler of Mysore in revolt.
• Mutiny of the 47th Native Infantry (1824): A rebellion by sepoys of the 47th Native Infantry unit.
• Grenadier Company Revolt (1825) by the Grenadier Company in Assam.
• Sholapur Mutiny (1838) by an Indian regiment in Sholapur.
• Mutinies of the 34th N.I., 22nd N.I., 66th N.I., and 37th N.I.(Native Infantry) (1844, 1849, 1850, 1852
respectively) were the various mutinies in different native infantry units.
While these mutinies were significant, they were localised and were brutally suppressed by the British Indian
government. This involved violent measures, including executing leaders and disbanding the rebellious regiments.
Despite their limited scope, these mutinies played a crucial role in shaping the larger rebellion that would occur in 1857.
KEY WORDS: Economic Exploitation, Cultural Disdain, Handicraft Industry Decline, Land Revenue Systems, Sanyasi
Revolt, Deccan Riots, Indigo Revolt, Pabna Rebellion, Bardoli Satyagraha, Ryotwari System, Predatory Moneylending,
Zamindari Abolition, Social and Cultural Discontent, Impact on Tribal Lands, Nationalist Movements, Legal
Awareness in Peasants, Rural Power Structure.

1. How did the colonial rule affect the tribals in India and what was the tribal response to the colonial 2023
oppression?
2. The 1857 Uprising was the culmination of the recurrent big and small local rebellions that had 2019
occurred in the preceding hundred years of British rule. Elucidate.
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3 THE REVOLT OF 1857
There had always been opposition to the East India Company, across regions from various groups. The resistance put
forth by the tribals, peasants, and religious groups had remained localized and haphazardly organized. The Revolt of
1857 was a significant uprising against British rule in which disgruntled princes, disengaged soldiers, and disillusioned
individuals took part.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE BRITISH COLONISTS IN INDIA AND EARLIER INVADERS
• The establishment of the British Empire in India altered the country's economic, social, and political
landscape. Around 1608, British settlers arrived in India. The arrival of Europeans brought about several changes
in Indian society's socio-economic and political spheres.
• The major difference between the early Invaders and the British Empire was that none of the previous Invaders
brought structural changes in the Indian society, administration and economy.
CAUSES BEHIND 1857 REVOLT
• Political Causes:
o War and Conquests: The East India Company seeded dissatisfaction and disaffection among the dispossessed
ruling dynasties.
▪ For example, Lord Dalhousie humiliated the royal dynasty by annexing Punjab. Dalip Singh was deposed
and deported to England and assets of Lahore Darbar were put up for sale.
o Subsidiary alliance:
▪ This alliance prohibited the rulers of India from having separate armed forces.
▪ They had to pay for the "Subsidiary forces" that the company would use to defend them.
▪ Hyderabad (1798), Mysore (1799), Tanjore (1799), Awadh (1801), Peshwa (Marathas) (1802), and
Scindia (1803), entered into Subsidiary alliances.
▪ As a result, these Indian kings surrendered their foreign policy to the British, many soldiers lost their jobs.
▪ Thus, the East India Company's goal of "Effective control" and the gradual extinction of the Indian native
kingdoms took a definite shape.
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o Doctrine of Lapse: The principalities of Satara, Jaipur, Sambalpur, Bhagat, Udaipur, Jhansi, and Nagpur were
annexed by Dalhousie. The overthrow of Wajid Ali Shah (Oudh, 1856) caused rage and hatred to spread across
the nation.
o Disrespect for regional rulers: The Muslims and the Hindus both felt resentful at the humiliation of the nominal
Mughal emperors with the attitude of Dalhousie, Canning, and East India Company. As a result, they decided to
enter into an alliance with the rebels.
o Feeling of superiority: The British sought to perpetuate racial myths of white superiority through a deliberate
policy of discrimination and segregation. This caused great distress among Indians.
o Suspension of Pension: The annual stipend of Rani Jindan had been cut from 15,000 pounds to 1,200 pounds,
and Pensions of Lakshmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Nawab of Tanjore and Carnatic were abolished. This prompted them
to rebel against the British.
• Administrative Causes:
o New Administrative System: The British government officials were unapproachable as well as arrogant and
scornful towards the Indians. As a result, the Indians found it difficult to adapt to the new administrative
structure.
o Deprived of benefits and Privileges: The Indian aristocracy lost social and economic privileges, due to the
annexation program of East India.
▪ For instance, Indian kings donated rent-free estates to several religious and educational organizations. The
Company confiscated rent-free property by appointing the Inam Commission.
▪ For example, the Commission in Bombay alone seized over 20,000 properties.
o Exclusion of Indians from lucrative posts: Indians were not allowed to work at higher positions including those
in the military and civil sectors. Contempt for Indians and racial discrimination brought discontent and a sense
of humiliation.
o Prejudiced Rule of Law: The British legal system was complex, and delivering justice was costly and time-
consuming. The complicated administrative system further increased resentment toward the British and served
as another reason for the great Mutiny.
• Economic Causes:
o Ruin of the Mercantile Class:
▪ British imposed high tariffs on Indian goods, crippling Indian trade.
▪ By the mid-19th century, Indian exports of cotton and silk products nearly ceased.
o Land Revenue System:
▪ Indians had to provide letters of grant to prove property rights legitimacy.
▪ Inam Commission, established by Lord Dalhousie, investigated landlords' title documents.
▪ Failure to show documents resulted in loss of ownership claims.
o Destroyed indigenous industries:
▪ Handmade products couldn't compete with English goods.
▪ Indian manufacturing suffered from free trade and lack of protective duties on English machine-made goods.
o Exploitation through Plantation:
▪ Plantation industries like indigo, jute, tea, and coffee made life difficult for planters.
▪ Inhumane treatment and persecution of planters fueled resentment and contributed to the mutiny.
o Economic Drain:
▪ Criticism of economic exploitation fueled anti-British sentiment.
▪ Economic nationalism fostered skepticism of British intentions, paving the way for national movements.
• Socio-Religious Causes:
o Attitude of Social Exclusiveness: Indians were displeased with British social exclusivity policies and their
arrogant treatment. They could be insulted, attacked, and even killed by the British. For instance - Every native
was forced to salute all Englishmen in the streets.
o Missionary Activities: According to the charter act of 1813, missionaries were allowed to disseminate their
faith and Western education. Indians were suspicious of intervention in societal conventions and behaviours
through Christian missionaries.
o Social Legislations: The British made an effort to abolish social evils such as child marriage, infanticide, and
Sati etc. The orthodox were opposed to the legislation.
o Empowering Rights: Laws related to the Right of inheritance, Widow remarriage, and schools, and colleges for
Western education for women were not well received by Hindus.
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o Decrease in the influence of religious people: The British viewed religious people to be on par with ordinary
citizens without giving any special privileges. This caused them to become bitter enemies of the British Empire.
o Circulation of mysterious things: The unrest was indicated by the mysterious objects like chappatis, cakes,
and lotus flowers, which were circulated across villages around 1850.
o Superstitious Belief: The masses anticipated the end of British authority at the centennial of the Battle of Plassey
fell on June 23, 1857.
• Military Causes:
o Afghan War Debacle:
▪ British military discipline plummeted after the defeat in the first Afghan war (1838–42).
▪ Historians note that the British were forced to withdraw from Afghanistan, with only one soldier surviving.
o Erosion of Loyalty to the Army:
▪ Indian troops began recognizing their role in aiding English expansion and exploiting their own people.
▪ Fear for their future grew due to recruitment of Gurkhas, Sikhs, and irregular forces in Punjab and other
frontier areas.
o Legislation to Go Abroad: The General Service Enlistment Act (1856) mandated sepoys to accept duty to fight
overseas, leading to resentment toward the British.
o Disparity among Indian and British Soldiers:
▪ A significant gap existed between the British and Indian armies.
▪ Indian troops realized attacking British power in India could overwhelm it.
o Crimean War:
▪ Many Indian soldiers fought in the Crimean War, where British failures undermined morale in India.
o Lubricated Cartridges:
▪ Sepoys had to bite cartridges' tips, and rumors spread that they were lubricated with cow and pig fat.
▪ Sepoys were incensed by the perceived insult to their religious beliefs.
BEGINNING AND SPREAD OF THE REVOLT
• The 1857 uprising took place in Meerut, where 85 cavalry regiment sepoys were sentenced to 2-10 years in prison
for refusing to use greased cartridges. The following day, on May 10, 1857, three regiments went on the offensive.
They assassinated British officers and broke open the prison doors to free their comrades.
• Mangal Pandey was the first soldier to openly defy command. On March 29, 1857, he assassinated two English
officers in Barrackpore, near Calcutta. He was apprehended, tried, and killed. Barrackpore regiments were
disbanded.
CHOICE OF BAHADUR SHAH AS SYMBOLIC HEAD
• The Long reign of the Mughal dynasty had become a traditional symbol of India's political unity. As a result, Delhi
was soon to become a hotbed of rebellion, with Bahadur Shah as its symbol.
• Bahadur Shah Zafar, who was elderly and powerless, was crowned Emperor of India.
REGIONAL VARIATIONS IN THE REVOLT
• Even though the uprising was large and widespread, it was still mostly fragmented, unorganized, and localized.
• According to famous historian Dr R.C. Mazumdar, it had a localized, constrained, and poorly organized
character rather than an all-Indian one.
• Punjab, the United Provinces, Rohilkhand, Oudh, the territory between the Narmada and the Chambal, as well as
the western portions of Bengal and Bihar on the North-Eastern border, were the areas impacted.
• Afghanistan was cordial during Dost Mohammad's rule. Rajputana was dependable, while Sindh was quiet.
DELHI
• Delhi was captured by the sepoys on May 12, 1857. The political agent from England, Simon Fraser. Lt. Willoughby
attempted to fight back but was ultimately defeated; as a result, he set the Delhi ammunition dump on fire.
• Bahadur Shah II was declared the Emperor of Delhi. He was merely acting as the leader; Bakht Khan held the reins
of power. On September 20, 1857, the English took back control of Delhi.
• Delhi was liberated by Henry Bernard and BG Wilson.
• Bahadur Shah II, who sought refuge in the Humayun Tomb, was detained by Lt. Hudson and. He was deported to
Rangoon.
• John Nicholson scaled the Kashmir gate and took control of the city entrance, suffering serious injuries.
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BIHAR
• Kunwar Singh was a leader during the Indian Rebellion of 1857. He belonged to Jagdispur, Bhojpur district, Bihar.
• At the age of 80, he led a selected band of armed soldiers against the troops under the command of the British East
India Company. He was an expert in the art of guerilla warfare.
• He was assisted by Babu Amar Singh, and his commander-in-chief, Hare Krishna Singh.
OTHER STATES
Places Features of Revolts
Assam Diwan Manram Dutta fought against the British
Maharashtra Satara – Rangu Bapuji Gupte
Himachal Kullu– Rana Pratap Singh & Veer Singh
Pradesh
WEAKNESS OF THE 1857 REVOLT

• Localized Nature:
o Despite its intensity, the 1857 uprising was limited in scope and organization.
o Dr. R.C. Mazumdar described it as localized, constrained, and poorly organized rather than a nationwide
movement.
• Unequal Spreads:
o The uprising was predominantly concentrated in Northern and Central India, with Eastern, Southern, and
Western regions less affected.
o The armies in Madras and Bombay remained loyal to the British East India Company.
• Premature Start to the Revolt:
o Originally planned for May 31st, 1857, the uprising began earlier on May 10th in Meerut.
o Triggers included events like the hanging of Mangal Pandey and the disbandment of certain Indian regiments.
• Lack of Organizational Cohesion and Unity:
o Indian rebels lacked proper organization and faced weak central leadership.
o Despite individual bravery, they lacked experience in coordination and concerted action.
• Lack of Leadership:
o Few capable leaders like Babu Kunwar Singh, the Rani of Jhansi, Tatya Tope, and Nana Sahib emerged.
o However, overall leadership was fragmented.
• Individual Rivalries among the Mutineers:
o Leaders of the revolt were plagued by personal rivalries and jealousy, hindering unity.
o Continuous intrigue against one another weakened the movement.
• Weak Safeguard from Bahadur Shah Jafar:
o The last Mughal emperor lacked strength and leadership compared to the British.
o His inability to effectively lead and safeguard regions contributed to the failure of the revolt.
• No Unified Ideology:
o Lack of prominent leaders hindered the formation of a unified ideology.
o The revolt lacked a cohesive vision or direction.
• Poor Arms and Ammunition:
o Rebels had inferior weaponry compared to the British, who possessed modern rifles and arms.
o Indian rebels had outdated and limited cannons, swords, and firearms.
• Superiority of the British in War Technology:
o British naval power was unmatched during the period, giving them a significant advantage.
o The British army, with its superior technology and resources, overwhelmed the Indian rebels.
• Surveillance System Revealed Insurgent Intentions:
o British had access to detailed information about the insurgents' plans, giving them an advantage in countering
the uprising.
• Limitless resources of the British Imperial Empire: The British deployed large numbers of troops from various
parts of the world, overwhelming the Indian rebels with their sheer numerical superiority.
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AFTERMATHS OF THE REBELLION
POSITIVE IMPACTS
• Transfer of Power:
o The transfer of political and administrative power from the East India Company to the British crown was achieved
through the GoI Act 1858.
o Under this Act, governance was under the crown through a Secretary of State.
o He was made directly responsible to the British Parliament. India Council was created to assist and advise him
in transacting the affairs of this country.
• Queen Proclamation 1858 and onwards roadmap: She announced the acquisition of the Indian administration
and assured the people that they would be treated at par with the subjects of the British Crown. The Governor
General became the Viceroy.
• Reorganization of the Indian Army: Major changes such as realigning proportions between the English and Indian
Army, organization of the forces, etc. were brought.
• Increase in participation in governance:
o Under the GoI Act 1858, the power of the crown was to be exercised by the home government in England
consisting of the secretary of state for India.
o The legislation served as the cornerstone for a new British strategy in India for almost sixty years.
• Abolished Annexation policy: British government gave up annexation policies like the doctrine of lapse and
guaranteed the integrity of the Indian states.
• Right of adoption: The British authorities realized the importance of the Princely States and hence the right of
adoption by the native princes was duly acknowledged.
• Freedom of religion and equal treatment: As per the proclamation of the Queen, freedom of religion was granted
to all the people in India and the administration vowed never to hurt anyone's religious sentiments in any way.
• Occupancy rights: Following the Bengal Rent Act of 1859, farmers who had owned particular fields for more than
12 years were entitled to occupancy rights.
• Other reforms:
o Universities were established at Kolkata and Madras
o Introduction of Code of Criminal Procedure
o Enactment of Indian High Courts Act
o Indian Penal Code (1858)
o Passing of Indian Councils Act, 1861 introduced a portfolio system in India
NEGATIVE IMPACTS
• Increase in Racial Animosity: Indians were embarrassed and insulted because the British painted them as being
unreliable. Racial hostility grew between the English and the Indians as a result of this.
• Reversal of Social Reforms: The Revolt persuaded the British that interfering with India's established socio-
religious practices was counterproductive. The British were forced to take a backseat as a result of the vehement
resistance to the social regulations.
• Increased focus on administrative changes: After the Revolt of 1857, the British decided to focus on establishing
a stable and effective administration rather than bringing Western concepts and reforming an established Asian
society.
• Policy of Divide and Rule: Post-revolt, the British had applied the most unscrupulous policy to divide the Indians
into castes and classes. One community was used against another. Hindus were nraged among castes, and Muslims
were forced to fight with Hindus.
• Differences in opinion among Muslims and Hindus widen: The collapse of the Mutiny created a
misunderstanding between the Hindus and the Muslims. The Muslims had displayed keener and more pervasive
support for the rebels.
• Replacement of Territorial conquest with economic exploitation: With the failure of the Great Rebellion, the era
of British territorial conquest came to an end and the territorial conquests gave place to economic exploitation of
the Indians by the Britishers.
• Slowdown in Muslim Renaissance: Muslim Renaissance which had been growing in Delhi before the Mutiny got
an irreparable setback. According to C.F. Andrews, it's not difficult to trace the fatal havoc to the budding spiritual
life that mutiny wrought.
• Structural change in Army: It led to drastic reduction of Indians soldiers from 2.4 lakhs in 1857 to 1.4 lakh by
1863, on the other hand, European soldiers increased from 45,000 to 65,000.
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VIEWS AND PERSPECTIVES OF PROMINENT PERSONALITIES
Said by Statements/ Views
S. N. Sen The causes of the Revolt were inherent in the Constitution of British rule It was a war started
for the protection of religion but goes into a war of independence
Maulana Abul Indian National character had sunk very low Held British responsible for the revolt and
Kalam Azad accepted general discontent among people
Pt. Jawahar Lal Not only sepoy mutiny, formed the shape of civil rebellion. The real form was feudalism
Nehru though some nationalist elements were also present.
Stanley Wolpert It was far more than a mutiny, …yet much less than a first war of Independence
V.D.Savarkar First war of Indian war of Independence
Dr. Tarachand The Revolt was specifically middle in character & represents the powerless class to get back
their lost power
NATURE OF THE REVOLT
• Historians' perspectives on the Nature of the Uprising:
o The British labeled it as a "Military Revolt," lacking popular support or prominent leadership.
o Indian patriots, however, hailed it as the "National War of Independence."
• The Nature and Character of the Revolt of 1857 A.D. included:
o Military Revolt
o Attempt to restore Mughal Power
o Aristocrat Reaction
o Peasant Reaction
o National Revolution
o Racial struggle for supremacy between Black
and White
o Struggle between Oriental and Occidental
Civilization and Culture
o National War of Independence
• Among these, Military Revolt and the National War
of Independence were the most significant
interpretations endorsed by the historians.
PERSPECTIVE: A MILITARY REVOLT
• Historian Views:
o According to historians like Sir John Lawrence and Seelay, the Revolt of 1857 AD was a military uprising.
o Contemporary Indians, including Munshi Jiwan Lal, Moinuddin, Sir Sayyed Ahmed Khan, Durgadas
Bandopadhyaya etc., shared the same opinion.
o In the book "The Sepoy Mutiny and The Revolt of 1857," R.C. Mujumdar makes the case that the uprising was
not an Independence War.
• Reasons for this argument:
o Localised Spread near Military Centers: The revolt had only spread to a small portion of Northern India; it
had not spread to many other areas of North India or Southern India.
o Erupted in Military Areas: The uprising began in the military cantonment area and developed and gained
influence at the military centres.
o Active Participation of Soldiers: When soldiers started taking up arms against the British, then tyrants like
Nana Sahib, Bahadur Shah, and the Rani of Jhansi came forward.
o Suppressed by British soldiers: If it was the National War of Independence, then a small portion of British
troops could not have suppressed the revolt.
o Mainly ntouched from Villages: The 1857 uprising saw very little participation and was contained to the cities
and towns, and did not spread to the surrounding villages.
PERSPECTIVE: FIRST WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
• Dr. K.M. Panikar has called that revolt a National Revolution. V.D. Savarkar and Ashok Mehta have called it the
War of Independence.
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• In the Words of Pt. Nehru: The revolt was much more than a military mutiny and it spread rapidly and achieved the
character of a popular rebellion and a war of Indian Independence
• The contemporary leader of the Conservative Party Mr Benjamin Dasraily, called it a National mutiny. He
mentioned that - The revolt was not the result of any immediate cause instead it was a result of a deliberate and
organised plan.
• Reasons for this argument:
o Its spread was wide and people from all sections of society participated.
o The native soldiers, zamindars and native rulers also showed their active participation.
o The revolt remained in force for many months which could not have been possible without the support of
common people.
o Both Hindus and Muslims took part in the revolt jointly against the British.
o Mostly, Common people and citizens were punished by the British.
o Along with men, women also took an active part in that revolt.
The revolt of 1857 may not be classified as black or white. However, it had seeds against imperialism and united people
for nationalism. In spite of its limitations and weaknesses, the effort of the sepoys to liberate the country from foreign
rule was a patriotic act. It established the local traditions of resistance to British rule which were pave the way for
modern national movement.
RELIGIOUS UNITY IN REGIONAL BATTLES OF 1857
• Ayodhya (Baba Ramcharan Das & Maulana Ameer Ali):
o Maulana Ameer Ali, known as the Maulvi of Ayodhya, and Baba Ramcharan Das from Hanuman Garhi led the
armed resistance efforts.
o They were captured and executed together, hanged on a tamarind tree at Kuber Teela in Ayodhya.
• Rohilkhand (Khan Bahadur Khan & Khushi Ram):
o After the proclamation of an independent Indian government in Delhi on May 11, 1857, Khan Bahadur Khan
became the viceroy of the Mughal emperor.
o He formed a committee with eight members, comprising Hindus and Muslims, to govern the state, with Khushi
Ram as his deputy.
o This government respected Hindu sentiments by prohibiting cow slaughter.
o Khan and Khushi Ram led troops in several battles against the British but were ultimately defeated in a significant
battle at Bareilly. They were executed along with many followers outside the old Kotwali on March 20, 1860.
• Central India:
o Jhansi: Rani Laxmibai, along with Muslim commanders Ghulam Ghouse Khan and Khuda Bakhsh, fiercely resisted
British forces.
o Muslim lady Munzar, Rani Laxmibai's personal bodyguard, sacrificed her life alongside the Rani in the battle at
Kotah-ki-Sarai in Gwalior on June 18, 1858.
o Malwa region: Tatia Tope, Rao Saheb, Laxmi Bai, Ferozshah, and Moulvi Fazal Haq formed a joint command,
mobilizing a large rebel army of 70-80 thousand fighters. This army won numerous battles against the British.
• Delhi:
o Both Hindu and Muslim communities collaborated to undermine British rule, declaring the Delhi Sultan
Bahadurshah Zafar as their leader.
o They pledged that if successful, Bahadurshah Zafar would be reinstated as the Sultan of Delhi, showcasing unity
and solidarity.
UPRISING OF 1857: AN IMPORTANT WATERSHED IN THE EVOLUTION OF BRITISH POLICIES TOWARDS
COLONIAL INDIA
• The 1857 uprising significantly influenced British policies toward Colonial India for the next 90 years. Instead of
expanding their empire, British authorities began concentrating more on its consolidation.
• It is seen as a watershed that marks the transition between an era of swift reform and a period of rigid conservatism.
The British brought changes in following sectors -
o Infrastructural Development: In the years following the uprising, the Suez Canal was opened in 1869 which
eased travel between England and India.
o Governance:
▪ Lord Mayo began the decentralization trend for revenue in 1870. Later, Lord Ripon prolonged the procedure
much more.
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▪ ritish colonial rulers split India into the Bengal, Bombay, and Madras Presidencies. The Governor's
Executive Council was tasked with overseeing the government.
o Service Matters:
▪ Civil Services: The legal minimum age to apply for civil service in 1853 was 23. In 1860, it was decreased to
22, in 1866 to 21, and in 1876 to 19.
▪ Military management: The British attempted to separate the military forces into various groups.
o Education: In contrast to prior ideologies, Higher education and intellectuals were despised since they were
considered as tools of contemporary nationalism.
o Press & Communication:
▪ To prohibit publishing in Indian languages, the Vernacular Press Act of 1858 was passed.
▪ The Telegraph system was established in 1870.
Despite the rebels' failure, the impetus was put on the British government to alter its approach to India. The East India
Company lost control of India to the British crown in August 1858, and Queen Victoria was named Empress of India.
The East India Company's rule came to an end as a result.
CONCLUSION
The revolt of 1857 may not be classified as black or white. However, it had seeds against imperialism and united
people for nationalism. In spite of its limitations and weaknesses, the effort of the sepoys to liberate the country from
foreign rule was a patriotic act. It established local traditions of resistance to British rule, which paved the way for a
modern national movement.
KEY WORDS: Revolt of 1857, British colonialism, Doctrine of Lapse, Subsidiary Alliance, Economic exploitation, Racial
discrimination, Military grievances, Hindu-Muslim unity, Bahadur Shah Zafar, Regional variations, British policies post-1857,
Queen's Proclamation 1858, Governance changes, Economic Drain, Social Legislation, Lubricated Cartridges, National War of
Independence.

1. Why did the armies of the British East India Company– mostly comprising of Indian soldiers – win 2022
consistently against the more numerous and better-equipped armies of the Indian rulers? Give
reasons.
2. Explain how the Uprising of 1857 constitutes an important watershed in the evolution of British 2016
policies towards colonial India.
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4 SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS
INTRODUCTION
• In the first half of the 19th century, caste systems, decadence, and rigidity characterized Indian society. It adhered
to some practices that went against humanitarian beliefs or values but were upheld in the name of religion.
Therefore, society needed to change. There were movements aimed at modernizing Indian society's structure. In an
effort to reform and revitalize society, a number of people and movements worked to change social and religious
norms.
NATURE OF SOCIO-RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS
• Recognition of the connections between religious and social issues characterised the reform perspectives of the
movements and their leaders. They tried to alter social norms and customs by using religious concepts.
• To abolish caste distinctions in society, for instance, Keshub Chandra Sen interpreted the "Unity of godhead and
brotherhood of mankind".
• The main social issues that the reform movements sought to address were:
o Casteism and untouchability
o Emancipation of women, which involved addressing sati, infanticide, child marriage, and widow marriage; and
education to promote societal enlightenment.
o Religious issues such as Polytheism, idolatry, Religious superstitions, and Priestly exploitation.
REFORMIST AND REVIVALIST MOVEMENT
• Both reformist and revivalist movements contributed to the advancement of socio-religious reforms in society,
which finally paved the way for the emergence of a contemporary and forward-thinking society.
Reformist Movement Revivalist Movement
• These groups relied more on reason and rationalism to • These movements leaned firmly on the lost
conclude whether to embrace or reject a social custom or purity of religion they were trying to revive.
religious institution. • Movements toward revivalism were more
• Modern Western values in the sociocultural realm, such as in tune with tradition than with reason and
gender equality and the freedom to select one's life partner, conscience.
liberal thoughts etc. were the characteristics of these • These initiatives sought to show the
movements. progressivism and rationalism of
• Leaders of these movements rejected to completely traditional Indian sociocultural beliefs.
restructure society along Western lines, despite accepting • For Example: Wahabi Movement, Deoband
modern Western principles. Movement, and Arya Samaj Movement.
• Instead of Westernization, modernity was their goal.
• For Example: Brahmo Samaj, the Aligarh movement
REASONS FOR SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS
1. Response to Colonial Critique:
o British Rule and Criticism: The British colonial authorities and Christian missionaries often criticized Indian
social and religious practices as barbaric and backward, particularly sati (the practice of widow burning), child
marriage, and the caste system.
o Example: Raja Ram Mohan Roy founded the Brahmo Samaj in 1828 partly as a response to these criticisms. He
aimed to purify Hinduism and abolish practices like Sati, which he successfully campaigned against, leading to
the Sati Abolition Act in 1829.
2. Desire for Social Reform:
o Internal Social Critique: Many Indian intellectuals began to question and critique their own social practices,
recognizing the need for reform to remove practices that were seen as regressive and oppressive.
o Example: Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar championed the cause for widow remarriage, leading to the Hindu
Widows' Remarriage Act of 1856, which was a direct result of his advocacy and reformist ideology.
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3. Rise of Educated Middle Class:
o Western Education: The introduction of Western education by the British led to the emergence of a new class of
educated Indians who were exposed to liberal and progressive ideas.
o Example: The Young Bengal Movement, inspired by Henry Louis Vivian Derozio, was an intellectual and social
movement by young men in Bengal region, who advocated for rationalism and critiqued existing religious and
social norms.
4. Religious Revivalism:
o Need to Revive and Rationalize Religion: In response to the perceived threat from Western cultural and
religious domination, there was a movement to revive Indian religions by removing what were considered
corruptions and interpolations over the centuries.
o Example: Swami Dayananda Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj in 1875, which sought to return Hinduism to its
supposed pure Vedic roots, emphasizing the authority of the Vedas and denouncing idol worship and caste
restrictions.
5. Empowerment of Women and Marginalized Groups:
o Social Injustice: There was a growing awareness about the plight of women and lower caste groups who suffered
from severe social discrimination and lack of basic rights.
o Example: Jyotirao Phule established the Satyashodhak Samaj in 1873 to fight against caste oppression and
promote social equality. He was also a strong advocate for the education of women and lower castes.
6. Impact of Global Movements:
o Influence of Global Ideologies: The impact of global movements such as abolitionism, suffragism, and other
reform movements influenced Indian thinkers and leaders to implement similar changes in their society.
o Example: Pandita Ramabai, influenced by the global women's suffrage movement, advocated for the
emancipation of Indian women and their right to education.
METHOD APPLIED TO BRING REFORMS
The following four techniques were used in an effort to alter socio-religious practices:
1. Reforms from Within: Rammohan Roy invented this technique. According to him, any reform needed to come
from within society itself by raising people's awareness in order to be successful. People advocating this method
had published tracts and held discussions and debates on various social issues.
o For example, Rammohan's campaign against sati, Vidyasagar’s pamphlets on widow marriage, and B.M.
Malabari’s efforts to increase the age of consent.
2. Reforms through Legislation: It was symbolized in the effectiveness of government action. The proponents of this
approach held that government assistance is necessary for reform initiatives to be made successful.
o For example, individuals like Keshub Chandra Sen in Bengal, Mahadev Govind Ranade in Maharashtra, and
Veeresalingam in Andhra made an appeal to the government to support legislation that would increase the age
of consent, legalize civil unions, and allow widow marriages.
3. Reforms through Symbol of Change: It was an effort to produce symbols of change through individual,
unconventional activity.
o For example, 'Derozians' or 'Young Bengal', as an example, symbolized an aggressive stream within the reform
movement. They were heavily influenced by the new thought of the Western world and had a rigidly logical
approach to social issues.
4. Reforms through Social Work: The Ramakrishna Mission, Arya Samaj, and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's activities
all displayed this methodology.
o For example, the Ramakrishna Mission and the Arya Samaj engaged in social work through which they attempted
to spread concepts of reform and regeneration.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS
Based on Religion Based on Geography Based on Class
Hindu reform movements East India Women’s Position
Muslim reform movements West India Caste discrimination
Sikh reform movements North India
Parsi reform movements South India
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HINDU REFORM MOVEMENTS
Hindu socio-religious reform movements were mostly reformist in nature, however, some movements, like the Arya
Samaj movement, Ramakrishna Mission etc. were revivalist.
RAJA RAM MOHAN ROY AND BRAHMO SAMAJ
• About: He was an outstanding scholar, humanist, and patriot. His life was dedicated to the social, religious,
intellectual, and political renewal of Indians because of his profound love for the nation.
• Organisation Associated: Atmiya Sabha (1814), Brahmo Sabha (1828) (later renamed as Brahmo Samaj)
• Contribution:
o Focus on Scientific Temperament: Condemned polytheism, the veneration of idols, and supported human
reason and conscience as they are more important than any religious text.
o Attacked on Superstition: Discarded belief in incarnations and encouraged morality, goodness, and worship of
an unchangeable, eternal god.
o Protest for marginalized groups: Criticised caste system and prevailed untouchability in society.
o Women empowerment: Opposed practices like Sati, Polygamy, and Child marriage. With his effort, Sati's custom
was abolished in 1829.
o Modern Education: He was involved in the establishment of Calcutta's Hindu College (Presidency College).
Additionally, he supported on his own resources an English school in Calcutta.
• Literary Works:
o Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin (A Gift to Monotheism)
o Precepts of Jesus (1820)
o Translation of Veda's and Upanishads into Bengali
o Samvad Kaumudi
o Miratul-Akbar (Persian)
o Atmiya Sabha Publication (Bengal Gazette)
DAYANAND SARASWATI AND ARYA SAMAJ
• About: As a noble Hindu reform movement in Modern India, Mool Shanker (later known as Swami Dayanand
Saraswati) founded the Arya Samaj in 1875.
• Associated Organizations: Arya Samaj Dayananda AngloVedic (D.A.V.) College in 1886. Shuddhi (purification)
movement.
• Literary Works: Satyarth Prakash
• Sudhi Movement:
o The Arya Samajists witnessed the Sudhi movement as a powerful tool for bringing about India's socio-religious
and political unification of India.
o It involved in the reconversion of Hindus who earlier converted to other religions either voluntarily or forcibly
but were now ready to return to Hinduism, as well as also focussed on preventing any more conversion.
• Contribution:
o Society free from discrimination: Vision of a united (religiously, socially, and nationally) class- and caste-free
society. Freedom from foreign occupation, and everyone practices the Aryan religion.
o Focus on the importance of Vedas: Vedic learning and religious purity were revived. He believed that all of the
knowledge that God had given to man was contained in the Vedas and that the foundations of modern science
could also be found there.
o Attacked Superstitious beliefs: Hindu orthodoxy, caste rigidities, untouchability, idolatry, polytheism, faith in
magic, charms, and animal sacrifices, among other things, were attacked.
o Modern Education: He preferred learning about Western science. Also established Anglo-Vedic (D.A.V.) College.
RAMA KRISHNA MISSION AND SWAMI VIVEKANANDA
• Mystic Ramakrishna Paramhansa turned to the age-old practices of renunciation, meditation, and devotion in
order to find religious salvation.
• He was a saintly man who stressed that there are many paths to God and salvation and that serving others is serving
God. He also recognized the fundamental similarity of all religions.
• Ramakrishna Movement
o The Ramakrishna Movement was founded on the teachings of Ramakrishna Paramhansa in 1887.
o The movement's two main goals were to:
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▪ Establish a group of monks committed to renunciation and practical spirituality, from whom teachers and
workers would be dispatched to spread the Vedic message of universal truth as exemplified in the life of
Ramakrishna.
▪ Continue preaching, and charitable works, observing all men, women, and children as true manifestations of
the Divine regardless of caste, creed, or colour.
• Swami Vivekananda
▪ He represented India at the inaugural Parliament of Religion in Chicago, Illinois, in 1893.
▪ Subscribed to the Vedanta system.
▪ Propagated the philosophy of service to jiva (living objects) is the worship of Siva.
YOUNG BENGAL MOVEMENT
• Henry Vivian Derozio:
o The movement was led by Henry Vivian Derozio.
o The first nationalist poet of modern India, who was also an inspiration for progressive trends and a result of the
French Revolution.
o The Hindu college in Kolkata served as the birthplace of the Young Bengal movement, a radical effort to reform
Hindu society.
• Derozio encouraged his students the following:
o To think critically and rationally
o To challenge all forms of authority
o To value liberty, equality, and freedom
o To reject outmoded practices and traditions by drawing inspiration from the great French Revolution
o Motivated to raise voice in the favour of education and women's rights
M.G. RANADE AND PRARTHANA SAMAJ
• Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang founded the Prarthana Samaj in Bombay in 1876. It accomplished in Maharashtra what
the Brahmo Samaj did in Bengal.
• The Samaj was established with the intention of reforming Hinduism and promoting the worship of one God.
• Mahadev Govind Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar were the great leaders of the Pratana Samaj.
• There were the following four points of the social agenda of Prarthana Samaj:
1. Disapproval of the caste system
2. Women's education
3. Widow Remarriage
4. Raising the age of marriage for both males and females
• Contribution of Mahadev Govind Ranade:
o Philosophy: Religious and social reforms are integrated into each other. For success in social, economic and
political spheres, religious reforms should be flexible.
o Organization: The Widow Remarriage Association (1861) and the Deccan Education Society were founded. He
also established the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha.
o Against Strict Ban of Idol Worship: Prarthana Samaj did not advocate a strict ban on idol worship despite
being influenced by the ideas of Brahmo Samaj.
o Caste System: The Samaj was not strict for an explicit separation from the caste system.
JYOTIBA PHULE AND SATYASODHAK SAMAJ
• The ‘Satyashodhak’ Samaj (Truth Seekers' Society) was founded by Jyotiba Phule in 1873. The depressed
communities gained a sense of class identity as an outcome of this movement. Phule used the symbol of Rajah Bali
as opposed to the Brahmins’ symbol of Rama.
• Objective
o Social services
o spreading education among women and members of lower castes
o Aim for the elimination of Social and economic inequality
• Literary Works
o Sarvajanik Satyadharma and Ghulamgiri
o Both became a source of inspiration for the common masses
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ANNIE BASENT AND THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
• Theosophical Society was established by American Col. H.S. Olcott and Russian spiritualist Madame H.P. Blavatsky
in 1875 in the USA. It has been significant for the development of modern India's religion, society, and culture.
• Objective
o To encourage research into ancient philosophies, religions, and science
o Activate the divine potential that exists within man and create a global human brotherhood.
• Annie Besant:
o After Madame Blavatsky passed away in 1893, Annie Besant travelled to India and helped to resurrect and
revitalize the movement.
o In 1907, she succeeded Olcott as the president of the society. She won the hearts of many by celebrating the
o virtues of Krishna and the Gita.
o The movement was directed and backed by the Westerners who glorified Indian religious and philosophical
traditions. This helped Indians to recover their self-confidence.
o In the field of education, she made significant contributions and established the Central Hindu College at
Banaras.
o A library of rare Sanskrit books was added to the headquarters of the Theosophical Society, which evolved into a
hub of knowledge.
ISWAR CHANDRA VIDYASAGAR AND WOMEN’S UPLIFTMENT
• Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar, a legendary figure of the middle of the nineteenth century, was born in Bengal in 1820
to a humble Brahmin family.
• In 1851, he assumed the position of Principal of the Sanskrit College. He was a renowned Sanskrit scholar.
• Vidyasagar's thoughts were a synthesis of Western and Indian principles. He had high moral standards, was a
profound humanist, and was kind to the underprivileged.
• He spearheaded a campaign favouring widow remarriage, which led to the enactment of the act in 1856.
• He also led a battle against polygamy and a minor marriage.
• Vidyasagar exerted a lot of effort on behalf of women's education. In 1849, he worked with Bethune to set up the
first Indian girls' school, the Bethune School. He assisted as a government inspector of schools and ran them at
his own expense.
MUSLIM REFORM MOVEMENTS
• Lately, among Muslims, reformist social and religious movements had emerged.
• The majority of Muslims feared that Western education would jeopardize their faith because it was antithetical to
Islam.
• Difference between Deoband and Aligarh Movement:
Deoband Movement Aligarh Movement
Its aim was the moral and religious renewal of the It sought to advance the standard of living of Muslims as
Muslim community per Western world
It was Revivalist Movement It was Reformist Movement
Against the modern and Western Education Focus to provide Modern Education to youth
Encourage spirit of Jihad against the British Promote liberal thoghts and British government
sponsorship
SIKH REFORM MOVEMENTS
• Gurudwara Reforms Movement:
o Gurudwaras were governed by the Udasi Sikh mahants before the 1920s. These mahants treated the Gurdwara
offerings and other income of the Gurudwaras as their income.
o An agitation was launched for freeing the Gurudwaras from these corrupt mahants and for handing over the
Gurudwaras to a representative body of Sikhs.
o A law was enacted in 1925 that granted the Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee the authority to
oversee Gurudwaras.
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• Nirankari Movement (1855):
o They emphasised appropriate religious practice, producing Hukamnamas to clarify what was acceptable and
establishing a network of worship places staffed by their priests.
o They grew by cooperating with the Britishers.
• Akali Campaign: A fresh reform campaign known as the Akali Campaign was started at the end of the 19th century
to clean up the corrupt management of Gurdwaras.
o When the Akali Movement surfaced in Punjab after 1920, the Sikh movement gained momentum
• Sikh Sabha: The Sikh religious reform movement began in the 1870s with the establishment of the two Singh Sabhas
in Amritsar and Lahore.
• Khalsa College's founding in Amritsar in 1892 contributed to the advancement of Gurumukhi, Sikh education,
and Punjabi literature.
• Several gurus led religious and social reform initiatives among the Sikhs in an effort to strengthen the Sikh religion.
Baba Dayal Das promoted the concept of a nirankar (formless) God.
PARSI REFORM MOVEMENTS
In 1851, the Parsi Religious Reform Association was founded. It waged a battle against religious orthodoxy. Following
Reforms were initiated:
• Established Organisation: Nauroji Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, S.S. Bengalee, and others created the Rahanumai
Mazdayasnan Sabha or Religious Reform Association for spreading education, particularly among girls.
• Against Orthodox practices: They also campaigned against orthodox practices and child marriage in the Parsi
religion.
• Religious Reforms: Restoration of the Zoroastrian faith to its pristine purity.
• Against extravagant in functions: The leaders opposed and grandiose betrothal, wedding, and funeral customs.
• Scientific Temperament: They discouraged people from using astrology, and promoted scientific development.
CONTRIBUTION OF DADA BHAI NAOROJI
• He was known for Social Reformer, Transnational Connections and Statistical Liberalism.
• Social Reforms:
o Focus on Girls Education: Naoroji's endeavour was motivated by his reformist enthusiasm for gender equality.
He later opened six girls' schools in October 1849 under the auspices of the Students' Literary and Scientific
Society (SLSS).
o Religious reforms: These reforms were implemented to rationalize religious rituals that were thought to be
unreasonable in addition to social difficulties.
o Establishment of Organisation: The Rahnumae Mazdayasnan Sabha (Society of the Guides of the
Mazdayasnan Path) and Rast Goftar, a Gujarati journal, were established in 1851 by Naoroji and his associates.
o Against Orthodox rituals: The Rahnumae Mazdayasnan sabha campaigned against orthodox practices in the
Parsi religion as well as the upliftment of women.
Economic and Political Reforms
Dada Bhai Naoroji contributed significantly as well in the Economic and Political spheres, which can be summarised
as -
• Critics of Economic Policy: Foremost critic of British economic policy, advocating the 'Drain of Wealth' theory.
• Political Contribution:
o Instrumental in the set-up of ‘London Indian Society’ with an aim to discuss social and political issues.
o Assisted to establish ‘East India Association" (1867)’ to convey the perspective of Indian to the British people.
• Served as a Liberal Party member and Member of Parliament (MP) in the UK House of Commons.
FIGHT AGAINST CASTE BASED EXPLOITATION
• Issues:
o According to the Hindu ‘chaturvarn ashrama’ concept, a person's caste determined their status and relative
purity of different sections of the population.
o Caste factors governed activities such as clothing, food, place of residence, sources of water for drinking and
irrigation, and entry into temples.
o The scheduled castes/Dalits suffered the most from the discriminatory caste system, facing humiliating and
inhumane treatment based on birth inequality.
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• Factors which contributed to the reduction of caste-based discrimination include:
o British rule: The English rule perhaps unintentionally, created conditions that weakened caste consciousness to
some extent.
o Social reform movements: They also worked to dismantle caste-based exploitation. These movements were
inspired by the principles of liberty and equality in their fight against the forces that tended to divide society.
o Literacy and Scientific temperament: With increased educational opportunities and general awakening, there
were stirrings among the lower castes.
o Role of Gandhi Jii: He established the All India Harijan Sangh in 1932. His crusade for the "root and branch
abolition of untouchability" was founded on humanism and logic. The removal of untouchability was at the
forefront of all public activity for leaders like Gandhi.
o Role of reformers:
▪ As part of his fight against upper-caste dominance in Maharashtra, Jyotiba Phule launched a lifelong crusade
against Brahmanical religious authority.
▪ B.R. Ambedkar dedicated his life to opposing caste tyranny, founding the All India Scheduled Castes
Federation in the process.
▪ The All India Depressed Classes Association was created by several other scheduled caste leaders.
o Contemporary evolved human rights concept: The evolution of values of equality and human rights also
helped to remove caste discrimination from society.
o Freedom Movement: It became a key impediment to the development of a sense of nationhood and the spread
of democracy in modern India, which promoted the elimination of discrimination based on castes. The Free India
Constitution requires equality and non-discrimination on the basis of caste.
ISSUES OF WOMEN IN SOCIO-RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS
• The situation of Indian women at the start of the 19th century was not good.
• Their lives had been rendered extremely dreadful because of evil customs, for instance, Sati practice, the Purdah
system, child marriage, female infanticide, bride price, and polygamy.
• Regarding educational, social, and economic prospects, there was no equality between men and women in India.
• As a result, there were the following significant issues related to Women during the 19th century:
o Gender biases in-laws:
▪ The British honoured the personal laws of Islam and Hinduism.
▪ In terms of marriage, divorce, property, succession, and adoption, these rules viewed women as second- class
citizens and honoured the rights of the patriarchal family.
▪ There seemed to be a "broad consensus" among the nationalist male elites and the colonial state to relegate
women to domesticity and slavery in this context.
o Practice of Purdah system in public life: Indian intellectuals used the moral code for women to revere India's
illustrious past. She needed to be protected from the "contaminating influence" of the West. As a result, both
the Muslim and Hindu elites of Bengal and Maharashtra came to universalize the concept of disconnected women
in the Purdah system.
o Issues of social acceptance of law: For instance, even though the British had authorized widow remarriage,
Indian people started having their females live austere ascetic widowhoods because it had become a status
symbol.
o Lacuna in remedial approach: Both Indians and British observed women's difficulties and claims as social
matters, refusing to question the social structures, caste disparities, or religious dogmas that upheld women's
inferior status. They had no plans to promote gender equality.
o Female labour force participation: Indian businesspeople and plantation owners started to stereotype female
labour as being uncommitted and lacking in abilities. Additionally, wages for women were lower than for men.
Indian intellectuals and British bureaucrats both fought to raise the status of Indian women in the 19th century.
However, the issues of women's education, labour engagement, and Position in the family and society were limited by
domesticity. These neglected to address issues of gender equality, religious orthodoxy, and caste disparities.
ROLE PLAYED BY WOMEN
• Sarla Devi Chaudhrani: She founded the Indian women's organization in 1910 in Allahabad. Its goals included
advancing women's education and enhancing the socioeconomic and political standing of women across India.
• Pandita Rama Bai:
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o Pandita Rama Bai received her education in both England and the United States. She wrote about the unfair
treatment given to Indian women.
o She established the Arya Mahila Sabha in Pune and the Sarda Sadan to aid widows in need.
o She pleaded for an improvement in the educational condition of Indian women,
o Lady Dufferin College began offering medical education to women on her request.
• Mehribai Tata: The National Council of Women in India was established in 1925 as a national affiliate of the
International Council of Women.
• Margret Cousins: In 1917, Margaret Cousins brought up the issue of women's voting rights and met with the Viceroy
together with Sarojini Naidu to make the case for women's voting rights.
LEGISLATIVE MEASURES FOR WOMEN
Act passed by the British Administration Features
Bengal Sati Regulation Act (1829) To ban Sati Practice and made it illegal practice
Hindu Widows Remarriage Act of 1856 (Act XV, 1856) legalised remarriage of widows
Native Marriage Act (1872) Intended legislative action for the prohibition but, was not
applicable to Hindus, Muslims and other recognised religions.
Act of Age of Consent (1891) Prohibited the marriage of girl child below the age of 12 years
Sharda Act (1929) Minimum age for marriage was raised to 14 years
Act V of 1843 Practice of slavery was declared illegal
COMMON FEATURES OF SOCIO - RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS

• Monotheism: The belief in one God and the fundamental similarity of all religions was spread by all reformers. They,
therefore, made an effort to reduce the gap between various religious perspectives.
• Religious Reforms: The priesthood, ceremonies, idolatry, and polytheism were all denounced by the reformers.
These reform movements also opposed the caste system and the practice of child marriage which were obvious
instances of their humanitarian side.
• Focus on the status of Women: The objective of the reformers was to elevate women's and girls' status in society.
They all emphasized the importance of educating women.
• Social Equality: By challenging the caste system and untouchability, the reformers contributed to the consolidation
of India's people into one nation.
• Self-Respect: The reform movements promoted among Indians a sense of dignity, liberty, and patriotism.
IMPACT OF SOCIO-RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS IN INDIAN FREEDOM STRUGGLE
• Resurgence of Religions: Hinduism's revival as a rational, tolerant faith aimed to reclaim its lost prestige following
the rise of Christianity and Islam in the nineteenth century.
• Empowered Marginalized Societies: An assault on the degrading acts committed against women, untouchables,
and other repressed and marginalized communities in Indian society.
• Increased Scientific Quotient: Fostering feelings of selflessness, piety, and rationalism
• Against Caste system: The Reform movements acted as a critique of the rigidities of the caste system and hereditary
traits.
• Promoted Tolerance in Society: Encouraged belief in equality, nativization, and the coexistence of different
cultures and religions.
• Nationalism: Socio-Religious movements created a national awakening among the population.
• Development of literature: These reformers used books, plays, short tales, poetry, and the press to promote their
messages.
LIMITATION OF SOCIO- RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS
• The reform movements were largely male-dominated and failed to prioritize gender equality. For instance, Keshub
Chandra Sen of the Brahmo Samaj, despite publicly opposing child marriage and being impressed by Christianity's
influence in England, allowed his 14-year-old daughter to marry the son of the Maharaja of Cooch Behar, thus
contradicting his stance against child marriage.
• The reform movements had narrow aims. For example, educating women to be better wives and mothers rather
than promoting gender equality in society.
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• Reforms did not address the wider systemic issues of gender discrimination and patriarchy. For instance, dowry was
criticised but women’s economic dependence on men was left unaddressed.
• The efforts towards women's education were often limited to higher caste women, ignoring the intersectional
discrimination faced by women of lower castes and classes.
• The reform movements were often regional and community-specific. Large number of rural women continued to
face discrimination and oppression.
• Reform movements did not produce opportunities for women beyond their home. Women’s participation in public
life or work was lacking.
GOVERNMENT ATTITUDE TOWARD SOCIAL REFORM IN INDIA OVER THE CENTURY
• Although the British policies at the start of the 19th century assisted in the removal of social ills, At the same time,
they also progressively caused a breach in the socioreligious fabric of India because they were mostly based on
English vision and attitude.
• Attitude of the British towards social reforms can be summarised as -
o Downward Filtration theory: The British intended to train a select group of upper- and middle-class people in
order to produce a class of interpreters.
o Working Professional: Socio-Religious reforms made available people for executing British policies and man
force for military, and plantation services. For instance, Prohibited activities like the crossing of the sea became
the new normal.
o Advancement of Missionary activities: Post Charter Act 1813, Missionaries were allowed the expansion of
religious activities and socio-religious reforms made their efforts smooth.
o Establish Rule of Law among local people: Laws for prohibiting child marriages, Sati Customs, Promoting
Widow Remarriage etc. were enacted and enforced through action among the masses.
o Division based on religion: The British also tried to divide people based on religion, class and castes through
the reforms. For example, Sayyid Ahmed Khan was vocal to support the British whereas Hindu reform
movements were not in the favour of British administration.
CONCLUSION
The socio-religious reform movement as a whole opposed both the religious and social evils of traditional culture's
backward elements. The revival of traditional institutions, such as those in medicine, education, philosophy, and so
forth, was the main focus. They fought for the democratization of society, the abolition of superstitions and outdated
traditions, and the spread of enlightenment. This sparked India's countrywide awakening.
KEY WORDS: Socio-religious reform, caste abolition, women's emancipation, educational reform, Brahmo Samaj, Arya
Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, Young Bengal Movement, Prarthana Samaj, Satyashodhak Samaj, Theosophical Society, Aligarh
Movement, Deoband Movement, Widow Remarriage, Child marriage, Untouchability, Missionary activities, Western
education, Revivalist and reformist movements, Hindu-Muslim unity, Monotheism, Rationalism, Social equality, National
awakening.

1. Trace the rise and growth of socio-religious reform movements with special reference to Young Bengal (2021)
and Brahmo Samaj.
2. Examine the linkages between 19th centuries ‘Indian Renaissance and the emergence of National (2019)
identity.
35
5 ANALYSIS OF BRITISH POLICIES IN INDIA (FROM 1757 -1947)
ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES
STAGES OF COLONIALISM IN INDIA

• Colonialism is as modern a historical phenomenon as industrial capitalism. It describes the distinct stage in the
modern historical development of the colony that intervenes between the traditional economy and the modern
capitalist economy.
• India has generally been considered a classic colony. Different stages of its colonialism are:
• First stage: Monopoly of Trade and Plunder (1757-1813):
o Conquests facilitating monopoly: With the conquest of Bengal along with certain parts of South India, followed
by the rest of India, both goals of monopolising trade and syphoning off government resources were swiftly
achieved in the first stage.
o Monopolising handicrafts: Now, the East India Company took advantage of its influence in politics to
monopolise trade and handicrafts in India.
o Changes made during this period: The colony underwent no fundamental changes in this stage. Changes were
made only in military organization and technology and at the top level of revenue administration.
• Second stage: Era of Free Trade (1813-1860):
o One-way free trade policy: One of the most important features was the one-way free trade policy of the British
government, which transformed India into an exporter of raw materials and an importer of British manufactured
goods.
o Administration: The administration was
made more detailed and comprehensive so that
imports could penetrate the villages and raw
materials could be taken out easily.
o Commercialization of Agriculture: One of the
most important features was the
commercialization of agriculture which was a
forced and artificial process for the majority of
Indian peasants.
o Westernized habits: These were promoted to
increase the demand for British goods.
• Third stage: Era of Finance Capital (1860
onwards):
o Increase in investment: There was a
significant amount of investment in India's
railroads, loans to the government of India,
trade, and to a lesser level in plantations, coal
mining, jute mills, shipping, and banking.
o Emerging competition: At this time,
competition from other new imperialist
nations presented a persistent threat to Britain's standing in the world. As a result, its hold over India was further
strengthened.
o No industrial revolution but expansion: Three major events—the First World War, the Great Depression
(1929–34), and World War II—reduced or halted foreign trade and the entrance of foreign money. But because
the ties were only loosed, not broken, there was simply industrial expansion and not an industrial revolution in
India.
EXTENSION OF BRITISH PARAMOUNTCY
The East India Company maintained that its powers were stronger than those of Indian states and that its powers were
supreme or paramount, according to the Policy of Paramountcy. The process of imperial expansion and consolidation
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of British paramountcy was carried on by the Company during the 1757-1857 period through the policy of annexation
by diplomacy and administrative mechanisms.
The Policy of Ring-Fence (1765-1813):
• Meaning: Ring-fencing was a strategy employed by Warren Hastings to fortify the Company's frontiers by
establishing buffer zones.
• Objectives: In general, it was a strategy of defending their neighbours' borders to protect their territories.
• Description: It required the states to maintain subsidiary forces that were to be organised, supplied, and led by
Company officers who, in turn, were to be compensated by the state's leaders.
• Example: After the Buxar War in 1964, Awadh was used as a buffer state.
Subsidiary Alliance (1798 Onwards)
• Origin: Lord Wellesley had designed the Subsidiary Alliance in India as a "Non-Intervention Policy," but French
Governor Dupleix coined the phrase.
• Objective: The fundamental objective was to control Indian forces without going to war and incurring costs.
• Description: The company's soldiers had to be installed under this method by the Indian kings. They also had to
cover all the costs associated with running the troops and the rulers must continue to host British citizens in their
courts.
• Example: The first ruler to accept the Subsidiary Alliance was the Nizam of Hyderabad.
SCHOLAR’S VIEW
“Wellesley converted the British Empire in India to the British Empire of India. From one of the political powers in
India, the Company became the supreme power in India and claimed the whole country as its sole protectorate.
From Wellesley’s time onwards the defence of India was the Company’s responsibility” — Sidney J. Owen
The Doctrine of Lapse (1848-1859):
• Description: According to the doctrine, if a princely state subject to the company's vassalage fails to produce an heir,
the land will be annexed by the British.
• Example: Lord Dalhousie adopted this strategy extensively to annex Indian states. E.g. annexation of Jhansi, Satara,
Nagpur, Udaipur etc.
Doctrine of Mis-governance (1848-1856):
• Description: Annexation of the Indian states based on maladministration by the Indian ruler.
• Example: Dalhousie annexed Awadh in 1856 under the pretext of mis-governance citing maladministration under
Wajid Ali Shah, the last Awadh ruler.
Why British Introduced these policies?
• Expansion of British empire: To expand the British Empire in India by bringing new territories under its control.
• Mitigating French influence: To decrease the French influence so that the British could become the paramount
power in India.
• Conquests of Indian states without war: Open annexation would have created political complication both for the
company in India and the home government.
• Increase in revenue: To enable the British East India Company to monopolise their dominion over India State which
increases their revenue.
• Safeguarding company’s frontiers: By introducing policy of ring fence, the company sought to defend its territories
from other regional and foreign threats.
Impact of these policies:
• Transformation of the EIC: The company had now grown from a predominantly commercial into a predominantly
territorial power.
• Control over Indian rulers: British took over the authority of deciding the competence of the Indian rulers and
their military and foreign relations.
• Control over Princely states: The Company took over the princely states of Satara, Jaitpur , Sambalpur, Nagpur and
Jhansi etc under its control.
• Imperial expansion: Slowly but rapidly the entire Indian subcontinent came under British rule.
• Subordination of the Indian economy to British interests: The policies resulted in direct control of the British
over India’s economy, agriculture, revenue etc.
• Revolt of 1857: Policies like doctrine of lapse and doctrine of misgovernance became a cause for the revolt.
• Direct rule of the British Crown: The policies led to the revolt of 1857 which ultimately led to the downfall of the
company and the administration of India went directly under the Queen.
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BRITISH FOREIGN POLICY IN INDIA
During the British Raj in India, British foreign policy was characterized by a blend of imperialism, strategic maneuvering,
and economic interests. The overarching goal was to protect and expand the British Empire’s influence while managing
relations with neighboring countries and powers that could threaten its control over India. Below is a detailed analysis
of the key aspects and strategies of British foreign policy in India:
STRATEGIC BUFFER AND EXPANSION
1. The Great Game:
o British foreign policy in India was significantly influenced by the so-called "Great Game," a term used to describe
the geopolitical rivalry between the British Empire and Tsarist Russia. The main concern was the protection of
India from possible Russian expansion southwards.
o The British fortified India’s northwest frontier and engaged in several Afghan Wars (1839-1842, 1878-1880,
1919) to establish a buffer state in Afghanistan that would prevent Russian advances towards the Indian
subcontinent.
2. North-East Frontier:
o Similarly, the British policy aimed at securing the northeast borders of India. This involved annexing regions like
Assam, and manipulating local chieftains in hill areas through political agents. The McMahon Line, drawn in 1914,
sought to define borders between British India and Tibet, though it was contested by China.
ECONOMIC EXPLOITATION AND TRADE
1. Trade Monopolies:
o The British East India Company initially held monopoly control over British trade in India. This monopoly allowed
the British to exploit India’s vast resources, manipulate local economies, and dictate terms of trade favoring
Britain.
o After the Crown took over in 1858, these policies continued with the British government promoting policies that
benefited the British economy at the expense of India’s, including the de-industrialization of India to make it a
market for British goods and a source of raw materials.
2. Infrastructure for Exploitation:
o The construction of railways, roads, and ports facilitated the easier extraction and export of resources. While
ostensibly a modernizing influence, the infrastructure was primarily designed to consolidate British control and
economic interests.
DIPLOMATIC MANIPULATIONS AND TREATIES
1. Subsidiary Alliances:
o Initiated by Lord Wellesley, subsidiary alliances were treaties that essentially established Indian princely states
as vassal states under British protection but with significant loss of sovereignty. This policy not only expanded
British territory but also prevented other European powers, like the French, from gaining influence in India.
2. Divide and Rule:
o The British employed a strategic divide-and-rule policy that exacerbated divisions within India, such as those
between Hindus and Muslims, to prevent unified opposition against British rule. This had lasting impacts on
communal relations in India.
HANDLING OF PRINCELY STATES
1. Doctrine of Lapse:
o Introduced by Lord Dalhousie, this policy stipulated that any princely state or territory under direct influence of
the British would automatically be annexed if the ruler was either "manifestly incompetent or died without a
direct heir." This policy helped expand British territories in India without direct military conquest.
2. Paramountcy:
o Under the doctrine of paramountcy, the British Crown claimed ultimate authority over the princely states,
overriding both external and internal sovereignty. This allowed the British to control the foreign affairs of these
states and integrate them into the British administrative framework.
British foreign policy in India was driven by a complex mix of strategic, economic, and political motives aimed at
ensuring the profitability and security of British interests in the region. The policies implemented by the British had
profound effects on the political and economic fabric of India, many of which influenced the subcontinent's history long
after the end of British rule. The legacy of these policies contributed to many of the challenges faced by the region during
and after the transition to independence.
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DEVELOPMENT OF PRESS
To prevent the growth of patriotic sentiment through the Indian press, the British government made an effort to exert
control over it. The development of the Indian press was hampered by developmental issues, illiteracy, colonial
limitations, and repression. It spread liberation beliefs and became an important weapon in the struggle for
independence.
Origin of the press in India:
• 1st printing machine in India: In 1557, the Portuguese brought a printing machine to India at Goa to promote
Christianity.
• Hickey's Bengal Gazette: The Bengal Gazette, India's first newspaper, was started by James Augustus Hickey in
1780. It exposed the corrupt practices of the company's servants and Warren Hastings.
Censorship and Regulations:
• Censorship of Press Act 1799: Anticipating the
French invasion of India, Lord Wellesley enacted this
act imposing wartime press restrictions including
pre-censorship.
• Licensing Regulations, 1823: According to this act,
enacted by John Adams, starting or using a press
without a licence was a penal offence.
• Press Act of 1835 or Metcalfe Act: Metcalfe repealed
the obnoxious 1823 act and thus liberated the press
which resulted in the rapid growth of newspapers.
• Licensing Act, 1857: The Indian press was subject to
limitations after the uprising of 1857. The government
has the power to forbid any newspaper or book from
being published.
• Registration Act 1867: This act replaced the Metcalfe
Act. It mandated every book/newspaper to include
the printer and publisher's names, as well as the
location of publication.
Nationalism and the Indian Press:
• Vernacular Press Act, 1878:
o Origin: It was introduced by Lord Lytton in 1878.
o Reason: Due to the increasing impact of the
writings in the press, particularly in the language press.
o Objective: For spin gently controlling the newspapers.
o Provision: Under these regulations, any district magistrate or a police commissioner was empowered to force
the printer and publisher of a newspaper to agree not to publish certain kinds of material, to demand security,
and to confiscate any printed matter it deemed to be objectionable.
• Newspaper (Incitement to Offences Act, 1908): This act gave magistrates the authority to seize press property
when it published offensive content that would have catalyzed violent extremist acts or as a justification for murder.
• Indian Press Act, 1910: It empowered the Local Governments to issue warrants against any newspaper or book
containing seditious matters, which were to be forfeited to His Majesty and thus prohibited the publication of a large
amount of nationalist press and political literature.
• Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act, 1931: The Indian Press Act of 1931 granted provincial governments broad
authority to curb propaganda encouraging civil disobedience. In 1932, it was broadened to cover all actions intended
to undermine governmental authority.
SCHOLAR’S VIEW
“In order to keep the press fully posted with accurate and current information, Lytton instituted the post of "Press
Commissioner for India". His main job was to liaise between the press and the government” - N. Krishm Murthy
ROLE OF THE PRESS IN THE INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT
The impact of the press on the Indian national movement was multifaceted and played a crucial role in various aspects
of the struggle for independence.
39
• Economic Critique of Colonialism: The press played a pivotal role in presenting a critical analysis of British
economic policies in India. It highlighted the actual economic conditions of the country and fueled anti-British
sentiments. For instance, Naoroji's "Poverty and Un-British Rule in India" introduced the Drain of Wealth theory,
while R.C. Dutt's "Economic History of India" thoroughly examined the economic record of colonial rule since
1757.
• Education and Information Dissemination: Both vernacular and Anglo-Indian press publications educated the
masses by reporting on local, national, and international events. They served as a vital source of information and
provided the ideological basis for revolts and the mobilization of public opinion. The "Hindoo Patriot" by H. C.
Mukherjee, for instance, actively exposed the oppression of indigo planters in Bengal, contributing to the nationalist
cause.
• Political Awakening: The press became a platform for diverse viewpoints and debates, fostering intellectual and
ideological development within the independence movement. It also facilitated the expression of grievances and the
articulation of demands for self-governance, ultimately leading to the formation and promotion of various political
organizations.
• Promotion of National Consciousness: The press provided a means for national leaders to communicate with the
masses and mobilize them for the struggle for independence. It fostered a sense of national unity and purpose. For
example, during the Non-Cooperation Movement of the 1920s, the press was instrumental in disseminating
Gandhi's messages and mobilizing supporters for the cause.
• Spearheading Socio-Religious Movements: Indian press publications played a significant role in promoting
reformist ideas by engaging in debates on issues such as female infanticide, widowhood, child marriage, prostitution,
untouchability, and superstitions. They actively contributed to socio-religious movements aimed at addressing these
social issues.
HISTORIAN’S VIEW
"I have taken up journalism not for its sake, but merely as an aid to what I have conceived to be my mission in life." -
Mahatma Gandhi wrote in his “Young India”
SIGNIFICANCE OF DEVELOPMENT OF PRESS

• Growth of national consciousness: The press played a significant role in mobilising public opinion which aided
growth of national consciousness.
• Spread of political consciousness: There was no aspect of the Indian political scene that was not discussed at
length by the native press. The Indian Press carried a variety of reactions to these different issues.
• Socio-Cultural Transformation: The press spread ideas of social reforms and campaigned against the existing
social evil. Eg. Sambad Kaumudi by Raja Rammohan Roy had actively campaigned for the abolition(stop) of the Sati
Pratha.
• Promoting Nationalism: The press not only laid the foundation of the nation-state, rather created feelings of
nationalism, secularism and pro-public administration i.e. self-governing institutions in India.
• Economic awakening: Dadabhai Naroji, M G Ranade and many others propagated the theory of “Drain of Wealth”
through the press which resulted in awakening of economic consciousness among people.
• Opposed the oppressive and exploitative policies of the colonial regime: It resulted in the growth of anti-
imperialist feelings which strengthened the freedom struggle.
• Strengthening unity: The press stated that the political agitation should be made strong in India and the Indians
should forget the hatred that existed among different religious groups in the country.
EVOLUTION OF CIVIL SERVICES IN INDIA
The early beginnings of civil service in India date back to the years following 1757 when the East India Company became
the de facto ruler in several regions. The company established the Covenanted Civil Services (CCS).
EVENTS AFFECTING ITS EVOLUTION:
• Appointment of collector: In 1770, the then governor general Warren Hastings divided Bengal into districts and
appointed collector.
• Separation of power: Governor-general Cornwallis separated the judiciary from the collector. Hence he is known
as the ‘father of civil services’.
o Wellesley established Fort William College in 1800 for training the newly recruited civil servants.
• Patronage system: Till 1853, all civil servants were nominated by the Court of Directors.
40
• Charter Act, 1853: Court of Directors lost the patronage system. Hence 1813 onwards, exams were to be held in
London for selecting civil servants.
• Indian Civil Service Act, 1861: The civil services act 1861 laid down that any person, whether Indian or European
could be appointed to any of the offices (specified in the schedule annexed), provided that he had resided for a
minimum of 7 years in India.
• Aitchison Commission: The Aitchison Commission was appointed in 1886 to review the organisation of the Indian
civil services. The commission submitted its report in 1887, recommending the reorganisation of the services into
three groups: Imperial, Provincial, and Subordinate.
• Government of India Act, 1919: It provided for the establishment of the Public Service Commission at the
provincial level.
o The time civil services exams were held in India was in 1923.
• Lee Commission: In 1923, the British government asked the Lee Commission to investigate the racial composition
of the superior Indian public services offered by the Indian government.
• Government of India Act, 1935: It provided for the establishment of the Federal Public Service Commission.
• Post-Independence: J. L Nehru wanted to abolish the ICS but Sardar Patel emphasised creating a strong
bureaucracy.
ROLE OF CIVIL SERVICES IN BRITISH INDIA
• Commercial affairs: Initially, the servants of the company who were involved in commercial affairs were the civil
servants.
• As collector: He was the head of the revenue organization, charged with registration, alteration, and partition of
holdings; the settlement of disputes; the management of indebted estates; loans to agriculturists, and famine relief.
• As district magistrate: He exercised general supervision over the inferior courts and in particular, directed the
police work.
• Held all the key posts: These officers surrounded the Viceroy and dominated the provincial governments.
• Overseeing government activity: They were ultimately responsible for overseeing all government activity in the
two hundred and fifty districts that comprised British India.
• Safety valve: Some historians are of the view that A.O Hume, a civil servant, formed the INC for releasing the growing
discontent of the Indians.
HOW CIVIL SERVANT HELPED IN BRITISH EXPANSION?
British civil servants played a crucial role in facilitating the expansion and consolidation of British rule in India through
strategic administration, policy enforcement, and infrastructure development. Some of them are as follows:
• Administrative Control: Lord Cornwallis reformed the administrative system by introducing the Cornwallis Code,
which professionalized the civil service, thereby ensuring efficient governance and control over vast territories.
• Revenue Collection: The implementation of the Permanent Settlement in Bengal by civil servants under Cornwallis
standardized revenue collection, significantly increasing the revenue flow to Britain and stabilizing British economic
interests in the region.
• Legal and Judicial Roles:The establishment of the Indian Civil Service (ICS) created a cadre of civil servants who
enforced British laws and suppressed local dissent, thereby embedding British authority more deeply within Indian
society.
• Survey and Mapping:The Great Trigonometrical Survey led by Sir George Everest provided detailed geographical
data that was essential for military and administrative planning, aiding the expansion of British control into new
regions.
• Policy Implementation: Civil servants implemented the Railways and Telegraph Act, which helped build
infrastructure that not only improved communication and transport but also enabled quicker military deployments
and economic exploitation.
• Diplomatic and Political Manipulation: Civil servants like Lord Dalhousie utilized the Doctrine of Lapse policy to
annex states whose rulers were deemed incompetent or who died without a biological heir, significantly expanding
British territory in India.
• Infrastructure Development: Under British civil servant administration, the development of railways, such as the
establishment of the Indian Railways network starting in 1853, facilitated the rapid movement of troops and goods,
integrating the Indian economy with global markets and reinforcing British dominance.
41
DEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL BODIES UNDER BRITISH RULE
The British came to India as traders. The local governments were hardly their first priority. In fact, till the advent of
British rule in India, the rural republic had flourished and thrived. During the British period, the Panchayati Raj
institution was created only to collect revenue and the power was actually not transferred to the institution.
Measures taken with regard to local bodies:
• In the initial days of British rule, the interest of the British was limited to the creation of local bodies with nominated
members. These bodies were built around trading centres.
• It was Lord Mayo, the then viceroy of India (1869 to 1872), who felt the need to decentralise powers to bring about
administrative efficiency and in the year 1870 introduced the concept of elected representatives in the urban
municipalities.
• The Bengal Chowkidar Act, 1870:
o The original village panchayati system in Bengal was revived with the Bengal Chowkidar Act of 1870.
o The Chowkidar Act gave district judges the authority to form panchayats in the villages with designated members
to collect taxes for the chowkidars or watchmen they employed.
Ripon Resolution, 1882:
o Incredibly, Lord Ripon contributed to the growth of local government. He abandoned the previous in-place
system of municipal administration run by formally nominated members.
o His local self-government proposal called for the local boards to be divided into smaller groups to increase
efficiency.
o He established an election process for the local boards to ensure public engagement.
• Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919:
o This reform transferred the subject of local government to the domain of provinces.
o The reform also recommended that as far as possible there should be complete popular control in local bodies
and the largest possible independence for them, from outside control.
• Government of India Act (1935):
o Most provincial administrations felt obligated to pass laws to further democratise local self-government
organisations, including village panchayats, as a result of the provinces having popularly elected governments.
BRITISH POLICY TOWARDS INDIAN STATES
The British policy towards the princely states of India was determined by their own ambitions which ranged from
reaching parity to complete subjugation. The various British Rule policies can be used to chart the development of
interactions between British rule and Indian states.
Policy of the British Description of the Policy
Policy of Ring of Fence • This policy, which attempted to establish buffer zones to protect the Company's
(1765-1813) borders, was reflected in Warren Hastings' conflicts with the Marathas and the
Mysore Empire.
• Wellesley's subsidiary alliance policy was an extension of the ring fence policy.
Policy of Subordinate • As the idea of imperialism spread, the ideology of paramountcy started to take
Isolation (1813-1857) shape.
• Indian nations were expected to cooperate with the British administration in a
subordinate manner to recognise its superiority.
• The states retained internal administrative sovereignty but gave up all forms of
exterior sovereignty.
Policy of Subordinate • With the power to declare war, peace, or neutrality for states, the Indian
Union (1857-1935) government possessed total and undeniable influence over international affairs.
• The British government exercised its right to intervene in the internal affairs of
states.
• For international relations, state territory is in the same position as British
territory, and state subjects are in the same position as British subjects," wrote the
Butler Commission in 1927.
Policy of Equal • The Government of India Act of 1935 proposed a Federal Assembly.
Federation (1935-1947) • To enlist the assistance of Princely States in reducing the power of the National
Movement.
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ECONOMIC POLICIES OF THE BRITISH
The economic policies of the British were concerned with the protection and promotion of British economic interests.
It was not directed to develop the economic condition of the colonised country and its people. Such policies brought
about a fundamental change in the structure of the Indian economy — transforming the country into supplier of raw
materials and consumer of finished industrial products from Britain. Thus, India became a market for industrialised
Britain.
Economic policy during different phases:
• Early phase of the foundation of British rule:
o The company’s priority was to finance Indian trade through Indian resources.
o British policy in India placed a strong emphasis on increasing revenue collection and encouraging trade
investment.
o Consequently, the drain of wealth started from India to Britain which impoverished Bengal and adversely affected
the Indian economy.
• Early 19th century:
o Rise of industrial capitalism in Britain.
o Shift in economic policy to convert India into a market for Britain’s finished goods while supplying raw materials.
o It resulted in the decline of handicraft industries and the commercialization of agriculture which caused poverty,
unemployment and recurring incidence of famine.
• Post-1858:
o India was kept open for British capital investment.
o The influx of capital from Britain to India for investment in railways, the shipping industry etc and in return, home
charges incurred.
ECONOMIC DRAIN THEORY AND ITS PROPONENTS'
The drain was conceived as a unilateral transfer of resources from India to Britain without any corresponding economic
or commercial gain.
Proponents of the theory:
• Dadabhai Naoroji:
o In 1867, in a speech, he argued that Britain was siphoning off India’s wealth which amounted to about 25 per cent
of the country’s revenue which was ‘added to the resources of England’.
o In 1873, he further criticised Britain for ‘ignoring India’s interests and making it the drudge for the benefit
of England’.
o His book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901) remains a significant milestone in the formulation of the
nationalist political economy
• R C Dutt:
o In his book “Economic History of India”, he wrote about the entire economic system of the nation under
Britishers, since the Battle of Plassey
o One-half of India’s net revenue flows out of India each year, according to R.C. Dutt
• M G Ranade:
o M G Ranade wrote “Essay on Indian Economics” showing the drain of wealth.
o He declared that more than a third of the national income of India was taken away by the government in one form
or another.
• William Digby:
o According to his calculations, the annual drainage was £30 million.
HISTORIAN’S VIEW
“Under the native despot the people keep and enjoy what they produce, though at times they suffer some violence.
Under the British Indian despot, the man is at peace, there is no violence; his substance is drained away, unseen,
peaceably and subtly— he starves in peace, and peaceably perishes in peace, with law and order” - Dadabhai
Naoroji
43
Constituents of the drain of wealth:
• Commercial revenues: Through territorial expansion, the company was able to increase commercial revenues and
get access to Indian goods for export.
• Transfer of private capital: The transfer of private capital to England was also part of the drain.
• Home Charges also formed a major part of the drain. This included salaries/ pensions paid to the Company's
employees in England.
• Salary: The money paid to banks, insurance companies, and shipping corporations in England for services provided
in India was another way that wealth was transferred away from India.
HISTORIAN’S VIEW
“Our system acts very much like a sponge, drawing up all the good things from the banks of the Ganges, and
squeezing them down on the banks of the Thames” - John Sullivan
Impact of the Drain of Wealth:
• Revenue Export: A substantial portion of India's revenue was sent to Britain as "Home Charges," which included
payments for British civil and military services in India, pensions, and interests on British investments. For example,
a significant part of the revenue generated from Indian taxpayers was used to pay salaries and pensions of British
officials working in India.
• Deindustrialization of India: British policies favored the import of British manufactured goods and stifled Indian
industry, leading to the decline of traditional crafts and industries. This included imposing high tariffs on Indian
manufactured goods while allowing British goods to enter India with little or no duty. Cities like Dhaka, once famous
for their muslins, saw their weavers' livelihoods destroyed.
• Capital Investments for British Benefit: Infrastructure projects like railways and telegraphs primarily served
British military and economic interests rather than fostering Indian economic development. Railways, For example,
were used to transport raw materials from the interior to ports for shipment to England and brought British goods
back into India, undermining local businesses.
• Agricultural Exploitation: The colonial emphasis on cash crop cultivation (like cotton and indigo) for export
markets led to the displacement of food crops, contributing to food shortages and famines. The forced cultivation
policies, which mandated farmers to grow certain crops, severely impacted the agricultural economy and food self-
sufficiency.
• Famines and Poverty: British agricultural policies and heavy taxation contributed to several famines in India. The
Great Bengal Famine of 1770, the famine of 1876-78, and the early 1940s Bengal Famine, which collectively killed
millions, were exacerbated by these policies. During these famines, food exports to Britain continued despite massive
local shortages.
• Neglect of Education and Health: Little of the wealth drained from India was reinvested in vital public services like
education and healthcare. The literacy rates and health conditions in India lagged far behind other regions under
British rule, impacting India's social and economic development for generations.
How drain of wealth theory appealed general masses
• Economic awakening: People realised that the British rule was inimical to the economic interests of India because
the economic policies of the colonial government were geared towards the benefits of Britain.
• Economic Nationalism: Economic Nationalism emerged in India out of the ideological contestation between the
colonial government officials and the early nationalists who propounded the Drain of Wealth theory.
• Anti-Imperialistic feeling: It started to grow in the masses because of widespread poverty and exploitation.
• Exposure to the reality of the British: It exposed the exploitative and selfish nature of British rule and made people
believe that the British were the main reason for existing poverty.
REVENUE POLICIES, INDIAN AGRICULTURE AND BRITISH RULE
Maximising revenue from the colony became the main goal of the British administration after the Diwani of Bengal,
Bihar, and Orissa were awarded to the East India Company in 1765. The company's primary source of revenue was from
agricultural taxes, and it had to distribute dividends to its British investors. To achieve this, the British government
experimented with a variety of land revenue strategies.
LAND REVENUE SYSTEMS:
• Izaredar system (1773):
o Under revenue farming, introduced by Warren Hastings in Bengal, European District Collectors would 'farm' out
the right to collect money to the highest bidder.
o Due to the arbitrarily high revenue demands, this system was a complete disaster and destroyed the growers.
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o The failure of the Izaredar system highlighted the need for a more equitable and sustainable revenue collection
method, eventually leading to the introduction of the Permanent Settlement in 1793.
• Permanent settlement (1793):
o Origin: Cornwallis introduced the system of Permanent Settlement in 1793 under which the ‘zamindars’, were
o established as the proprietors or owners of the land.
o Role of zamindars: Zamindars collected land revenue from the farmers. The state was to receive 10/11th of the
rent the zamindars collected from the peasantry, with only 1/11th going to the zamindars themselves. The
amounts they were required to pay as land revenue were made permanent.
o Regions: West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, UP, Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh had the highest prevalence of the
system.
o Advantages:
▪ Increased crop production: The company aimed to establish a business-minded class of landowners through
this system, who would work to increase crop production in their farms to make money.
▪ Ease of administration: Dealing with a small number of zamindars rather than every peasant would be easier
for the state.
▪ Rise of loyal class: A significant portion of society would develop loyalty to the British government.
o Drawbacks:
▪ Impoverishment: It led to greater impoverishment of the tenant-cultivator because of the burden of high
revenue assessment.
▪ Sunset clause: It also caused great difficulty for zamindars, many of whom were unable to pay the revenue
on time and lost their lands under the ‘sunset clause’.
▪ Collapse of Zamindar Houses: A large number of traditional zamindar houses collapsed.
▪ Sub-infeudation: The system also encouraged sub-infeudation i.e. many layers of intermediaries between the
zamindar and cultivator, adding to the woes of the peasantry.
• Ryotwari system (1820):
o Origin: Under the Ryotwari system, introduced by Alexander Read and Thomas Munro, revenue was initially
collected from each village separately, but later each cultivator or ‘ryot’ was assessed individually
o Property Ownership: Peasants, not zamindars, were established as property owners.
o Regions: Madras, Bombay presidencies.
o Advantages: Increased revenue collected by the state due to the absence of any intermediary.
o Drawbacks:
▪ The assessments were faulty.
▪ The peasants were overburdened by the taxes.
▪ Unable to pay the taxes, the peasants go-to money lenders who exploited them.
• Mahalwari system (1822):
o Under this system, introduced by Holt Mackenzie, the state made settlements with either the village community
o or, in some cases, the traditional ‘taluqdar’.
o Some recognition was given to collective proprietary rights.
o Regions: North and North-West parts of India.
o Advantages:
▪ Stabilised income for the government.
▪ The more efficient revenue system.
o Drawbacks:
▪ The exploitation of the farmers/cultivators.
▪ The farmers were bound to pay taxes even in drought
IMPACT OF THE LAND REVENUE SYSTEM
• Lack of innovation in agriculture: Agriculture becomes stagnant owing to the lack of any technological innovation
due to the poor financial condition of the cultivators.
• Poor condition of peasants: Peasants almost became tenants at will.
• Absentee landlordism: It increased the number of landed intermediaries and sub-intermediaries giving rise to
absentee landlordism.
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• Rise of the money lending class: Time-bound and excessive demand for revenue by the British government forced
the peasants to take loans from the moneylenders who in turn exploited the peasants by imposing high-interest
rates.
• Rise of landlords and zamindars: Landlords and zamindars became an important class and collaborators of British
colonial rule.
• Territorial expansion: The greed for income from land revenue also led the Company to pursue an aggressive
policy of territorial expansion in India.
COMMERCIALISATION OF AGRICULTURE:
• Introduction:
o The commercialization of Indian agriculture started post-1813 when the industrial revolution in England gained
pace.
o Around 1860 A.D., commercial agriculture started to gain prominence, coinciding with the Industrial Revolution.
o The crops on which the company concentrated were indigo, cotton, raw silk, opium, pepper, and, in the 19th
century, also tea and sugar.
Factors leading to commercialisation:
• British paramountcy: British-instituted political unification and the emergence of the single national market that
followed.
• Industrial Revolution in Britain: Many commercial crops such as cotton, jute, tea, and tobacco were introduced to
meet the demand for raw materials in Britain.
• Cultural erosion: The replacement of custom and tradition by competition and contract also led to the
commercialization of Indian agriculture.
• Improved communication and transport infrastructure: The ability to trade agricultural goods, especially across
vast distances, was made possible by improved communication and transport like the expansion of railways etc.
• Monetization of land revenue payments: The spread of the money economy replaced the barter and agricultural
goods became market items.
Effects of commercialisation:
o Impoverishment:
▪ The exports of cash crops served essentially to remit resources out of India.
▪ The Indian 'tribute' was transferred to Britain.
▪ India received no imports in return for these exports.
o Increased dependency on moneylenders: Indian moneylenders advanced Cash advances to the farmers to
cultivate the commercial crops and if the peasants failed to pay them back in time, the land of peasants came
under the ownership of moneylenders.
o Instability in the rural economy:
▪ Commercialisation led to instability in the price.
▪ For example, if the West Indian sugar crop was good, prices might fall in Calcutta, and the sugar factories in
Azamgarh might pay the peasants less than they had promised.
o Under-development of full labour market: The continual use of coercion and State power distorted the
markets and prevented the appearance of a full labour market.
o Small farming: Neither the methods nor the organisation of production was altered. As a result, small farming
based on family labour remained the predominant form in the Indian countryside.
o Occurrence of famine: Scarcity of food grains due to the substitution of commercial non-food crops which
resulted in a reduction in the area under cultivation of food crops.
o Peasant Revolts: Oppression of Indian peasants by the British eg. Indigo revolt in 1859.
o Positive impact:
▪ Social exchange: Commercialisation encouraged social exchange and it made possible the transformation of
the Indian economy into a capitalistic form.
▪ Economic nationalism: It strengthened economic nationalism when agricultural problems acquired national
form.
▪ Region specific crop cultivation: It also brought about regional specialization of crops on an efficient basis.
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HISTORIAN’S VIEW
“The servants of the Company forced the natives to buy dear and sell cheap... Enormous fortunes were thus rapidly
accumulated at Calcutta, while thirty millions of human beings were reduced to the extremity of wretchedness. They
had never [had to live] under tyranny like this…” — Macaulay
THE DECLINE OF TRADITIONAL ARTISANAL INDUSTRY AND THE CRIPPLING OF THE RURAL ECONOMY
The decline started post-1757 when the EIC established a monopoly over the production of the Bengal artisans. Artisans
were forced to supply goods at low prices to the Company which created great hardship for the weavers and other
artisans.
FACTORS BEHIND THE DECLINE
• The disappearance of court culture: Artisans were deprived of patrons and contractual transactions owing to the
disappearance of court culture
• Anglicisation of Indians: The newly established Indian "bourgeoisie" not only despised local industries' goods but
also attempted to imitate everything European.
• Competition from machine-made goods: The British could import their machine-made textiles to India and sell
them at a lower price and in greater quantities.
• One-way trade policies: Britishers were able to access Indian markets duty-free. In contrast, substantial taxes were
imposed on Indian goods in the European markets.
• Prohibition of use and possession of arms: British rule also effectively killed a handicraft which used to produce
arms, weapons and shields by active prohibition of their use and possession.
• Development of infrastructure: Improved transport facilities like railways made India’s hinterland accessible for
economic and commercial exploitation.
DECLINE OF TRADITIONAL INDUSTRY AND THE SUBSEQUENT CRIPPLING OF THE RURAL ECONOMY
• Economic ruralisation: There were no local enterprises developed to replace the traditional means of subsistence.
This aided in the economic ruralization process.
• Shifting to agriculture: Due to the decline of traditional employment, artisans turned to agriculture as a source of
income which increased dependency and pressure on land.
• Rise in rural poverty: Excess dependency on agriculture led to rise in poverty and distorted the village economic
set up.
• Rise of intermediaries: Merchants, bankers, Baniya, and other middlemen started to rule the economic and social
ties in the rural economy under colonialism as cash, credit, and contracts gained popularity.
• The destitution of tribals and small peasants: Decrease in demand for MFP by the artisans resulted in the
distortion of the tribal economy.
• The decline of weekly haats: Suffering of the peasants and artisans resulted in fewer spots-transactions and thus
several communities discontinued holding weekly haats.
DEINDUSTRIALISATION AND RURALISATION OF THE INDIAN ECONOMY
According to Karl Marx, "It was the British intruder who broke up the Indian handloom and destroyed the spinning
wheel. England began by driving the Indian cotton from the European market; it then introduced a twist into Hindustan,
and in the end, inundated the very mother country of cotton with cotton”. The decay of Dacca, Surat, Murshidabad and
many other flourishing towns bears testimony to the de-industrialization of India
The motive behind systematic de-industrialisation:
• Demand for raw material: To get the raw materials from India at a cheap rate.
• Facilitating industrial revolution in Britain: To reduce India to a mere exporter of raw materials to fulfil the needs
of British industries driven by the industrial revolution.
• Market for British goods: To sell the British manufactured goods in the Indian market at a higher price.
EVENTS LEADING TO DEINDUSTRIALISATION:
• Calico Act: In 1720, the British government banned the use of printed cotton textiles in England.
• Charter Act of 1813: After the Charter Act of 1813, cheap and machine-made imports flooded the Indian market.
• Decline in Indian exports: After 1820, European markets were virtually closed to Indian exports.
• Creation of communication infrastructure: Rail networks established in 1855 facilitate accessibility to the
remotest corner of the country.
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HISTORIAN’S VIEW
“The armour of the isolated self-sufficient village was pierced by the steel rail, and its life blood ebbed away” — D.H.
Buchanan
REASONS FOR DEINDUSTRIALISATION

• Disappearance of court culture: The decline of the traditional ruling class that promoted indigenous crafts.
• No industrialisation in India: The loss of traditional livelihood was not accompanied by a process of
industrialisation in India.
• Anglicisation of Indians: These newly created Indian 'bourgeoisie' not only disdained the products of indigenous
• industries but also tried to copy everything European which was considered to be the "hallmark of enlightenment”.
• Industrial Revolution in Britain: It resulted in the influx of machine-made goods.
• Tariff policy: To put her manufacturing industries on a sound footing at home, England pursued the policy of
protection through the imposition of import duties. But for India, she preached the gospel of free trade.
• Weak industrial structure in India: Due to which the Indian manufacturers were unable to find new markets. India
also did not have a class of industrial entrepreneurs.
IMPACT OF DEINDUSTRIALISATION
• Distortion of village economy: British ended the “blending of agriculture and handicrafts”. The internal balance of
the village economy was snapped.
• Unemployment and under-employment: It caused an imbalance in the occupational structure leading to rural
unemployment and under-employment.
• Deurbanisation: It led to the decline of many towns.
• Ruralisation of India: The artisans were displaced from traditional occupations. Finding no other alternative source
of livelihood, the artisans fell back on land.
• Peasantisation: overcrowding of agriculture took place which resulted in -
o problems of subdivision and fragmentation of land holdings
o over-cultivation or cultivation of inferior and unproductive land
o subsistence agriculture
o shortage of capital resources required for improvements in land
• Stimulating patriotic sentiments: Patriotic sentiments arised among intellectuals alike in the Moderate, Extremist
and Gandhian eras, as well as more directly, in occasional urban and rural explosions of various types.
Differential impact of de-industrialization:
• The failure of imported goods to replace specific varieties of indigenous products.
• The protection provided by the absence of market integration at the village level in many areas.
• The forced continuation of some crafts even though they are unprofitable due to the lack of more viable employment
opportunities.
HISTORIAN’S VIEW
“…deindustrialisation was a deliberate British policy, not an accident. British industry flourished and Indian industry
did not because of systematic destruction abetted by tariffs and regulatory measures that stacked the decks in favour
of British industry conquering the Indian market, rather than the other way around” — Shashi Tharoor in “An Era
of Darkness”
SUDDEN SPURT IN FAMINES IN COLONIAL INDIA SINCE THE MID-EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
Famine is a situation where many people lack food and die from hunger and disease. During the British period, there
were a total of 31 famines. The most devastating was the Bengal Famine of 1943, which resulted in the death of
approximately 2 to 3 million people. These famines were largely a result of colonial policies, including rack-renting, free
trade, neglect of agriculture, and high levies.
REASONS FOR THE OCCURRENCE OF FAMINES:
• Neglecting agricultural investment: For e.g. food grain production was negatively impacted by poor rainfall since
there were no irrigation facilities.
• Exporting food grains: The British government kept on exporting food grains to its native country England and
elsewhere despite the shortage in India.
• Feeding army: It also used food grains to feed its soldiers who were fighting wars in different parts of the world.
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• Poverty: Famines were a direct result of poverty.
• Commercialization of agriculture: Shifting of agriculture from producing food grains to cash crops.
• Changes in the composition of India’s trade also resulted in food scarcity.
Impact of famines:
• Stagnation of Population Growth: It occurs due to mass mortality.
• Destruction of traditional Indian society: It happened owing to mass migration, overcrowding, conflicts for the last
grain etc.
• Increased exploitation of women: It forces a large number of women into prostitution.
• Cloth famine: The British army consumed nearly all the textiles produced in India, resulting in scarcity of clean
clothing, or any clothing at all.
• Homeless women and children: Men began selling off their land as a result of the famine in order to advance and join
the army. In their quest for relief, they continued moving from one location to another. The ladies and their kids were
left homeless as a result.
• Unhygiene and outbreak of infection: The famines cause extensive sanitary problems, appalling hygiene practices,
and an outbreak of infection.
DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN MEANS OF COMMUNICATION AND TECHNOLOGY
Under the colonial regime, basic infrastructure such as railways, ports, water transport, posts and telegraphs developed.
The real motive behind this development was not to provide basic amenities to the people but to subserve various
colonial interests.
Different infrastructures developed under British rule:
Infrastructure Description
• It enabled people to undertake long-distance travel and thereby break geographical and
Railways cultural barriers.
• It fostered the commercialisation of Indian agriculture which adversely affected the self-
sufficiency of the village economies in India.
• It served the purpose of mobilising the army within India.
Roads • To draw out raw materials from the countryside to the nearest railway station or the port
to send these to far away England or other lucrative foreign destinations.
Port • To export raw materials and import finished goods from Britain.
Post • Despite serving a useful public purpose, remained inadequate.
Inland water • At times it proved uneconomical as in the case of the Coast Canal on the Orissa coast.
ways
Electric • It served the purpose of maintaining law and order.
Telegraph • To enhance the efficiency of administration.
How development of these infrastructure helped Indian freedom struggle?

• Breaking geographical and cultural barriers: The railways facilitated the movement of people across the country.
• Strengthening unity among masses: The railway stations became sites of mass-nationalism which were used for
truly secular purposes by M.K Gandhi, thus strengthening unity among masses.
• Connected national leaders: All educated nationalists from various regions of the subcontinent were able to
communicate with one another through improved communication infrastructure. They addressed their issues that
they were having living under foreign control and exchanged ideas.
• Exposure of real nature of British rule: With improved connectivity, people quickly figured out that British rule
was to blame for the widespread land theft that occurred throughout the Indian subcontinent, with no region being
exempted.
• Provide easy targets for revolutionaries: For example, for anti-British sabotage the trains became the most
symbolic as well as practical recourse.
SOCIAL POLICIES
DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION UNDER BRITISH
Modern education in India began under British rule, transitioning from the traditional Gurukulas and Madrassas. Pre-
1835, early efforts included establishing the Calcutta Madrasa (1781) and Sanskrit College (1791). Post-1835, Lord
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Macaulay's Minute on Education advocated for English instruction and Western knowledge, leading to the founding of
universities in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras in 1857.
MEASURES TAKEN BETWEEN 1764 AND 1835:
During this period the Britishers tried to learn different regional languages and understand the diverse cultures for
better administration through the following establishments:
• Calcutta Madrasa in 1781: Warren Hastings established Calcutta Madarsa in 1781 to study Islamic law written in
Urdu/Persian.
• Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784: William Jones established the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784 to understand
Indian culture and history.
• Sanskrit College in 1791: Jonathan Duncan established Sanskrit College in 1791 at Varanasi to study Hindu law.
• Charter Act of 1813: In the Charter Act of 1813, 1 lakh rupee was allocated for the promotion of the Indian education
system.
• Hindu College in 1817: Raja Rammohan Roy and David Hare established the Hindu College in 1817
MEASURES TAKEN BETWEEN 1835 AND 1947:
During this period, the spread of English education was prevalent.
• Orientalist-Anglicist controversy: A conflict of opinion on whether the EIC should promote Western education or
Indian education and debate over the medium of instruction between English or Indian languages led to a
controversy known as the Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy.
• Lord Macaulay’s Minute of 1835: In 1835, to address the Orientalist-Anglicist controversy, William Bentick formed
a General Committee of Public Instruction under the chairmanship of Lord Macaulay who settled the debate in favour
of Anglicists.
• Charles Wood Despatch in 1854:
o It is also known as the Magna Carta of English education.
o Recommendations:
▪ Medium of instruction: Woods advocated for the use of vernacular languages in elementary schools, Anglo-
vernacular languages in high schools, and English as the medium of teaching for college students.
▪ Mass education: It recommended expansion of mass education
▪ Creation of universities: The Despatch
advocated for the creation of
universities in the three Presidency
towns of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras.
▪ Grant-in-aid: A grant-in-aid system for
Indian education was promoted by
Wood's Despatch.
▪ Women’s education: The Despatch
advocated for continued government
support of women's education.
▪ Teacher training: The Wood's
Despatch suggested opening teacher
training programmes in every province.
Teachers in special schools should have
training in engineering, medicine, and
law.
▪ Network of graded schools: The
Wood's Despatch promoted the
creation of a network of graded schools
across the country.
o Impact:
▪ Establishment of provincial
universities: In 1857, universities were
established in Bombay, Madras, and
Calcutta.
▪ Education departments: These were
set up in each province.
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▪ Education for women: Bethune School was founded by J.E.D. Bethune to provide education for women.
▪ Creation of institution: Both an agricultural institute at Pusa, Bihar, and an engineering institute in Roorkee
were established.
▪ Westernisation of education: British India's educational system swiftly underwent a process of
Westernisation thanks to the presence of European headmasters and principals in schools and colleges.
▪ Independent Indian educators: There were independent Indian educators.
• Hunter Commission in (1882-1883): The Hunter Commission, appointed in 1882, emphasised primary and
secondary education, recommended more government schools, increased Indian involvement in education
administration, and improved female education.
• Thomas Rayleigh Commission in 1904: It was established to examine the working of universities in India which
led to the Indian University Act 1904.
• Resolution on Education policy of 1913: In this policy, the government accepted the responsibility of removal of
illiteracy and urged the provincial government to provide free elementary education.
• Saddler university commission in 1917: To examine the working of Calcutta University.
• Hartog Commission of 1929: The Hartog Commission was set up in 1929 to examine the development of education
in India. It focused on reducing dropout rates, promoting vocational education, and improving primary and
secondary education.
• Sergeant Plan of Education in 1944: It
recommended adequate technical, commercial,
and arts education.
Reason for spread of English education by the
British:
• Filling low-post in Administration: To assure a
low-cost supply of educated Indians to fill an
expanding number of subordinate positions in
British commercial concerns.
• Creating market for British goods: They
expected that educated Indians will aid in
boosting the market for British goods in India.
• Glorify British rule: There was a belief that
Western education would help Indians accept
British rule, especially as it praised the virtues of the British conquerors and their rule.
• Strengthening authority: To fortify the pillars of their political dominance in India through the spread of English
education.
• Pacifying missionaries: The missionaries promoted the adoption of Western education primarily for proselytising
purposes.
Assessment of the British efforts on Education:
• Ignorance of women’s education: The administration largely ignored women's education because it did not want
to upset the orthodox portions.
• Ignorance of technical education: Education in the sciences and technologies was severely disregarded. Only three
medical schools existed in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras by 1857, and the sole good engineering school was in
Roorkee, which was only accessible to Europeans and Eurasians.
• Maintaining balance between the community and state: In between the two social systems, the educational
system grew to balance the demands of the community and the State.
• No universal access to education: Norms of access to education was governed by the traditions of each locality.
The State was not particular about this aspect and hence there was no regulation governing access applicable to all
types of institutions.
• Educational administrator: With the advent of English education, a separate role of educational administrator
entered into the structure of education.
• Uneven impact of English education: The impact of English education was not even. Literacy and education were
more widespread in towns than in villages.
• Neglecting mass education: Under the Colonial Rule, mass education was neglected and the attempt was to create
an urban educated elite that would act as interpreter between the ruler and the ruled.
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IMPACT OF BRITISH EDUCATION:
• Rise of educated middle class: It helped in creating a new class of people who later helped the British in governance
as well as in controlling many aspects of administration in India.
• Enhanced role of Christian Missionaries: Christian missionaries who came to India started opening schools where
English was taught.
• Connecting masses: Use of English by Indians provided one language that cut across the entire country and became
a common link for them.
• Influence from the West: English books and newspapers brought to them new ideas from across the sea, i.e. other
countries.
• Rise of national consciousness: Fresh ideas from the west like freedom, democracy, equality and brotherhood
began to have its impact on the thinking of the English knowing Indians which gave rise to national consciousness.
• Rise of political leaders and social reformers: It produced a breed of educated political leaders and social
reformers who played important roles in the freedom struggle of the country.
• Awakening among the masses: The publication of newspapers and pamphlets brought about an awakening among
the masses.
• Sense of inferiority: Mahatma Gandhi argued that colonial education created a sense of inferiority in the minds of
Indians. It made them see Western civilisation as superior, and destroyed the pride they had in their own culture.
Women education in British India:
• Role of Christian Missionaries:
o They took interest in the education of girls.
o Robert May, a Christian Missionary, in 1814 & 1815, established several schools in Chinsura (Hooghly District)
that were also served for the female education.
• Role of British government:
o Wood’s Education Dispatch of 1854: It gave new focus to women’s education.
o Hunter commission: It also emphasised on the need for female education in 1881.
o Higher education: The Calcutta, Bombay and Madras universities did not permit admission to girls upto 1875.
After 1882 girls were allowed to go for higher education.
o Increase in the minimum marriageable age: The cause of female education has benefited greatly from the
increase in the minimum marriageable age of girls.
• Social reformers:
o Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar: Vidyasagar in Calcutta and many other reformers in Bombay set up schools for
girls.
o Brahmo Samaj: Members of the Brahmo Samaj wrote journals for the promotion of women’s education.
o Savitribai Phule: Hailed as a pioneer in women's education, Savitribai Phule and her husband, social reformer
Jyotirao Phule started what is believed to be India's first school for girls Bhidewada in Pune city in 1848, and she
became its first teacher.
• Timeline of development:
o Throughout the nineteenth century: Most educated women were taught at home by liberal fathers or
husbands.
o Later part of the century: Schools for girls were established by the Arya Samaj in Punjab, and Jyotirao Phule in
Maharashtra.
o Early twentieth century: Muslim women like the Begums of Bhopal played a notable role in promoting
education among women. They founded a primary school for girls at Aligarh. Another remarkable woman, Begum
Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain started schools for Muslim girls in Patna and Calcutta.
o By the 1880s: Indian women began to enter universities. Some of them trained to be doctors, some became
teachers. Many women began to write and publish their critical views on the place of women in society.
o By the end of the nineteenth century: Women themselves were actively working for reform. They wrote books,
o edited magazines, founded schools and training centres, and set up women’s associations.
o From the early twentieth century: They formed political pressure groups to push through laws for female
suffrage (the right to vote) and better health care and education for women.
o In the twentieth century: Leaders such as Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose lent their support to
demands for greater equality and freedom for women thus promoting female education.
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COMPARISON BETWEEN MAHATMA GANDHI AND RABINDRA NATH TAGORE
Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore, two towering figures in Indian history, had distinct and influential views
on education, reflecting their philosophical beliefs and visions for India. Here’s a comparative analysis of their
educational philosophies:
1. Philosophical Foundations
o Gandhi: His educational philosophy, often referred to as Nai Talim or Basic Education, was deeply rooted in
pragmatism and morality. Gandhi believed education should be closely integrated with the life of the community
and should emphasize self-reliance. He saw education as a tool to achieve total development of the individual,
socially, economically, and morally.
o Tagore: In contrast, Tagore’s philosophy was more idealistic, influenced by a blend of Eastern and Western
philosophies. He emphasized the aesthetic development of the senses in addition to the intellectual development
of the mind. Tagore believed in education that nurtured a deep connection with nature and fostered creative
expression.
2. Curriculum and Pedagogy
o Gandhi: Advocated for an education system that was work-centered and linked to the socio-economic
environment of the learner. The curriculum under Nai Talim included manual labor, craft work, and self-
sufficiency, alongside traditional academic subjects, to foster dignity of labor and economic self-sufficiency.
o Tagore: Tagore’s curriculum at Shantiniketan was broad and inclusive, emphasizing arts, music, dance, and
drama, alongside traditional subjects. He believed in an open-air education, where students were free from the
conventional restrictive classroom setting, which he thought stifled creativity.
3. Goals of Education
o Gandhi: His ultimate goal was to cultivate moral citizens and self-reliant individuals who could serve and uplift
rural communities. Gandhi's vision included using education as a means to achieve swaraj (self-rule) and to
promote social reforms.
o Tagore: Sought to produce global citizens who were deeply humane, creatively free, and capable of independent
thought. Tagore’s education aimed at transcending geographical and cultural boundaries to foster a universal
bond among people.
4. Methodologies
o Gandhi: Emphasized learning through doing. He was a proponent of experiential learning where education was
directly linked to the practical aspects of life. He encouraged an education system that was not solely based on
textual knowledge but on practical engagement with the environment.
o Tagore: Advocated for personalized education, where teaching was adapted to the individual needs of a child. He
stressed the importance of motivation in education, arguing that a love for learning was more important than
rigorous academic pursuit.
5. Impact and Legacy
o Gandhi: Nai Talim influenced various educational initiatives in India focused on vocational training and skill
development, particularly in rural areas. However, its impact was limited in terms of widespread formal adoption
in mainstream education.
o Tagore: Tagore’s ideas led to the establishment of Visva-Bharati University, which continues to be a center for
progressive education and cultural exchange. His educational experiments have influenced open schooling and
alternative education movements worldwide.
SOCIAL REFORMS INITIATED BY VARIOUS GOVERNORS AND VICEROYS
Governors and Viceroy Social reforms undertaken
Lord William Bentick (1828-1835) Abolition of Sati and other cruel rites (1829)
Suppression of female infanticide and Thuggee (1830)
Abolition of lawlessness
Abolition of human sacrifice
Lord Ellenborough (1842-1844) Abolition of slavery (1843)
Lord Hardinge I (1844-1848) Abolition of female infanticide
Abolition of human sacrifice
Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856) Widow Remarriage Act 1856 championed the cause of female education
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LEGISLATIVE INITIATIVES FOR SOCIAL CAUSES TILL 1947
• Abolition of female infanticide:
o Bengal Regulation Acts (1795 and 1804): The Bengal Regulation Acts of 1795 and 1804 made it unlawful to
kill a female newborn.
o A law outlawing female infanticide in 1870 was passed to change how Indian culture was perceived.
• Abolition of Sati:
o Bengal Sati Regulation (1829): In 1829, the Governor-General of India Lord William Bentinck passed Bengal
Sati Regulation 1829 which made the practice of Sati illegal in all of British India.
o Culpable homicide: By this regulation, the people who abetted sati were declared guilty of “culpable homicide”.
• Abolition of Slavery:
o Charter Act of 1833: In the Charter Act of 1833, slavery was outlawed in India.
o Act V of 1843: By the Act V of 1843, the practice of slavery was criminalised.
o Penal Code of 1860: Trading of slaves was prohibited by the Penal Code of 1860 as well.
• Widow Remarriage:
o Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act of 1856: It legalised the remarriage of Hindus.
o Rights and inheritances: This act also provided all the rights and inheritances to all the windows that they had
at the time of her first marriage.
• Prohibition of Child Marriage:
o Native Marriage Act (Civil Marriage Act) of 1872: It sought to enact legislation against child marriage, but its
reach was highly constrained because it did not cover Muslims, Hindus, or other accepted religions.
o Age of Consent Act of 1891: B.M. Malabari's efforts paid off in 1891 when the Age of Consent Act, which forbade
the marriage of girls younger than 12 years old, was passed.
o Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929: Also known as the Sharda Act, it set the age of majority for marriage at
14 for girls and 18 for boys.
KEY WORDS: Stages of colonialism, British paramountcy, Policies of expansion, Economic exploitation, Drain of Wealth,
Educational reforms, Development of judiciary, Press control, Civil service evolution, Infrastructure development, Social
policies, Legislative reforms in British India.

1. What was the difference between Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore in their approach 2023
towards education and nationalism?
2. Why was there a sudden spurt in famines in colonial India since the mid-eighteenth century? Give 2022
reasons.
3. Examine how the decline of traditional artisanal industry in colonial India crippled the rural 2017
economy.
4. Examine critically the various facets of economic policies of the British in India from the mid- 2014
eighteenth century till independence.
54
6 EMERGENCE OF INDIAN NATIONALISM
"The period from 1858 to 1905 was the seed time of Indian nationalism; the early nationalists sowed the seeds well and
deep."-- Bipan Chandra
RISE OF INDIAN NATIONALISM AND FACTORS RESPONSIBLE
Indian nationalism was a significant and transformative response to British colonial rule. It marked a crucial phase in
India's struggle for independence and played a pivotal role in shaping the country's destiny. Indian nationalism began
in the late 19th century and grew throughout the early 20th century.
CAUSES OF RISE OF NATIONALISM IN INDIA
The rise of Indian nationalism can be attributed to several factors that have shaped the country's history and political
landscape.
Here are some key factors responsible for the rise of Indian nationalism:
• Rediscovery of the Glorious Past of India: India's cultural renaissance fostered nationalistic sentiments. Scholars,
writers, and artists promoted Indian culture, history, and traditions.
o European researchers' belief that Indo-Aryans were the same ethnic group as other European nations boosted
educated Indians' self-esteem.
o Nationalists demolished colonial myths with their newfound self-confidence.
• Western education and ideas: English enabled nationalist leaders from diverse linguistic regions to communicate.
o Lawyers, doctors, and others who studied in England were liberal professionals.
o They contrasted modern political institutions in a free country with the Indian system, which deprived citizens
of even basic rights.
• The emergence of the Middle Class: These new opportunities intersected with traditional Indian social divisions
and created a new status group—the Western-educated elite—from privileged indigenous collectives like
Bengal's Bhadralok, Bombay's Chitpavan Brahmins, and Madras' Tamil Brahmans.
• Socio-Religious Movements: Late 19th and early 20th-century socio-religious movements promoted cultural
pride and social reform.
o Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, and Singh Sabha sought to revive Indian traditions, fight social injustice,
and create a national identity.
• Use of Press and Literature: The press criticised the official policy and called for unity.
o It also promoted democracy, civil liberties, industrialisation, and self-government.
• Institutions built by Britishers: As the British introduced local self-government and election systems to recruit
more collaborators, interest groups expanded their area of influence.
• Political and administrative integration of India: The British sword unified India politically.
o A professional civil service, uniform judiciary, and codified civil and criminal laws across the country added
political unity to India's centuries-old cultural unity.
• Economic integration of India: Modern transport and communication infrastructure including trains, roads,
electricity, and telegraph were meant to promote British economic penetration and commercial exploitation.
o Thus, the economic fate of the inhabitants of various regions became intertwined.
• Smart use of Modern means of communication by leaders: Modern travel and communication mean united
leaders from diverse regions.
o This facilitated political discourse and public opinion mobilisation on economic and political issues.
• Impact of world affairs:
• Conservative reactionary policies of Britishers: The great Delhi Durbar of 1877 during a famine, the Vernacular
Press Act (1878), and the Arms Act (1878) sparked widespread criticism.
o Due to the Ilbert bill controversy, nationalists realised that European interests preclude fairness and fair play.
• Cultural Suppression: British rule suppressed Indian culture. Western education and morals, Indian language and
tradition denigration, and British laws and institutions were encouraged.
o Cultural oppression created the cultural identity and a desire to regain Indian heritage.
55
• Growth of Vernacular Literature: Bankim Chandra Chatterjee's novel "Anandamath" and Dinbandhu Mitra's play
"Nil Darpan" impacted Indians and made them anti-British.
o The play "Bharat Durdasa" by Bhartendu Harish Chandra depicted Indians' plight under British rule.
• First War of Independence: The Revolt of 1857 served as the catalyst for Indian nationalism.
o After learning of the British's nefarious intentions, the people remembered Rani Laxmi Bai, Nana Saheb, Tayta
Tope, and other heroes.
• Economic Exploitation of British: Dada Bhai Naoroji's "Drain Theory" states that the Britishers exploited India by
draining money to Britain.
o After the Industrial Revolution in England, Britain needed raw materials and markets. India supplied both.
• Pre-congress organizations: Many of these organisations operated in specific regions, but their goals were for all
Indians, not just one group.
o Modern nationalism and sovereignty were their guiding principles. They believed that Indians should be able
to make their own judgements.
• The Birth of the Indian National Congress: The Indian National Congress helped India gain independence by
fighting the British ideologically.
o Moderates like Dada Bhai Naoroji and S. N. Banerjee and extremists like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal,
and Lala Lajpat Rai helped Indians sense nationalism.
These elements promoted nationalism. Indians received a new spirit. They awoke and joined the freedom fight. British
rule was ending. The Indian National Congress's 1885 founding accelerated it.
EARLY POLITICAL ORGANISATIONS IN INDIA AND THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS
The Indian National Congress (INC) spearheaded a victorious political struggle during the Indian Freedom Struggle.
However, Congress was not the First Political Association. Political rights associations existed before Congress.
NEED FOR CREATING POLITICAL ORGANISATIONS
Colonial India's unique needs and circumstances spurred political organization. Here are some of the main reasons
political organizations formed at that time:
• Colonial resistance: Colonial Indian political organizations sought to overthrow British rule. Oppressive policies,
economic exploitation, and political and social rights denial spawned these organizations.
• Nationalism and Identity: Political organizations promoted Indian nationalism and identity. They united diverse
communities and religious groups across regional and cultural lines. These organizations promoted national unity
and pride in a free and independent India.
• Representation and Advocacy: Political organizations allowed Indians to express their grievances, rights, and
demands for governance. They advocated for Indian welfare and decision-making participation.
o These organizations challenged the colonial government's discriminatory policies and sought social equality.
• Policy Formulation and Planning: India's future was shaped by political organizations. They created political
ideologies, manifestos, and post-colonial India visions.
o These organizations allowed intellectuals, leaders, and activists to debate socio-political issues, shaping
independence and post-independence governance.
• Mass Mobilization and Public Awareness: Colonial Indian political organizations sought to mobilize the masses
and raise awareness of colonial injustices. Protests, public meetings, and mass movements rallied support for
independence.
• International Support and Solidarity: Political organizations in colonial India formed alliances with anti-colonial
movements and sympathetic groups worldwide.
o These efforts sought international pressure on the British government and aid for India's independence.
The Indian National Congress, among others, helped shape the independence movement and lead to the creation of an
independent India in 1947.
POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS BEFORE CONGRESS
• Bengal's first political activist was Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Western ideas shaped him. The British first noticed Indian
issues because of him.
o Many liberal provisions of the Charter Act of 1836 are attributed to him.
• However, his companions founded Bengal's first political organisation, the Bangabhasha Prakashan Sabha,
in 1836.
56
Political Organisation Description

Bangabhasha Prakashan • Raja Rammohan Roy, Prasanna Kr. Thakur, Kalinath Chowdhury,
Sabha (1836) Dwarakanath Tagore, and others created the Bangabhasa Prakasika Sabha in
1836.
• They were advocating for Indians in higher government positions, press
freedom, and Ryots' Zamindari persecution.
• The organisation promoted Bengali education through polemics and public
opinion.
• It promoted Bengali vernacular literature.
Zamindari Association • Dwarkanath Tagore established the Zamindari Association, also known as the
“Landholders Association”, in March 1838 to safeguard landlords' interests.
• The Zamindari Association was India's first political organisation.
• For its goals, it was the first to use constitutional demonstration.
British India Society • The Bengal British India Society, founded by William Adam in April 1843,
promoted nationalism and political education.
• The British Indian Society was founded in 1851 when the Zamindari
Association and Bengal British India Society amalgamated.
• Methods and demands: It applied to the British Parliament to include
some of its recommendations in the company's new charter, such as
establishing a separate legislature with populist goals.
o Lower bureaucrat salaries.
o Elimination of salt, excise, and postage.
• Success: In 1853, the Governor-General's Legislative Council increased by six
members.
Indian Association of Calcutta • Establishment: Sisir Kumar Ghosh created the Indian League in 1875 to
promote nationalism and political education.
o Surendranath Banerjee and Ananda Mohan Bose founded the Indian
Association of Calcutta in 1876, replacing the Indian League.
• Prominent role: It rose to prominence when it took a forceful stand in the
'Ilbert Bill' Controversy (1883).
• Method: It was envisioned as an 'All India National Conference' and met in
Calcutta in 1883.
• Its objectives are:
o To build popular support for the political system.
o To unite Indians around a political programme.
o The association opened many Bengali and non-Bengali branches.
o To attract low-income members, the association charged little.
FACTORS FOR THE LIMITED SUCCESS OF PRE-CONGRESS ORGANISATIONS
o Lack of Unity: Early Indian political parties struggled to retain unity. Disintegration, clashing ideologies, and
personal conflicts often reduced their political impact.
o Limited Support Base: These organisations struggled to fight British colonial control without substantial
grassroots support.
o British repression: The British colonial authority quickly suppressed political activity deemed a threat to their
control.
o Early political organisations lacked effective methods and goals. They struggled to gain support because they
concentrated on local issues or didn't present a comprehensive vision for India's independence.
o Communication Challenges: Political organisations have trouble mobilising and coordinating throughout the
vast and diverse Indian subcontinent due to poor communication infrastructure.
While many political organisations before the Indian National Congress failed to achieve their goals, they set the
framework for future movements and grew nationalist consciousness in India. The 1885-founded Indian National
Congress helped India gain independence.
57
FOUNDATION OF INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS
FACTORS LEADING TO THE FOUNDATION OF CONGRESS
• Political Awakening of Masses: The founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885 was not a historical accident.
o It was the culmination of a political awakening that started in the 1860s and 1870s and accelerated in the late
1870s and early 1880s.
• A.O. Hume's Initiative: British civil officer Allan Octavian Hume recognised the need for a political conversation and
representation platform and founded the Indian National Congress. In 1885, Hume convened the Congress and
became its general secretary.
• Moderates and Early Leadership: These politicians promoted constitutional reforms, peaceful means, and Indian
interests within the British colonial framework.
• Demands for Reforms: The Indian National Congress initially sought increased representation for Indians in the
administration, civil services, and legislative councils under the British colonial government.
• Mass Mobilisation: To establish a broader movement against British rule, the party engaged with common people,
workers, peasants, and others.
SAFETY VALVE THEORY AND CONGRESS
• Origin of safety valve theory: The safety valve theory is attributed to Lord Dufferin, Viceroy of India from 1884 to
1888.
o He argued that by providing political outlets like the Indian National Congress, the British could channel and
regulate Indian nationalism and prevent extreme and revolutionary movements.
• Historical proof: William Wedderburn’s biography of A.O. Hume inspired the 7 volumes of secret reports.
o The Safety Valve Theory of Congress creation cites A.O. Hume's possession of 7 volumes of confidential
reports in Shimla that warned of boiling unrest in Indian society.
• Sir Valentine Chirol's 1910 book "Indian Unrest" expanded on the safety valve notion.
o Chirol claimed that the British fostered the Indian National Congress to relieve political pressure and avert more
serious challenges to their power.
• In 1916's Young India, Extremist leader Lala Lajpat Rai attacked Congress Moderates with the safety-valve
doctrine.
• R. Palme Dutt’s authoritative work, India Today, further strengthened this theory.
WHY IS THE SAFETY VALVE THEORY REFUTED?
• No historical proof was found: The secret report of seven volumes was never found in physical form.
• Lack of British Control: In its later years, Congress challenged British control by demanding political reforms.
• This contradicts the safety valve assumption that Congress controlled opposition.
• The rise of radical groups and revolutionary organisations: Revolutionary terrorists and militant nationalists
sought independence by more direct and violent means, proving that Congress was not the only nationalist outlet.
• Grassroots Mobilisation: According to the safety valve idea, Congress was a top-down British organisation that
channelled dissatisfaction.
o But it became a platform for Indians to express their aspirations for self-rule and played a significant role in
shaping nationalist sentiments.
• Repressive methods: British colonial authorities used repressive methods to crush nationalist movements,
particularly the Indian National Congress.
o Dufferin and his Indian allies never supported Congress, declaring, “We cannot allow Congress to exist.” The
Indian National Congress's goals shifted from reforming the British system to seeking independence. This change
demonstrates that Congress was more than a safety valve, reflecting its growing demand for self-governance.
These reasons refute the claim that the Indian National Congress was a British colonial safety valve. They argue that the
Congress was a more complex, organic movement that helped India gain independence.
AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF CONGRESS
• As per Bipin Chandra, Congress has two basic objectives. Other objectives revolve around two basic ones -
o To foster nation-building and Indian identity.
o To provide a single political programme or platform for political workers across India to assemble and mobilise
people.
• The first president of the Indian National Congress, Womesh Chandra Banerjee, set three goals:
58
1. Strengthening national unity. For this, Congress sessions were held nationwide. Presidents from various
regions presided over these sessions.
2. To reach out to all religions and alleviate minority worries. In the 1888 session, if a majority of Hindus or
Muslims opposed a resolution, it would not pass.
3. Congress was resolved to construct a secular nation. The Congress was fiercely secular for this.
• Social reform was off-limits to Congress. Dada Bhai Naoroji made this explicit in his presidential address to the
2nd Congress. He believes Congress should only address national issues.
WEAKNESSES OF CONGRESS IN ITS EARLY PHASE
• Elite Leadership: The early Congress was predominantly led by English-educated, upper-class individuals like
Dadabhai Naoroji and Surendranath Banerjee. This limited its appeal to the broader Indian masses who were
predominantly rural and underprivileged.
• Moderate Methods: The early strategies of Congress were characterized by petitions, resolutions, and discussions,
often referred to as the "politics of mendicancy." This moderate approach was criticized for being too passive and
ineffective against the aggressive policies of the British.
• Lack of Mass Involvement: Initial movements and activities were largely confined to the urban elites, with little
effort made to involve the vast rural population who formed the majority of India’s demographic.
• Regional Imbalance:The Congress leadership and activities were predominantly centered in a few regions like
Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras, leading to uneven representation and participation across the diverse geographic
and cultural landscape of India.
• Slow to Address Social Issues: In its early years, Congress was cautious in addressing radical social reforms,
focusing primarily on political and administrative issues. This approach often alienated socially marginalized groups
who were affected by pressing issues like caste discrimination and untouchability.
• Communication Gaps: The use of English as the primary language for Congress proceedings and communications
excluded a large part of the population who were not versed in English, thereby limiting wider engagement and
understanding.
• Limited Aggressive Posture: The Congress’s early reluctance to push for complete independence and its
satisfaction with dominion status under British rule were seen as a lack of resolve to fully confront colonial
oppression.
Despite its limitations, it marked a modernisation of Indian politics by promoting national unity and making a crucial
political demand: “The basis of the government should be widened, and the people should have their proper and
legitimate share in it.”
APPROACHES AND LIMITATIONS OF MODERATE PHASE (1885 -1905)
DEMANDS OF MODERATES AND SUCCESS ACHIEVED
The Congress was "moderate" in its early years because of its demands and methods. For Example:
• Expanding the council: It intended to expand the powers of the provincial and central councils and increase their
elected members to strengthen Indian representation in government.
o The Indian Councils Act of 1892 expanded Imperial and Provincial Legislative Councils.
o Legislative Councils debated budgets and questioned the executive.
• Demand for Elections and voting powers: The classes and community members "capable of exercising it wisely
and independently" were the only ones eligible for election.
o Nominations were used in central and provincial legislative councils.
• Indianizing the civil service required holding the civil service examination in England and India.
o In 1877–80, a huge campaign demanded Indianization of the public services and opposed Lord Lytton's costly
Afghan excursions, which were paid for by Indian earnings.
• Demanded separation of power: Congress also wanted to separate the administration and judiciary and extend
jury trials.
o Fought for press freedom: The Indian press and associations were also opposed to the Vernacular Press Act of
1878.
o Demanded economic reforms and civil rights: Early Congress leaders worried about India's poverty and
provided solutions.
59
o They demanded reducing home charges, especially those from expensive military ventures, extending the
Permanent Settlement, reforming income tax and the police, repealing forest laws, and opposing a salt tax
increase.
o Such measures would boost industrial development, prevent wealth outflow, create jobs, and improve the
situation.
o They coined "No taxation without representation."
METHODS ADOPTED BY MODERATES
• Prayer and Petition: According to Sanjay Seth, Congress resolutions condemning government action or inactivity
or suggesting a new course of action would always "regret" rather than 'condemn' and "suggest" rather than
'demand'.
o Such modesty would eventually be derided as mendicancy' by 'extreme' Congress leaders as a sign of a lack of
self-respect.
• Represented people of India: The requests, on the other hand, were made in the name of the 'people of India' and
aimed at broadening the government's foundation in order to give the people "their proper and legitimate share in
it."
• The economic critique of colonialism: Poverty dominated Congress debates and resolutions.
o Dadabhai Naoroji and others studied poverty and its causes and advocated for a "British" rule that would benefit
India.
o Apart from Naoroji's major opus, Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, several other publications critically
examined imperialism's economic effects on India.
o The Poverty Problem in India (1895), Mahadev Govind Ranade's Essays on Indian Economics (1896),
Romesh Chunder Dutt's two-volume Economic History of India (1902), and Subrahmanya Iyer's Some
Economic Aspects of British Rule in India (1903), among others, blamed colonial rule for India's growing
poverty due to a constant "drain of wealth" from India to England.
o They protested the nation's economic "drain," "ruralization," and "de-industrialization," and challenged
classical economic theory's abstraction and a historicism by focusing on India's colonial economy.
• Public Meetings and Conferences: Moderates held public meetings and conferences to raise awareness of Indian
issues. These events hosted debates, speeches, and ideas.
• Press and Publications: Moderates understood the media's influence. They published newspapers, journals, and
pamphlets to spread their ideas and educate the public.
• Collaborating with helpful British authorities: Moderates believed in forging alliances and connections with
British officials who sympathised with Indian problems. They lobbied favourable government authorities for
reforms and addressed Indian concerns.
• Education: Moderates understood that education empowers Indians. They founded schools and advocated for
educational changes to encourage literacy and informed citizenship.
• Use of Council: The British wanted the councils to "blow off their political steam" while ignoring the more vociferous
Indian leaders.
o However, the nationalists used these councils to express concerns, expose an inattentive bureaucracy, oppose
government policies/proposals, and raise basic economic issues, notably public money.
• International Forums: Moderates promoted the Indian cause abroad. They attended worldwide conventions to
raise awareness of Indian colonial suffering and support their demands.
LIMITATIONS OF MODERATES
• Limited Objectives: The Moderates focused primarily on minor administrative reforms, fair representation, and
greater involvement in the governance process without demanding complete independence. Their petitions and
representations often sought concessions like increased Indian representation in services and councils, which were
seen as insufficient by later nationalists.
• Conservative Methods: They relied on petitions, speeches, and writings to put forth their demands. This approach
was often criticized for being too passive and ineffective against the imperial policies of the British, which required
more assertive action.
• Narrow Social Base: The Moderate leaders primarily came from the educated elite and upper-middle-class
professionals. This limited their appeal and connectivity with the broader masses of India, who were predominantly
poor and underprivileged. For instance, figures like Dadabhai Naoroji and Gopal Krishna Gokhale were seen as
distant by the average Indian peasant or worker.
60
• Lack of Aggressive Leadership: The Moderates were criticized for their lack of assertiveness in confronting British
rule. Their polite and loyal approach was perceived as a weakness, particularly when British authorities dismissed
or ignored their demands. The British often took advantage of this soft stance, implementing reforms at their
discretion without any real pressure.
• Failure to Address Broader Social Issues: Their focus remained largely on political and administrative issues,
neglecting the pressing social reforms needed within Indian society such as caste discrimination, poverty, and
education for the masses. This limited their impact on the social fabric of India and restricted their support base.
• Underestimation of Colonial Intentions: The Moderates underestimated the depth of British commitment to
retaining control over India. They believed in the possibility of a fair and just administration by the British, which
was often at odds with the colonial economic interests that underpinned British policies in India.
• Overwhelmed by Subsequent Movements: The emergence of the Extremists within the Congress who advocated
for Swaraj (self-rule) and later the rise of Gandhi with his mass mobilization strategies (like the Non-Cooperation
Movement) made the methods of the Moderates appear outdated and less effective.
CONCLUSION
Moderates were flawed but accomplished. They formed nationalist movements, educated Indians, and shaped the
Indian National Congress. Later Indian freedom struggles were radicalised by the moderates' constraints.
KEY WORDS: Rise of Indian nationalism, Socio-religious movements, Western education, Emergence of middle class, Use of
press, British administrative policies, Economic exploitation, Cultural suppression.

1. To what extinct did the role of moderates prepare a base for the wider freedom movement? 2021
Comment.
2. Examine the linkages between the nineteenth century's 'Indian Renaissance' and the emergence 2019
of national identity.
3. Why did the ‘Moderates’ fail to carry conviction with the nation about their proclaimed ideology 2017
and political goals by the end of the nineteenth century?
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7 INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT – PHASE I (1905-1917)
PARTITION OF BENGAL (1905) AND REACTIONARY POLICIES OF CURZON (1899 – 1905)

Lord Curzon became the new Viceroy of India on December 30, 1898. The partition of Bengal was announced by a Royal
Proclamation in 1903, decreasing the area of the previous province of Bengal by forming a new province of East Bengal,
which subsequently became East Pakistan and present-day Bangladesh.
LORD CURZON'S REACTIONARY POLICIES
• Calcutta Corporation Act of 1899: He limited the number of elected legislatures by the Calcutta Corporation Act of
1899 to deprive Indians of self-government.
• Hatred Towards Indians: He treated Indians with disrespect. He labelled Bengalis as cowards, windbags, useless
talkers, and frothy patriots.
• Misbehave towards Indians: He refused to meet with the president of the Indian National Congress.
• Partition of Bengal: The division of Bengal was his most egregious blunder. It proved devastating for the British in
the long run.
CURZON'S REGRESSIVE POLICIES & THEIR EFFECTS
• Pave way for political instability: Curzon's impolitic statements and imperialist intentions exacerbated India's
political instability. Curzon's imperialistic actions sparked a backlash, stinging Indian politics.
• Birth to a sense of nationhood: His tyranny gave birth to a deeper sense of nationhood. In this light, Curzon proved
to be an unintentional benefactor of India.
• Swadeshi movement: The Swadeshi movement was founded in Bengal in 1905, with a demand to boycott British
products in favour of Swadeshi. It was most likely the first big movement following the 1857 rebellion.
• Anti-colonial movement: The anti-colonial movement was first led by moderates, but it was later overtaken by
extremists and extended to embrace the entire country. Tilak, Bipin Pal, and Aurobindo Ghose were beginning to
control the Congress.
• The emergence of revolutionary activities: Later, revolutionary organisations such as Jugantar began to emerge.
They took an active role in anti-colonial campaigns and attempted to instill nationalism in young people.
LORD CURZON'S REFORMS
• Universities Commission in 1902: He established Universities Commission in 1902 to look into the entire issue of
university education in the country.
• Indian Universities Act of 1904: He Curzon enacted the Indian Universities Act of 1904 in response to the
Commission's findings and recommendations, bringing all universities in India under government authority.
• Scientific reforms: The Agriculture Research Institute was created in Pusa (Bihar - Bengal Presidency).
• Administrative: He worked to reform the police, eliminate corruption, and promote economic development.
o Revitalized conservatism: He revitalized conservatism in India by updating the main features of Lord Mayo's
policies.
o Police Reform: In 1902, he established the Police Commission, which was chaired by Sir Andrew Frazer. Curzon
accepted and implemented all of the recommendations.
o Established training schools: He established training schools for both officers and constables and established
provincial police services.
o NWFP established: The Northwest Frontier Province (NWFP) was established during the Curzon regime, and it
covered roughly the upper course of the River Indus.
• Imperial Cadet Corps was established: The Imperial Cadet Corps was established, which later served as a tool for
Indianizing the army.
BACKGROUND AND GOVERNMENT MOTIVE FOR PARTITION
• Official reasons: Bengal was a single province that included the states of Bihar, Orissa, Bengal, and Dacca. Partition
considers separating the Muslim population into East Bengal and Bihar, as well as Orissa and a portion of Bengal as
another province.
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• Administrative ease: The government said that it was done to foster growth in Bengal's underdeveloped eastern
part and for administrative ease because Bengal was the largest province in terms of population, making
administration challenging.
• Real motive Divide and Rule: However, the major goal was to 'Divide and Rule' the most advanced section of the
country at the time, and the Muslim community was drawn away by the promise of a separate province for them.
• Attack on Bengali culture and language: Nationalists saw it as a challenge to Indian nationalism, not just a
bureaucratic measure. They considered it as an attack on the face of Bengali culture and language.
• To break the nerve of the nationalist movement: In the words of Curzon, it aimed "to dethrone Calcutta," as it
was the nerve centre of Congress at the time and a key centre of the nationalist movement.
RISLEY (HOME SECRETARY TO THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA, 1904)
Bengal United is a power. Bengal divided will pull in several different ways One of our main objectives is to split up
and thereby to weaken a solid body of opponents to our rule.
• Schism within Congress: The Partition also caused a schism within the Congress, as moderates sought to limit the
partition campaign to Bengal alone.
• Nationwide agitation: Extremists, on the other side, sought to initiate a nationwide agitation and make their
influence felt by establishing a Swadeshi Movement.
NATIONALIST RESPONSE TO PARTITION
• Rising tensions: This heightened tensions between the two sides, which came to an end in the 1906 session of
Congress when a face-off was averted by choosing Dadabhai Naroji as president (he was regarded by both factions
and as a result, Tilak - the hardline leader - also consented to his name). However, he was at once the favourite for
the presidency).
VIEW-POINTS
• Rabindranath Tagore, a humanist poet-philosopher, posed an angry rhetorical challenge to Lord Curzon's
government, which had planned to split Bengal in 1905.
• The delicate song expressed both rage and determination—the colonized were ready to confront and upset the
settled judgments of an oppressive colonial government drunk on its own feeling of power.
SWADESHI MOVEMENT (1905)

In August 1905, a boycott resolution passed in the Calcutta Town Hall assembly, and the Swadeshi movement was
officially launched.
B. G. Tilak
Swaraj or self-government is essential for the exercise of swadharma. Without Swaraj, there could be no social
reform, no industrial progress, no useful education, and no fulfilment of national life. That is what we seek, that is
why God has sent us to the world to fulfill Him.
BACKGROUND AND ACTIONS CARRIED OUT THROUGHOUT THE MOVEMENT

• Anti-partition campaign: The Swadeshi movement emerged from the anti-partition campaign, which was launched
in response to the British decision to divide Bengal.
• Swadeshi movement: The beginning of the Swadeshi movement at the turn of the century marked a significant
advance in the Indian National Movement.
• Day of sorrow: Partition occurred on October 16, 1905, and it was observed as a day of sorrow.
• Hindu Muslim unity: Rakhis were knotted as a sign of Hindu-Muslim harmony as well as the union of two Bengals.
People bathed in sacred waterways.
• National anthem and song: People have sung Bande Mataram, which almost became a national anthem. Tagore
composed "Amar Sonar Bangla" for the event, which became Bangladesh's national anthem in 1971.
• Tricolor flag: A tricolour flag (red, green, and yellow) was developed during the Swadeshi movement in Bengal. It
included eight lotuses to represent the eight provinces of British India and a crescent moon to represent Hindus and
Muslims.
• Revisit ancient glory: Indians began to look back in time to find India's tremendous achievements. They wrote
about the wonderful times when art and architecture, science and mathematics, religion and culture, law and
philosophy, and crafts and trade thrived.
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• Ban on imports: Several times during the movement, demand for foreign textiles fell.A boycott of Manchester fabric
and Liverpool salt was widely advocated.
• Corps of Volunteers: The extremists also organised a Corps of Volunteers, or "Samitis." In Bengal, Ashwini Kumar
Dutt's Swadeshi Bandhab Samiti is an example. It aided in the development of political consciousness.
FACT-WISE
• Fall in the quantity of imported cotton piece goods: Between August 1905 and September 1906, there was a
22 per cent fall in the quantity of imported cotton piece goods, 44 per cent in cotton twist and yarn, 11 per cent
in salt, 55 per cent in cigarettes and 68 per cent in boots and shoes.
• More than nativistic upsurge: The Boycott movement, therefore, was much more than a 'nativistic upsurge' that
rejected European products.
THE MOVEMENT'S LEADERSHIP
• Leadership: The moderates, particularly Surendernath Banarjee, Krishan Kumar Mitra, and P C Ray, provided the
initial leadership. During the movement, both moderates and extremists worked together.
• In Punjab: In Punjab, the movement was led by Ajit Singh and Lajpat Rai.
• In Delhi: In Delhi, Syed Haider Raza assumed authority.
• In Madras: Chidambaram Pillai led the movement to the Madras Presidency, which was further energized by Bipin
Chandra Pal's long lecture tour.
• In Bombay presidency: G. K. Gokhale and B. G. Tilak led the movement.
SWADESHI MOVEMENT & DIVIDED CONGRESS
• Resolutions in Calcutta session: Before the partition, four resolutions were voted on in the Calcutta session under
Dada Bhai Naoroji - Boycott, National Education, Swadeshi, and Condemnation of Partition.
• Contention over resolution: The issue of whether these resolutions should be retained or rejected became a major
source of contention in Congress.
• Moderates want to limit scope: A faction led by moderates sought to limit the movement's scope.
• Pan-India movement: Extremists wanted to make it a pan-Indian movement in the form of a broad fight.
• Beyond partition politics & Swaraj: Furthermore, extremists wanted to go beyond partition politics and seek full
Swaraj, whilst moderates believed that the country was not yet ready for such demands and mass mobilisation.
IMPACT OF SWADESHI MOVEMENT
• Emphasis given to Self-Reliance: This implied re-assertion of national dignity, honour and confidence and social
and economic regeneration of the villages.
• Programme of Swadeshi or National Education: Bengal National College, inspired by Tagore’s Shantiniketan, was
set up with Aurobindo Ghosh as its principal. Soon national schools and colleges sprang up in various parts of the
country.
• Swadeshi or Indigenous Enterprises: The swadeshi spirit also found expression in the establishment of swadeshi
textile mills, soap and match factories, tanneries, banks, insurance companies, shops, etc. Impact in the Cultural
Sphere: Tagore’s Amar Sonar Bangla written on this occasion was later inspired the liberation struggle of
Bangladesh. In Tamil Nadu, Subramania Bharati wrote Sudesha Geetham. In painting, Abanindranath Tagore broke
the domination of Victorian naturalism.
• Boycott of Foreign Goods: It included boycott and public burning of foreign cloth and foreign-made salt or sugar.
• Public Meetings and Processions: They emerged as major methods of mass mobilisation and popular expression.
• Corps of Volunteers or ‘Samitis’: These samitis generated political consciousness among the masses through magic
lantern lectures, swadeshi songs, providing physical and moral training to their members.
• Imaginative use of Traditional Popular Festivals and Melas: Tilak’s Ganapati and Shivaji festivals became a
medium of swadeshi propaganda not only in western India, but also in Bengal.
REASONS FOR THE DECLINE
• Surat split: There was dissent in Congress, and its break in 1907 (Surat break) weakened leadership.
• Government repression: In 1908, Tilak was imprisoned for six years and Ashwini Kumar Dutt and others were
exiled.
• Vacuum of leadership: Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh both stepped out from politics.
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• Lack of inertia: The movement was hampered by a lack of inertia.
• Economic ramifications of boycott: Due to limited domestic supply and economic ramifications, ordinary people
could no longer continue to boycott imported goods. Another concern was job loss.
• Harsh reaction of government: The government reacted harshly, and students were expelled, others were fired,
and arrests were made.
ASSESSMENT OF SWADESHI MOVEMENT
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SWADESHI MOVEMENT
• Widespread engagement: The Swadeshi and boycott campaigns were India's first twentieth-century movements
that encouraged widespread engagement in modern nationalist politics.
• Women participation: For the first time, women walked out of their homes to join processions and picket lines
against stores selling foreign-made items.
• Shifted the nature of INC: The Swadeshi and boycott movements also shifted the nature of the Indian National
Congress (INC) from being mostly driven by moderates to the major agenda now being defined by the extremists
who gave the Congress's 1906 Calcutta session call for swaraj or self-government.
• Ideals of passive resistance emerged: The ideals of non-cooperation and passive resistance, which Mahatma
Gandhi effectively used many years later, originated in the beginning of twentieth century Swadeshi and boycott
movements.
CRITICISM OF THE SWADESHI MOVEMENT
• Lack of all India participation: Southern states were mostly unaffected by the movement.
• Peasant class unaffected: It could not also carry it along with the peasant class and is thus frequently criticized as
a middle-class movement.
• Lack of Muslim participation: The majority of Muslims did not participate, or their involvement was limited. In the
end, the Muslim League was founded in 1906.
• Communal angle: When Hindus idealized the past when the images honoured were derived from Hindu imagery,
members from other communities felt excluded.
MUSLIM LEAGUE (1906)
The All-India Muslim League (also known as the Muslim League) was a political party founded in British India in
1906. It was founded as a political alternative to the Indian National Congress to serve the interests of Indian Muslims.
FOUNDATION
• Formed in Lucknow: By 1901, establishing a national Muslim political party was regarded as critical. The initial
step of its establishment was a conference in Lucknow in September 1906, attended by representatives from all
around India.
• Simla deputation: In October 1906, the Simla Deputation reassessed the problem and resolved to establish the
party's aims on the occasion of the Educational Conference's annual conference, which was to be held in Dhaka.
• Renaming: Meanwhile, Nawab Salimullah Khan produced a comprehensive proposal in which he proposed naming
the party the All-India Muslim Confederacy.
EARLY YEARS
• Foundation: Sultan Muhammad Shah (Aga Khan III) was named the Muslim League's first honorary president,
though he did not attend the first session in Dhaka.
• Jinnah joined: Mohammed Ali Jinnah joined the Muslim League in 1913.
• Initial aim: The League was founded to train students for service in the British Raj, but it quickly grew into a political
force.
PARTICIPATION IN NATIONALIST MOVEMENT
• Concerned by majority rule: The Muslim League had always advocated for unity in an independent India, but they
were concerned that it would be ruled by Hindus, who made up the majority of the population.
• Allied with Congress: Following World War I (1914-18), the Muslim League allied up with Congress to campaign
for Home Rule inside the British Empire.
• Jinnah's 14 points: Furthermore, in the late 1920s and early 1930s, Jinnah compressed the ideas of Indian Muslims
into 14 principles. These included ideas for a federal government and one-third of Muslim participation in the central
government.
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• Supports war involvement: Congress declined to approve this proclamation. While the Muslim League remained
critical of British rule, they decided to support India's involvement in the war to establish a better negotiating
position for independence.
• Proponent of two-nation theory: In what became known as the "two-nation theory," Jinnah began to advocate the
establishment of a distinct Muslim state from lands that were then part of British India in 1940.
The Muslim League's goals were met four decades after its founding in Dhaka in 1906. The organization's political
leaders proposed a separate country to safeguard Muslim commercial interests. Furthermore, the concept of a distinct
Pakistan state began to gain traction among Indian Muslims.
SURAT SPLIT (1907) AND ITS IMPACT
With the selection of Dadabhai Naoroji as the new president in 1906, an impending clash was avoided; both sides were
pacified because he was admired by both. Naoroji presented the concept of 'Swaraj' at this session to reconcile
disagreements, and it was declared as the aim of Congress.
B. G. TILAK
The Extremists of today will be the Moderates of tomorrow, just as the Moderates of today were the Extremists of
yesterday.
Moderates Extremists
• Social base: Zamindars and upper middle classes in • Social base: Educated middle and lower middle
towns. classes in towns.
• Ideological inspiration: Western liberal thought and • Ideological inspiration: Indian history, cultural
European history. heritage and Hindu traditional symbols.
• Believed political connections: With Britain to be in • Believed that political connections: With Britain
• India’s social, political and cultural interests. would perpetuate British exploitation of India.
• Loyal: Professed loyalty to the British Crown. • Unworthy British Crown: Believed that the British
• Masses not ready: Believed that the movement Crown was unworthy of claiming Indian loyalty.
should be limited to middle-class intelligentsia; • Faith in masses: Had immense faith in the capacity
masses not yet ready for participation in political of the masses to participate and to make sacrifices.
work. • Swaraj: Demanded Swaraj as the panacea for Indian
• Constitutional demands: Demanded constitutional ills.
reforms and share for Indians in services. • Extra constitutional means: Did not hesitate to use
• Constitutional means: Insisted on the use of extra-constitutional methods like boycotts and
constitutional methods only. passive resistance to achieve their objectives.
• Not a comprador: They were patriots and did not • Made sacrifices: They were patriots who made
play the role of a comprador class. sacrifices for the country.
CAUSES OF SPLIT
• Disagreement: The disagreement arose over the continuation of four resolutions and the extension of the
movement to the rest of the country.
• Failure of Moderates: When moderates failed to make significant inroads, extremists got agitated.
• International influences: Extremists were also inspired by two occurrences outside India, namely the defeat of
Russia by Japan and the defeat of the Italian Army by Ethiopians, both of which shattered the image of European
might.
• Inaction of Morley: Extremists were optimistic about the nomination of a new Secretary of State, Morley, but he did
nothing about the partition question, which angered the Extremists.
• Contention over presidentship: Extremists wanted Tilak or Lala Lajpat Rai as president, but moderates wanted
Rash Behari Bose to be president in the 1907 session.
THE IMPACT
• Divided into two parties: The Indian National Congress (INC) split in Surat resulted in the party being divided into
two parties, the Extremists and the Moderates.
• Weakened Congress: This schism weakened Congress and hampered its ability to fight for Indian independence.
• Prominence of extremists: With extremists gaining prominence and eventually driving Congress towards a more
militant and extreme approach to winning independence.
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• Shift in government attitude: It also indicated a shift in the government's attitude and policy towards moderate
nationalists.
• Impetus for reforms: The Surat Split was the impetus for the 1909 Minto-Morley Reform.
The Surat Split divided the Indian National Congress into Extremists and Moderates, weakening the party's fight for
independence. Extremists gained prominence, pushing Congress towards a more militant approach. The schism
indicated a shift in government policy and spurred the 1909 Minto-Morley Reforms. The split is seen as a national
disaster, halting the national movement temporarily. The Extremists' revolutionary efforts gave people new hope
against the British. After eight years, the Moderates and Extremists reunited in Lucknow in 1916, restoring momentum
to the independence movement.
RISE OF MILITANT AND REVOLUTIONARY NATIONALISM
The causes of the growth of extremists or militant nationalism are remarkably similar to the causes of the rise of
nationalism in India. Leaders such as Tilak, Ashwini Kumar Dutt, and others have been involved in spreading militant
nationalism since its inception. The Swadeshi Movement's leadership shifted from moderates to extremists like Bipin
Chandra Pal, Aurobindo Ghosh, Tilak, and others.
KARACHI CHRONICLE
What one Asiatic has done, others can do... if Japan can drub Russia, India can drub England with equal ease... let us
drive the British into the sea and take our place side by side with Japan among the great powers of the world.
REASONS BEHIND EMERGENCE

• Moderate Failure: Politically conscious nationalists thought that British exploitation would continue since
reasonable demands had little influence on British policies. Moderates believed that foreign rule might be changed,
but this did not occur.
• Curzon's anti-Congress stance: Curzon's anti-Congress stance convinced many that Congress would remain a
useless organization.
• Elevated position of Congress: Congress was substantially elevated to the position of a Zamindar and upper-
middle- class elite party. Poets such as Bankim Chandra described the Congress session as a "three-day annual show."
• Failure of The Indian Council Act (ICA), 1892: The ICA of 1892 was a huge failure that called the Moderates' tactics
into question.
• International influence: Japan defeats Russia in international events. The defeat of the Italian army by Ethiopians
demolished the notion of Western superiority.
• Severe repressions: Deportation of nationalist leaders Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh in 1907. In 1908, KK Mitra and
Ashwini Kumar Dutt were deported. In 1908, Tilak was sentenced to 6 years in prison.
• Curbed freedom: The Official Secrecy Act severely curtailed journalistic freedom.
o Deportation without trial: The arrest and deportation of the Natu Brothers in 1897, even without publicizing
the allegations against them, outraged the public.
o Tilak was imprisoned: Tilak and other newspaper editors were convicted to heavy prison terms for inciting
public outrage the same year.
• Political consciousness: The spread of political knowledge made Indians realize that British rule was not beneficial
to India, and it also resulted in the rejection of the White Man's Burden thesis.
IMMEDIATE CAUSES
• Partition of Bengal: During Curzon's reign, the partition of Bengal occurred, and it became one of the most
important rallying moments in the history of the Indian liberation fight.
• Other events: like the Municipal Act and the Delhi Darbar, fuelled public outrage.
• Failure of early militant nationalists: They failed to give the movement a clear direction. They also failed to reach
the general public.
IMPACTS OF REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT
• Political Awareness: Acts like the assassination of British officials and the bombing campaigns by groups like the
Anushilan Samiti in Bengal raised awareness and support for the independence movement among Indians.
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• British Repression: In response to these violent acts, the British government enacted harsh laws, such as the
Rowlatt Act of 1919, which allowed detention without trial, leading to widespread unrest and incidents like the
Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
• Influence on Nationalist Movements: The radical methods of revolutionaries created a divide within the Indian
nationalist movement, contrasting with leaders like Gandhi who advocated non-violence. However, the bravery of
these revolutionaries also inspired many, particularly the youth.
• Security Measures: The British expanded their intelligence and policing efforts in India, establishing and enhancing
agencies to counter revolutionary activities, a legacy that influenced India's own security apparatus post-
independence.
• Inspiration for Future Movements: The sacrifices of early 20th-century revolutionaries inspired subsequent
generations, including leaders like Subhas Chandra Bose and later nationalist movements, underscoring their
enduring legacy in the fight against colonial rule.
COMPARISON BETWEEN REVOLUTIONARY AND EXTREMIST
Aspect Revolutionary Extremist
Approach Violent resistance and radical methods Non-violent protests, petitions, and discussions
Greater autonomy within the British Empire

Goal Complete independence from British rule
initially
Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, Subhas Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin
Key Figures
Chandra Bose Chandra Pal
Key
Kakori Conspiracy, Chittagong armoury raid Partition of Bengal protests, Swadeshi Movement
Incidents
Immediate overthrow of British rule, inspired Gradual increase in self-governance, influenced by

Philosophy
by global revolutionary movements moderate reforms and constitutional means
Laid foundation for wider participation in freedom

Impact on movement, influenced later policies like the Non-
Created urgency and international attention,
Freedom Cooperation Movement
inspired future generations
Struggle
THE DECLINE OF THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT

• No mass support: It was unable to mobilize the people. It had no support among the general public. They believed
in personal heroics.
• Unable to attain the goal: This movement was unable to attain its goal of independence.
• Leadership vacuum: The assassination of Chandrasekhar Azad in a shooting encounter in a public park in Allahabad
in February 1931 effectively ended the revolutionary struggle in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar. The martyrdom
of Surya Sen also signified the end of terrorist activity in Bengal.
• Rethinking of means: The revolutionaries imprisoned in jails and in Andaman began a process of rethinking.
• New ideologies: Marxism was adopted by a huge number of revolutionaries.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT:
• Organised form: Revolutionary movements began to take on an organised form under the influence of an organised
national movement.
• Encouraged Indians: It encouraged Indians to violently overthrow British control in India.
Although they did not achieve their stated goal of achieving independence by armed revolution, they were successful in
rallying people, self-governance, reading of authority from their minds, and striking horror into the hearts of the
authorities.
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MORLEY-MINTO REFORMS (1909) AND RESPONSES
Morley-Minto Reforms were carried out in 1909, while Lord Minto was Governor General of India.
Lord Morley
Reforms may not save the Raj, but if they don’t, nothing else will.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
• Demand of Muslim leaders: In October 1906, the Shimla Deputation, led by the Agha Khan, met Lord Minto and
demanded separate electorates for Muslims as well as representation greater than their numerical strength due to
the "value of the contribution" Muslims were making "to the defence of the empire."
• Muslim League: The same group swiftly took over the Muslim League, which was founded in December 1906 by
Nawab Salimullah of Dacca, Nawabs Mohsin-ul-Mulk, and Waqar-ul-Mulk.
• Imperial allegiance: The Muslim League attempted to promote imperial allegiance while keeping the Muslim elite
away from the Congress.
• Cracking down is not sufficient: The Conservative Viceroy of India, Minto, and John Morley, the Liberal Secretary
of State for India, both agreed that cracking down on uprisings in Bengal was important but not sufficient for
restoring security to the British Raj following Lord Curzon's splitting of Bengal.
• Instil hope: They believed that a drastic step was required to instil hope in the Indian upper classes and the growing
Westernized part of the population.
MONTFORD REPORT
The reforms of 1909 afforded no answer and could afford no answer to Indian problems.
POSITIVE FEATURES
• Element of self-government: It included an element of self-government by allowing for indirect elections.
• Budget voting: included the ability to vote on a portion of the budget.
• Authority to question: More authority was granted in terms of questioning.
• Representation: There was more representation.
NEGATIVES FEATURES
• Separate Electorates: The reforms included, among other things, a separate electorate for Muslims.
• Fostered communalism: It planted the seeds of communalism and hindered India's historical progress toward
unity. Lord Minto was dubbed the "Father of the Communal Electorate."
• Diversion from plight: It also diverted Indians' attention away from economic and political issues.
• No real power: extended Legislative Councils, but members were still chosen indirectly and the councils didn't have
any actual powers, such as budget debate, though they were now permitted to pass resolutions, etc.
• Limited Association of Indians: With the Executive Council of the Viceroy and Governors. Satyendra Prasad Sinha
(SP Sinha) was the first Indian to be appointed as a legal member of the Viceroy's Executive Council. (The number
was limited to one).
• Limited franchise: The franchise was introduced for the first time - it was restricted, however, because women did
not have voting rights, and it was also constrained in other ways.
The reforms of 1909 provided the country's citizens with a shadow rather than substance. The people desired self-
government, but all they got was "benevolent despotism."
FIRST WORLD WAR (1914 -1919), ITS IMPACT AND RESPONSES
In World War I (1914-1919), Britain joined with France, Russia, the United States, Italy, and Japan against Germany,
Austria-Hungary, and Turkey.
RESPONSES TO WORLD WAR I
Extremists Support the misguided notion: Tilak, For example, backed the war effort in the misguided
notion.
that Britain would reward India's allegiance with gratitude in the form of self-government.
Moderates Support & expecting reciprocity: Moderates, on the other hand, expressed their support for
the government, expecting that it would reciprocate by easing off on them.
Revolutionaries Opportunity to wage war: The revolutionaries were determined to take advantage of the
opportunity to wage war against British rule and liberate the country.
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IMPACT OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR ON THE INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT
• India's fiscal and human losses: Millions of rupees were transferred from India for use in the war, and Indian
troops perished while fighting in Europe.
• The Working Class: As new industries were built to serve Europe, the middle class had greater work options. Wages
were low, and working conditions were poor. Workers had limited bargaining power since trade unionism had yet
to acquire popularity.
• Agriculture: Following the scourge of starvation, World War I caused a fall in agricultural commodity prices in
worldwide markets. This pushed farmers further into debt.
• Politics and Nationalism: Nationalist leaders regarded it as an opportunity for negotiating further rights, and
conditional support was granted in the expectation that Britain would take political moves in favour of Indians after
the war.
• Economic plight: The economic position deteriorated following the war. The industry that thrived during the war
was now faced with closure and a drop in output.
• Negative reciprocity: Promises made during the war were disregarded and nationalism was pushed. While colonies
were promised democracy, they received a poor bargain in return. Formerly vanquished nations' colonies were
dispersed among winners as a war reward.
• Dissatisfaction: After the war, national leaders were dissatisfied with the government's actions. The Government
of India Act of 1919 was an immense failure.
• Enraged Muslims: The treatment of the Ottoman Empire following the Treaty of Sevres roused Muslim sentiments
and opened the ground for the Khilafat Movement and non-cooperation.
• Sprouting trade unions: After the war, trade unionism developed as well, with the founding of AITUC under N M
Joshi in 1920 making the initial strides.
GHADAR PARTY AND KOMAGATA MARU INCIDENT (1915)
WORLD WAR FIRST AND GHADAR MOVEMENT
• Opportunity: The world war also provided a chance for the Ghadarites to exploit the British overlords.
• Using immigrants: The Ghadarite leaders pushed immigrants on the western coast of the United States to return to
India and launch an armed revolution with the help of the army. Some leaders were transferred to Far Eastern
countries to persuade Indians to return.
• Attempts to convert the army's devotion: The ghadarites discovered the Punjab state to be significantly different.
Nobody backed them up, and the khalsa even labelled them as "fallen Sikhs." Without strong leadership, their naive
attempts to convert the army's devotion failed.
• Turned to revolution: They eventually turned to revolutionary leaders for guidance, but the government had
successfully infiltrated the Ghadar. And, prior to the revolution, the majority of them were arrested. The
government's reaction was harsh, and an entire generation of political leaders was eliminated.
THE KOMAGATA MARU INCIDENT
• Spark: The significance of this incident stems from the fact that it sparked an explosive scenario in Punjab.
• Singapore to Vancouver: The Komagata Maru was the name of a ship bringing 370 people from Singapore to
Vancouver, mostly Sikh and Punjabi Muslim would-be immigrants. After two months of hardship and uncertainty,
they were sent back by Canadian authorities.
• British influence: It was widely assumed that the Canadian authorities were swayed by the British administration.
In September 1914, the ship finally anchored in Calcutta. The detainees refused to board the train going to Punjab.
22 people were killed in the ensuing clash with the police in Budge Budge, near Calcutta.
• Enraged Ghadrites: The Ghadr leaders were enraged by this, and with the onset of the First World War, they
resolved to undertake a violent attack to overthrow British control in India. They encouraged fighters to travel to
India.
THE GADAR PARTY AND MOVEMENT (1915)
• The Ghadar movement was an attempt by the Ghadar party's revolutionary leaders to launch a violent attack on
British India. The outbreak of the First World War and the Komagata Maru event sparked the Ghadar movement.
The date of the violent revolt in numerous sites across India was set for February 21, 1915.
o Revolutionary: During the First World War, there was also an increase of revolutionaries. The most noteworthy
of these was the Ghadar party, which was founded in San Francisco by Lala Hardayal, Sohan Singh Bhakna,
Mohammed Barkattullah, and others.
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o Expanded influence: It was a secular party, and its influence expanded to other Asian countries where Indians
lived.
o Failed attempt: As the First World War broke out, the Ghadar party joined the fight against the British Empire.
The 21st of February 1915 was designated as a day of insurrection in India, to begin in Punjab. However, the plan
was thwarted by the British CID, and Ghadarites were captured, prosecuted, and many were hanged.
o British response: The British responded to the wartime danger with a tremendous arsenal of repressive
measures, the most extensive since 1857, led by the Defence of India Act, which was passed in March 1915
particularly to crush the Ghadar movement.
GHADAR’S EVALUATION
• Success:
o Ideological success: The Ghadar movement's success was in the field of ideology.
o Promoted nationalism: It promoted fierce nationalism while being entirely secular.
• Limitations:
o Underestimated: The main flaw was that they utterly underestimated the extent and amount of preparation
required at every level-organizational, intellectual, financial, and so on--before any violent revolt.
o Unorganized: Another significant issue is the lack of an organisational framework; the Ghadar Movement was
sustained more by the militants' zeal than by their ability to organise themselves.
o Lack of long-lasting leadership: The Ghadar Movement also lacked a strong and long-term leadership capable
of uniting the movement's diverse parts.
o Overlooked: They overlooked that rallying a few thousand dissatisfied immigrant Indians, who were already
emotionally charged due to racial persecution at the hands of white foreigners, was a far cry from mobilising and
motivating lakhs of peasants and soldiers in India.
However, it failed to achieve much on the political and military fronts because it lacked organized and sustained
leadership, underestimated the extent of preparation required at every level - organizational, ideological, financial, and
tactical strategic - and perhaps Lala Hardayal was unsuited for the job of an organizer.
HOME RULE MOVEMENT
The home rule movement was the Indian response to World War I that was less charged but more effective. With people
already feeling the load of wartime hardships brought on by heavy taxation and price increases, Tilak and Annie Besant
were all set to assume leadership of the campaign, which had begun with considerable enthusiasm. The League
campaign attempted to transmit to the ordinary man the message of self-government through home rule.
BACKGROUND OF THE MOVEMENT

• Disappointment of the 1909 Act: With the disappointment of the 1909 Act and the failure of moderates to make
headway, the groundwork has been laid for a new movement.
• Role of Tilak: Tilak was released from jail in 1914, ready to take on a larger role; however, Congress' leadership was
with moderates, forcing him to form a breakaway organization.
• Influence of the Russian Revolution: While the Russian Revolution of 1917 was still in action, it gave an additional
edge.
• Lucknow pact: In December 1915, the two sides of Congress reconciled. The Congress and the Muslim League
formed the historic Lucknow Pact the next year, pledging to work together for representative government in the
country.
HOME RULE LEAGUE MOVEMENT (SEPTEMBER 1916)
• Resume activities: Tilak resumed his nationalist activities after his release from prison in 1914. He was attempting
to get entry to Congress. His first attempt, however, was foiled by moderates led by Pherozshah Mehta.
• Opposition decreased: However, following Pherozshah Mehta's death, opposition against the Extremists decreased
and they were allowed to rejoin Congress in December 1915.
• Attitude of moderates: There seemed to have been no advance on the front of self-rule, and many leaders were
disappointed by the attitude of moderates.
• Irish influence: Inspired by the Irish insurrection, Dr Annie Besant (together with George Arundale), who had
garnered considerable expertise in national action via her involvement with the Theosophical Society, launched a
Home Rule Movement in India in September 1916.
• Assistance: B W Wadia and C P Ramaswamy Aiyer assisted her in her attempts.Bal Gangadhar Tilak also launched
and enthusiastically supported another Home Rule Movement.
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• Swaraj: Tilak took the initiative and launched the Maharashtra Home Rule League Movement in 1916. During the
Home Rule Movement, Tilak proclaimed, "Swaraj is my birthright, and I will have it."
• New political landscape: Gandhi was not active in the movement since he had only arrived last year and was still
navigating the new political landscape.
THE OBJECTIVE OF THE MOVEMENT
• To enjoy Dominion status: 'To enjoy Dominion status, as other British colonies such as Australia, South Africa, and
New Zealand do'.
• Promote political education: To promote political education and debate to generate support for self-government.
• Motivate Indians: To motivate Indians to speak out against the government's repression.
• Pressure on the British government: To put pressure on the British government to increase Indian political
representation.
• Resurrect political activity: To resurrect political activity in India while adhering to the principles of the Congress
Party.
REASONS BEHIND THE DOWNFALL
• Moderates were appeased: After Besant's release, moderates were appeased and the anger subsided.
• August Declaration: In Britain's Parliament, new Secretary of State Montague claimed that Indians will be granted
additional roles in administration (unlike his predecessor Morley, who denied any such possibility). 'August
Declaration' was the name given to Montague's proclamation.
• Rise of Gandhi: The rise of Gandhi and discussions of civil disobedience diverted national attention.
• Vacant leadership: Tilak moved to the United States, leaving a leadership vacant space.
• Communal riots: In 1917-18, communal riots erupted.
THE MOVEMENT'S SUCCESS
• Mass support: The movement was successful in drawing the public, signalling a change away from the elite
participation paradigm of moderates.
• Strengthened Congress: Tilak and Besant's efforts resurrected Congress following the Lucknow Pact of 1916.
• Pushed the government: They pushed the government to pursue more changes in the shape of the Mont-Ford
reforms of 1919. Furthermore, the campaign laid the groundwork for Gandhian politics of mass mobilization.
• Shape the new course: The Home Rule Leagues and related activities had some good impacts and helped to shape
the new course that the liberation movement would take in the coming years.
It established an organizational link between the town and the country, which would be vital later on when the national
movement entered its mass phase. It gave the national movement a new dimension and a sense of urgency.
LUCKNOW PACT (DECEMBER 1916), ITS SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACTS
During World War I, Turkey fought against Britain; Muslims supported Turkey and were enraged by the British.
Congress was likewise exhausted from pleading for self-government.
A.C. Majumdar (President of the Lucknow session of the INC—1916)
After nearly ten years of painful separation and wandering through the wilderness of misunderstanding and mazes
of unpleasant controversies...both wings of the Indian Nationalist Party have come to realize the fact that united they
stand, but divided they fall.
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE LUCKNOW SESSION

• Unification: After a ten-year break after the Surat Split, both Moderates and Extremists were unified in this session.
• Consensus: During the Lucknow session, Congress and the Muslim League formed the Lucknow Pact, establishing
political consensus on the next steps.
• Hindu-Muslim cooperation: It cleared the door for Hindu-Muslim collaboration in the Indian Independence
Movement, as evidenced in the Khilafat Movement and the Non-collaboration Movement.
• Strengthened united: It also strengthened the Congress by uniting the two groups under the same umbrella.
• Formalize communal politics: The agreement between the parties on a distinct communal electorate formally
created communal politics in India.
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• Communal veto: According to the Lucknow Pact of 1916, any legislature would be unable to function if more than
3/4 of members of any faith were opposed to the resolution. Acceptance of such a proposition resulted in the
establishment of a type of communal veto in the legislature.
• Embraced Muslim League: Through this arrangement, the INC also tacitly embraced the Muslim League's notion
that India was divided into two distinct populations with opposing interests.
EVALUATION OF THE LUCKNOW SESSION
• Cooperation in the Khilafat movement: This contract laid the groundwork for Hindu-Muslim cooperation in the
Khilafat movement and Mohandas Gandhi's non-cooperation movement beginning in 1920.
• Colour of communalism: The Congress also agreed to separate electorates for Muslims in provincial council
elections, which was one of the most contentious aspects of the accord.
• Blunder by INC: Acceptance of a separate electorate is seen as one of Congress's worst blunders, leading to potent
communalism in the country. Furthermore, neither Hindu nor Muslim masses were involved.
• Recognised divided interests: The pact made it evident that India had various communities, each with its own set
of interests.
• Destructive pacifist actions: The number of Muslim legislators was determined province by province. This was one
of Congress's most destructive pacifist actions. It recognised not only communal representation but also communal
privileges.
The Congress session at Lucknow had a long-lasting influence on India. It may have temporarily brought the warring
groups together, but it legitimized the Muslim League's policies of hatred and division.
MONTAGU CHELMSFORD REFORMS (1919)
In 1918, the Mont-Ford (Montagu Chelmsford) Commission issued its report. It claimed to prepare the way for Indian
self- government, but it also sought to induce Indians to assist the British during the First World War (1914-18). For the
first time, the government of India stated its desire to gradually introduce a responsible government.
M. K. Gandhi
The Montford Reforms... was only a method of further draining India of her wealth and of prolonging her servitude.
NOTABLE FEATURES
• Indians in administration: It was passed in order to increase Indians' involvement in the Indian administration.
• Ten-year reform: The Act was in effect for ten years, from 1919 to 1929.
• Embraced princely states: This Act's structure also allowed Britain to employ the Princely States (who were
directly represented in the Council of States) to balance off the increasing dominance of domestic political parties.
• Provincial Diarchy: For the larger provinces, the Act established a dual system of governance (diarchy).
• Decentralization: It delineated subjects as 'central subjects' and 'provincial subjects,' easing control over provinces.
Provincial topics were further classified as follows:
• Reserved Subjects: Governed by the governor with the assistance of his 'Executive Council'. Defence (military),
Foreign Affairs, and Communications were among the reserved list positions.
• Transferred Subjects: Administered by the Governor with the assistance of 'Ministers' in charge of the 'Provincial
Legislative Council'. Agriculture, local government supervision, health, and education were among the 'transferred
list' items.
• Diarchy: The term 'Diarchy' referred to this dual form of government. This new system, however, did not acquire
popular approval.
• Direct Elections: For the first time, 'Direct Elections' were held, and a restricted franchise was provided based on
taxation, education, and property ownership in the country.
• A bicameral system: created at the centre and the majority members of both houses in this bicameral system were
directly elected. The formation of unicameral Provincial Legislative Councils.
• Centralisation: The Central Legislature was given the authority to pass legislation for the whole country of India.
• Veto of governor general: The Governor General was granted the authority to summon, prorogue, dissolve, and
published ordinances.
• Proportion of Indians: The proportion of Indians on the Viceroy's Executive Council was increased to three out of
eight. The number was raised, but the council remained only an advisory body with no actual power.
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• Examine the Reform Provision: According to the Montagu-Chelmsford study, there should be a review after ten
years. Sir John Simon led the group (Simon Commission) in charge of the review, which suggested additional
constitutional changes.
• Self-governance for Indians: The changes had a significant impact in that the demand of nationalists for self-rule
or Home Rule could no longer be considered seditious because achieving self-governance for Indians had now
officially become a government policy, as expressed in the August Declaration of Montague.
WALTER REID, KEEPING THE JEWEL IN THE CROWN

Devolution was intended to tie in a larger element of society to the status quo. But giving powers to local
communities meant that energies that could have been applied against the imperial power were dissipated into
communal rivalry. Division always worked for Britain’s benefit In Montford despotism proclaimed its benevolence.
DRAWBACKS OF THE REFORMS

• Limited franchise: The franchise was quite restricted. The electorate for the central legislature was increased to
around 1.5 million, despite the fact that India's population was estimated to be over 260 million.
• Veto of viceroy: The legislature had no authority over the viceroy and his executive council in the centre.
• Inadequate subject division: The centre's subject division was inadequate. At the provincial level, subject division
and simultaneous administration of two portions were illogical and hence, impractical. Irrigation, finance, police, the
press, and justice were all reserved.
• Less power to provinces: Provincial ministers had little authority over budgets or bureaucracy, resulting in
frequent conflict between the two.
• Ministers not consulted: Ministers were frequently not consulted on key subjects as well; in fact, they may be
overturned by the governor on any matter deemed exceptional by the latter.
RECEPTION IN INDIA
• Congress disappointment: The Congress deemed the reforms "disappointing" and "unsatisfactory," instead
demanding effective self-government.
• Unmatched to political demands: The 1919 changes did not meet India's political demands.
• Unified in opposition: The Indian members of the Legislative Council were unified in their opposition to these
policies. Several council members, including Jinnah, resigned in protest.
• Betrayal of masses: These measures were largely perceived throughout India as a betrayal of the population's
strong support for the British war effort.
• Gandhi's protest: Gandhi launched a state-wide protest against the Rowlatt Acts, with Punjab leading the way.
• Massacre: In April 1919, an unintentional violation of restrictions barring gatherings of people resulted in the killing
at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar.
The Montagu Chelmsford Report would later serve as the foundation for the Government of India Act, of 1935, and,
eventually, the Constitution. These changes resulted in the essential ideas of responsible government, self-governance,
and a federal framework. The Montagu-Chelmsford Report on Indian constitutional reforms is a watershed moment in
the country's constitutional history. The Montagu Chelmsford Report on Indian constitutional reforms, along with the
Montagu Declaration, are thus worthy contenders for the title of modern India's Magna Carta.
CONTRIBUTION OF CHANDRASEKHAR AZAD
Chandrasekhar Azad was a pivotal figure in the Indian freedom struggle, known for his commitment to absolute
independence and his readiness to employ armed resistance against British colonial rule. Born on July 23, 1906, in
Bhabhra, Madhya Pradesh, Azad became a symbol of bravery and self-sacrifice in the annals of Indian history.
EARLY LIFE AND INFLUENCES
• Early Radicalization: Azad was deeply affected by the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in 1919, which precipitated his
strong resolve against British rule. His early involvement with the Non-Cooperation Movement initiated by Mahatma
Gandhi also shaped his path, but he was disillusioned by the suspension of the movement following the Chauri
Chaura incident in 1922.
• Turn Towards Revolutionary Activities: This disillusionment led him to the Hindustan Republican Association
(HRA), which later became the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA), where he was significantly
influenced by figures like Ram Prasad Bismil.
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MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS
• Reformation of HRA into HSRA: In 1928, Bhagat Singh and Chandrashekhar Azad transformed the Hindustan
Republican Association (HRA) into the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA). Their goal was to use
more organised and violent means to achieve complete independence and to establish an India based on socialist
principles.
• Participation in Major Events: Azad was involved in several key actions against the British:
o Kakori Train Robbery (1925): He did not participate directly but was involved in the planning and aftermath,
helping the organization gain financial resources.
o The Assembly Bombing (1929): Though the primary actors were Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt, Azad
was instrumental in the planning stages.
o Shooting of Saunders (1928): In response to the killing of Lala Lajpat Rai, Azad was involved in the conspiracy
that led to the assassination of J.P. Saunders, a British police officer.
• Propagation of Revolutionary Ideals: Azad was keen on recruiting young activists and spreading socialist ideals
to invigorate the youth of India towards the freedom struggle. He was involved in training revolutionaries at Jhansi,
turning it into a hub for revolutionary activities.
STRATEGY AND IDEOLOGY
● Guerrilla Warfare: Azad advocated and practiced guerrilla tactics, which involved sudden attacks on British officials and
thefts that funded their activities. His methods were marked by a bold and uncompromising stance against the British,
differentiating him from more moderate approaches of the time.
● Vision for Post-Independence India: Although primarily focused on the overthrow of British rule, Azad and his comrades
had a vision of a socialist India where justice and social equity prevailed. They believed in the destruction of the current
system and its replacement with a socialist struct.
Legacy and Death
• Icon of Bravery and Sacrifice: Azad’s commitment to never being captured alive by the British was fulfilled when
he shot himself on February 27, 1931, during a face-off with the police in Alfred Park, Allahabad. He became a martyr
and an enduring symbol of resistance against oppression.
• Inspirational Figure: His legacy inspires countless Indians, and many public institutions and movements have been
named in his honor to commemorate his sacrifice for Indian independence.
Chandrasekhar Azad remains one of the most celebrated revolutionaries in Indian history. His life is a testament to the
lengths to which passionate individuals will go to fight for their country’s freedom. His tactics, ideological commitment
to socialism, and the ultimate sacrifice continue to be revered and studied as a major part of India’s struggle for
independence.
KEY WORDS: Lord Curzon, Partition of Bengal, Reactionary policies, Swadeshi movement, Nationalist response, Curzon's
reforms, Communal divide, Political instability, Anti-colonial movement, Revolutionary activities.

1. Evaluate the policies of Lord Curzon and their long-term implications on the national movements. 2020
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8 INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT – PHASE II (1918-1939)
DAWN OF GANDHIAN ERA

Gandhi spent over 20 years in South Africa. His Satyagraha experiments began there. While in South Africa, he founded
the daily Indian Opinion. Gandhi returned to India on January 9, 1915. He spent the first year of his life wandering
around India, studying Indian circumstances and people, before establishing the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad in
1916.
GANDHIJI'S EARLY CAREER AND TRUTH EXPERIMENTS IN SOUTH AFRICA
• Born and brought up: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar, Gujarat, in the
princely state of Kathiawar. His father was a state diwan (minister).
• Early career: After studying law in England, Gandhi travelled to South Africa in 1898 in connection with a case
involving his client, Dada Abdullah.
• South African experience: In South Africa, he witnessed the ugly face of white racism, as well as the humiliation
and contempt shown to Asians who had come to South Africa as labourers.
• Decided to fight: He decided to remain in South Africa in order to organise the Indian workers so that they could
fight for their rights. He stayed there until 1914 when he returned to India.
• Indians in South Africa: The Indians in South
Africa were divided into three groups: indentured
Indian labourers, to work on sugar plantations;
merchants, mostly Meman Muslims; and ex-
indentured labourers.
• Accepted racial discrimination: These Indians
were largely uneducated and spoke little or no
English. They accepted racial discrimination as a
normal aspect of life.
• Disabilities were imposed: They were not allowed
to vote. They could only live in designated areas that
were unsanitary and congested. Asians and Africans were not permitted to leave their homes after 9 p.m., nor were
they permitted to utilise public sidewalks.
GANDHI'S MODERATE STRUGGLE IN SOUTH AFRICA (1894-1906)
• Petitions and memorials: During this phase, Gandhi relied on sending petitions and memorials to the authorities
in South Africa and Britain.
• To unite Indians: He founded the Natal Indian Congress and began publishing Indian opinions in order to unite
various groups of Indians.
GANDHI'S PASSIVE RESISTANCE OR SATYAGRAHA IN SOUTH AFRICA (1906-1914)
• Satyagraha: The second phase, which began in 1906, was distinguished by the employment of Gandhi's tactic of
passive resistance or civil disobedience, which he dubbed satyagraha.
• Satyagraha Against Registration Certificates (1906): A new law in South Africa required Indians to carry
registration certificates with their fingerprints at all times.
• Passive Resistance Association: Gandhi established the Passive Resistance Association to carry out a campaign of
opposing the law and experiencing the consequences of such defiance.
• Practice of resisting opponents: Thus was born satyagraha, or dedication to truth, the practice of resisting
opponents without resorting to violence.
• Reaction: The Indians, led by Gandhi, reacted by publicly burning their registration certificates.
• Compromised solution: All of this cast a negative light on the South African administration. In the end, a
compromise solution was reached.
• Break the law: The previous campaign was expanded to include opposition to new regulations restricting Indian
migration. The Indians broke the law by crossing from one province to the next and refusing to provide licences.
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• Campaign Against Poll Tax and Invalidation of Indian Marriages: A poll tax of three pounds was imposed on all
ex-indentured Indians. The demand for the abolition of the poll tax broadened the campaign's base.
• Invalidation of marriages: Then there was the Supreme Court judgement that invalidated any marriages that were
not done according to Christian customs and registered by the registrar of marriages.
GANDHI'S SOUTH AFRICAN EXPERIENCE (1893 TO 1914)
• Potential of masses: Gandhi discovered that the people had an enormous potential to engage in and sacrifice for a
cause that moved them.
• United for a common cause: Under his guidance, he was able to bring together Indians of many religions and
classes, as well as men and women.
• New methods of resistance: On a small scale, he was able to develop his own leadership and political style, as well
as new methods of resistance.
GANDHI'S SATYAGRAHA TECHNIQUE
• Truth & nonviolence: During his time in South Africa, Gandhi developed the Satyagraha technique. It was founded
on truth and non-violence.
• Confluence of many ideologies: He merged parts of Indian culture with the Christian imperative of turning the
other cheek and Tolstoy's ideology, which stated that nonviolent resistance was the greatest way to combat evil.
• Methods employed: A satyagrahi works on the ideas of non-cooperation and boycott. Satyagraha methods include
refusing to pay taxes and declining awards and positions of responsibility.
• Willing to suffer: A satyagrahi must be willing to suffer in his fight against the wrongdoer. This suffering was to be
a part of his devotion to the truth.
• Hatred is alien: Even when fighting the wrongdoer, a true satyagrahi would have no ill will towards the wrongdoer;
hatred would be alien to his character.
• Only for the courageous and strong: Satyagraha was only for the courageous and strong; it was not for the weak
and cowardly. Violence was favoured over cowardice.
• Means: Thought and practice were never to be separated. In other words, the means could not justify the objectives.
GANDHI' S INITIAL SATYAGRAHA AFTER ARRIVING IN INDIA
1. THE CHAMPARAN SATYAGRAHA OF 1917
• Peasants' cause: British forced poor peasants to cultivate indigo given they had no other option.
• Tinkathia System: According to the Tinkathia System, farmers were forced to grow Indigo on 3/20th of their land
and were only permitted to keep one-third of the indigo they produced, while the other two-thirds had to be given
to British/European planters.
• Indigo exploitation: The Bengal Tenancy Act and other reactionary regulations aided indigo exploitation by
mandating peasants to plant 3/20 and in some cases up to 5/20, of their lands with indigo.
• Initiative by Raj Kumar Shukla: Was an indigo planter from Champaran (Bihar) who met Gandhiji and urged him
to visit Champaran to see the misery of the cultivators.
• Fight the harsh plantation system: In 1917, he travelled to Champaran, Bihar, to encourage peasants to fight the
harsh plantation system.
• Constructive work: He began conducting rural clean-ups, the construction of schools and hospitals, and persuading
village leaders to abolish purdah, untouchability, and the oppression of women.
• Organised protests and strikes: Gandhi led organised protests and strikes against the landlords, who struck an
agreement with the British government offering more compensation and authority over farming for the region's
poor farmers.
• Leader of the masses: It was during this struggle that Gandhi was referred to by the people as Bapu and Mahatma.
2. MILLS STRIKE IN AHMEDABAD, 1918
• Movement among cotton mill workers: Mahatma Gandhi travelled to Ahmadabad in 1918 to organise a satyagraha
movement among cotton mill workers.
• Plague bonus: Workers demanded, among other things, the continuation of the 'Plague Bonus' after the epidemic.
• Mahatma Gandhi intervention: Mahatma Gandhi intervened in a dispute and arbitrated between Ahmadabad
workers and mill owners.
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• Strike: He recommended the workers to go on strike and seek a 35% wage raise. Earlier the workers were asking
for 50% raise.. He fasted till death, and mill owners decided to give the workers a rise.
• Gandhi's key lieutenants: Anasuya Behn was one of Gandhi's key lieutenants during the Satyagraha. She was,
however, the sister of one of the mill owners and Gandhi's close friend, Ambalal Sarabhai.
• 'Ahembdabad Textile Labour Association: He also established the 'Ahembdabad Textile Labour Association'
during the mill strike. It provided Gandhi with an urban and industrial base and is credited with setting the tone for
industrial relations in the city.
3. KHEDA OR KAIRA SATYAGRAHA, 1918

• Supported the peasants: He organised a Satyagraha to support the peasants of Gujarat's Kheda district.
• Crop failure and a plague epidemic: Due to crop failure and a plague epidemic, the peasants of Kheda were unable
to pay the revenue and demanded that it be lowered.
• Increased revenue: Despite challenges, the British government increased revenue. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and
other dedicated Gandhians toured the countryside, organising the villagers and providing them with political
leadership and direction.
• Preferring to keep the movement strictly Gujarati: Many enraged Gujaratis from Ahmedabad and Vadodara
joined the revolt's organisers, but Gandhi and Patel dissuaded the involvement of Indians from other regions,
preferring to keep the movement strictly Gujarati.
• Revenue was waived: After facing a united opposition, the British government reached an agreement, and the
revenue was waived for that year and the following year.
Gains from Champaran, Ahmedabad, and Kheda
• Satyagraha technique: Gandhi demonstrated to the people the usefulness of his satyagraha technique.
• Feet among the masses: He found his feet among the masses and started to have a popular following.
• Strengths and weaknesses: He found his footing among the masses and gained a better knowledge of their
strengths and weaknesses;
• Respect and dedication: He gained the respect and dedication of many, particularly the youth.
GANDHI' S MAJOR IDEOLOGIES
• Truth and nonviolence: The twin cardinal elements of Gandhian ideology are truth and nonviolence.
o Truth: According to Gandhi ji, is the relative truth of truthfulness in word and conduct, as well as the absolute
truth - the ultimate reality. God is the ultimate truth (since God is also Truth), and morality - the moral laws and
code - is its foundation.
o Nonviolence: rather than simply being peaceful or the lack of overt violence, regarded by Mahatma Gandhi to
represent active love - the polar opposite of violence in every way.
• Satyagraha: Gandhi ji referred to his comprehensive nonviolent action strategy as Satyagraha. It entails channelling
the purest soul force against every injustice, oppression, and exploitation.
• Means of securing rights: It is a means of securing rights through personal pain while causing no harm to others.
• Sarvodaya: Sarvodaya is a phrase that means 'Universal Uplift' or 'Progress of All'. Gandhi ji coined the phrase as
the title of his translation of John Ruskin's tract on political economy, "Unto This Last."
• Swaraj: Although the word swaraj literally means "self-rule," Gandhi ji gave it the meaning of an entire revolution
that covers all aspects of life.
• Sum total of individual swaraj: For Gandhi ji, swaraj of people was the sum total of individual swaraj (self-rule),
hence he stressed that swaraj meant independence for the meanest of his countrymen.
• Trusteeship: Gandhi ji proposed Trusteeship as a socioeconomic theory.
• Trustees of trusts: It establishes a mechanism for wealthy people to serve as trustees of trusts that care for the
general welfare of the people.
• Swadeshi: Swadeshi is the emphasis on acting both politically and economically within one's local community.
• Community and self-sufficiency: It is the relationship between community and self-sufficiency.
RELEVANCE OF GANDHIAN THOUGHTS IN PRESENT CONTEXT
• Civil Services: Truth is central to Gandhian philosophy, as he has strived to be truthful throughout his life. In
different settings, regardless of the urgency of the crisis, Gandhian views on truth were irrevocable.
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• Value of truthfulness: In a time of pervasive corruption, this value of truthfulness to oneself and to the public is
critical for civil servants.
• Non-Violence: is a crucial component of Gandhianism, which was the main weapon used by Gandhiji throughout
India's freedom campaign against the British Raj.
• Secularism: Gandhianism was religiously and faith-wise tolerant, and the world today needs more religiously and
faith-wise tolerant people in places where violence is committed in the name of religion.
• Tolerance: in society will aid in neutralising the ethnocentric bias in the world that is occurring on a daily basis on
the basis of religion, caste, ethnicity, and area, among other things.
• Formation of the Casteless Society: Gandhiji was opposed to the caste system and coined the term Harijan to
honour the lower caste people.
• Gandhian Socialism: Gandhi's approach to socialism is more social than political, as Gandhiiji perceived a society
free of poverty, hunger, and unemployment, with universal access to education and health care.
• Guiding principles: From poverty alleviation to Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan and universal health care (Ayushman
Bharat) to skill India programmes, Gandhianism serves as the guiding principle.
• Decentralisation: The Gandhian concept of power decentralisation can be achieved in democracies through
empowered local self-government at the grass-roots level.
• Local self-governance: For example, the Indian government has adopted local self-governance by implementing
the Panchayati Raj and Municipality systems in rural and urban areas, respectively.
• Cleanliness: Gandhiji placed a high value on cleanliness, or Swacchta, as he used to say, 'Swacchta Hin Seva'.
• Individual's internal cleanliness: However, this cleanliness movement is about more than just physical cleanliness
and the need to place more attention on the individual's internal cleanliness.
• Corruption-free society: Thus, in addition to clean roads and toilets for a clean India, we need a corruption-free
society with increased transparency and accountability.
• Sustainability: Gandhiji believed that "the Earth has enough for human needs, but not for human greed."
• Ethical Importance: Gandhianism has a lot of ethical and behavioural significance now because society is seeing a
decline in values.
Gandhiji's political efforts provided us with independence, but his philosophies continue to enlighten India and the
world even after so many years. Every individual should thus adhere to the key Gandhian ideologies in their daily lives
in order to have a happy, prosperous, healthy, peaceful, and sustainable future.
IMPACT ON FREEDOM STRUGGLE AFTER GANDHI’S ARRIVAL
The entry of Mahatma Gandhi in the national freedom struggle dates back to 1915 when he returned from South Africa
after two decades of socio/political struggle. Gandhi’s style of politics, as developed through his political experiments
in South Africa, changed the character of the national movement for freedom in India, which, until his arrival, was
representing the classes:
• Narrow social/political base: The moderate phase of the national movement was mired with the bane of narrow
social and political base. E.g., moderates believed the movement should be restricted to the middle-class
intelligentsia.
• Concentrated class interests: Before the advent of Gandhi, national movement was a reflection of group interests
and class consciousness. E.g., The Zamindari association (landholder’s society) was founded to safeguard the
interests of the landlords.
• Narrow demands: The demands of the national movement before the arrival of Gandhi reflected class bias. E.g.,
Indianization of government services, more representation in the legislatures etc.
• Western educated intellectuals: The leadership to the national movement was provided by the western educated
leaders, who more often than not were aloof from the plight of starving millions in the hinterlands.
• Absence of organizational coherence:
o The moderate strategy of prayer, protest, petition did not yield favorable outcomes.
o The militant nationalism, as propounded by the extremist leaders, failed to give the national movement a
dedicated direction/focus. E.g., Surat split disrupted the national movement; limited outcomes from the activities
of The Ghadar extremist group.
o Factors like lack of effective organization, divergences between extremists and moderates, communal riots, and
institutional reforms led to petering out of HomeRule leagues.
Though the political activities before the arrival of Mahatma Gandhi laid the foundation for the national movement, the
Gandhian nature of politics changed its very character:
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• Mass orientation in the national movement: The base of the National Movement shifted towards the masses. E.g.,
the Champaran Satyagraha, Kheda satyagraha etc., brought the plight of farmers to the fore.
• Mainstreaming of subaltern: Gandhi’s advent in the national freedom struggle brought the hitherto neglected
classes into the mainstream of national movement. E.g., Harijan campaign; role of women in Civil Disobedience
movement, Non-cooperation movement etc.
• Emphasis on means over end: Gandhian style of politics gave an idealistic and ethical character to the national
movement, with larger goal of social integration alongside political independence. E.g., withdrawal of non-
cooperation movement after the violence in Chauri Chaura.
• Gandhian ideas:
o Satyagraha (the ideals of truth and nonviolence) given by Gandhiji changed the nature of freedom struggle
towards peaceful protests.
o Swaraj: Gandhiji popularised, developed and expanded the concept of freedom into ideas of self-governance. E.g.,
promotion of Khadi and village industries.
o The moral character of Gandhian protests helped free people's minds from hegemony of fear created by the
British.
• Nation building: Gandhi ji gave a holistic/inclusive character to the national movement which was instrumental in
the task of nation building post-independence. E.g., emphasis on Hindu-Muslim unity, campaign against
untouchability etc.
• Resilient modus-operandi: In order to make the national struggle more resilient, Mahatma Gandhi devised the
struggle truce struggle strategy. E.g., Gandhi ji resumed the Civil Disobedience movement after the 2nd RTC.
The Gandhian influence in the national freedom struggle is instrumental in shaping the values, ideas, and, interest of
contemporary India. The same is reflected in our vision of Vasudev kutumbkam, liberal democracy, welfare of masses
etc.
THE KHILAFAT AND NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT (1919 TO 1922)
The Lucknow Pact of 1916 laid the groundwork for Hindu Muslim unity in national struggle. The Turkey issue
presented an opportunity for Gandhi to further establish unity links among Hindus and Muslims in preparation for a
combined effort against the British.
ORIGIN OF CONCEPT OF NON-COOPERATION:
• British rule because of cooperation of indians: Mahatma Gandhi said in his renowned book Hind Swaraj (1909)
that British rule in India was founded with the participation of Indians and had persisted only because of their
cooperation.
• Without indians comply british will end: If Indians failed to comply, British control in India would end in a year,
and Swaraj would take its place.
• Success of the Rowlatt Satyagraha: With the success of the Rowlatt Satyagraha under him, Gandhiji decided to take
things to the next level, from Satyagrah to Non-Cooperation.
Co-operation vs. Non-Cooperation
• Events which drove to non-cooperation: While Gandhi was initially cooperative with the British, events in
Punjab (Jallianwala Bagh, Martial Law, Hunter report) and Turkey's treatment of Khalifa drove him to
embrace the non- cooperation route.
• Indians stop cooperating, the rule will crumble: Furthermore, as previously said, it was only Indian
cooperation that kept British control in India going, and if Indians stop cooperating, the rule will crumble.
THE BACKGROUND OF MOVEMENT:

• Launch: On August 1, 1920, the 'Non-Cooperation-Khilafat' Movement was launched.
• Calcutta Congress resolution: In September 1920, the Congress passed a resolution in Calcutta, presided over by
Lala Lajpat Rai, agreeing to Gandhiji's plan for non-cooperation with the government until the wrongs of Punjab
(Jalianwala Bagh) and Khilafat were undone and Swaraj was established.
• Each with its own special objective: Various socioeconomic groups engaged in this movement, each with its own
special objective, and it was ratified in Nagpur Session in December 1920.
• Swaraj's appeal: They all reacted to Swaraj's appeal, although the term meant different things to different people.
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• Challenged the foundations of the British Empire: For the first time since the 1857 insurrection, non-cooperation
challenged the foundations of the British Empire.
• Boost to the movement: Gandhiji famously stated, "Swaraj is possible within one year if non-cooperation is
maintained as a movement."
• Students participation: Thousands of students deserted British schools and universities, and a new crop of national
schools and institutions arose, including Jamia Milia, Kashi Vidyapith, Bihar Vidyapith, and others. These institutes
were led by many leaders, including Subhash Chandra Bose, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Zakir Hussain.
• Tilak-Swaraj fund: The Tilak-Swaraj fund, established to honour Tilak and fuel national feelings, was
oversubscribed by more than Rs 1 crore.
• Opposition of Jinnah: Jinnah and Malviya opposed the idea of Swaraj, and Jinnah quit the Congress after a 15-year
association.
• Participation of leaders: Many prominent nationalists from the Central Provinces, including Motilal Nehru,
Prushottam Das Tandon, Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi, G B Pant, and Lal Bahadur Shastri, took part. Lala Lajpat Rai led
the Punjab peasants, Baba Ram Chandra led the Avadh peasants, and Pattabhai Sitaramaiya led the Andhra peasants.
• Non-cooperation in Towns: The movement began with middle-class participation in cities. Thousands of students
quit government-run institutions and colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned, and lawyers ceased practising.
• Council elections of 1920 boycotted: The council elections of 1920 were boycotted in all provinces except Madras,
where the Justice Party, the non-Brahman party, believed that entering the council was one way to obtain power.
SIGNIFICANCE OF NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT:
• Economic consequences: The economic consequences of non-cooperation were more dramatic. Foreign goods
were boycotted, liquor stores were picketed, and foreign clothing was burned in massive bonfires.
• Stifled in urban areas: However, the movement was stifled in urban areas for a variety of reasons, including the
fact that Khadi was more expensive than mass-produced mill cloth, and the urban poor couldn't afford it. There were
difficulties in a complete boycott of British institutions because they provided vital services.
• Non-Cooperation in Rural Areas: The movement moved from cities to rural areas, including peasant and tribal
areas.
CONGRESS'S CONCERNS ABOUT NON-COOPERATION:
• Hesitant to boycott: Many members of Congress, however, were apprehensive about the suggestions. They were
hesitant to boycott the November 1920 council elections because they thought the initiative would spark public
unrest.
• Heated debate: Between September and December, there was a heated debate within the Congress. For a time, it
appeared like there was no point of convergence between the movement's supporters and opponents.
• Led by Gandhi: Mahatma Gandhi led the non-cooperation campaign (1920-22). Veterans such as Bal Gangadhar
Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, and Annie Besant were vehemently opposed to the proposal.
However, the younger generation of Indian nationalists cheered and supported Gandhiji.
• Widespread support: His initiatives were embraced by the Congress Party, and he had widespread support from
Muslim leaders such as Abul Kalam Azad, Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Abbas Tyabji, Maulana
Mohammad Ali, and Maulana Shaukat Ali.
REASONS FOR GANDHI WITHDREW FROM THE MOVEMENT:
• Chauri-Chaura incidents (1922): Gandhi believed that people had not fully learned or grasped the nonviolent way.
Incidents like Chauri-Chaura might spark the kind of passion and energy that would render the movement violent in
general.
• Violent movement: A violent movement could be readily suppressed by the colonial authority, which could exploit
the incidences of violence as a reason to utilise the State's armed force against the protestors.
• Signs of wear and tear: The movement was also showing signs of wear and tear. This was natural because it is
impossible to sustain any movement at a high pitch for an extended period of time.
• Not interested in negotiations: The government appeared to be not interested in negotiations.
• Khilafat issue faded: The agitation's core focus, the Khilafat issue, likewise faded quickly. Turkey's people rose up
in November 1922, led by Mustafa Kamal Pasha, and deposed the Sultan of political power. Turkey has been declared
a secular state. As a result, the Khilafat issue became irrelevant.
• Rewrote 'The Treaty of Severs': The British rewrote 'The Treaty of Severs' in favour of Turkey. The cause of unity
vanished, and Muslims were no longer associated with Congress.
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• Ali brothers' and Muslims' support: The Ali brothers' and Muslims' support was religious rather than nationalistic.
As their support for the cause dwindled, so did theirs.
• Moplah incident: The Moplah incident caused tremendous hostility between Hindus and Muslims.
Achievements Shortcomings
• Congress became a popular party: Previously, one of the • Swaraj not accomplished: Swaraj, as
most serious criticisms levelled against Congress declared, was not accomplished in a year.
was that it was a party of elites representing just a fraction of Many people were disappointed by this.
the population. • Muslim Alienation: Failure of Non-
• Participation of all sections: For the first time, participants Cooperation also means failure of Khilafat.
came from all sections. From the 1920 Congress Session, the The Ali brothers blamed Congress for their
joining cost was significantly cut, as was the age of joining, failure. Further congressional actions drew
taking it into even villages and expanding its mass base. less enthusiastic cooperation from Muslims.
• Powerful leaders emerged: The Khilafat movement produced • Divide in Congress: With the recall of the
several powerful leaders, including Maulana Azad, Saifuddin movement, many disliked it, while others
Kitchlew, M A Ansari, and others. grew eager to participate in provincial
• Charkha as a National Symbol: Gandhi provided fresh elections, giving birth to the Swaraj Party.
intellectual backing in the shape of nonviolence and • Revival of Revolutionary activity: This
satyagraha, which later became crucial tools for national also gave birth to the second phase of
resistance. revolutionary activity following Bengal's
• Muslims also participated: With the exception of the Moplah division.
insurrection in Malabar, the movement saw Muslim • Mass Reach: Khadi was unaffordable to the
participation. poor, which drove the middle and lower
• Remove British fear: Removed people's fear of British might classes away from the movement.
from their thoughts.
• Educational institutes formed: Many educational institutes
were formed, including Jamia Millia Islamia, Bihar Vidyapeeth,
Kashi Vidyapith, Gujarat Vidyapith,
• and others.
SWARAJ PARTY (1923)
REASONS FOR FORMATION OF SWARAJ PARTY
• Decision to call off: Gandhiji's decision to call off the agitation enraged the masses. His judgement was harshly
criticised by his colleagues, including Motilal Nehru, C R Das and N C Kelkar, Vithalbhai Patel, G S Kaparde, S Srinivas
Iyenger, and M R Jaykar, who founded the Swaraj Party.
• Congress Khilafat-Swarajya Party: The 'Congress Khilafat-Swarajya Patty' laid the groundwork for the 'Swaraj
Party' on January 1, 1923.
• Enter legislative councils: It then proposed a restrictive programme that would encourage its members to enter
legislative councils (established under the Montford Reforms of 1919) by contesting elections in order to wreck the
legislature from within and use moral pressure to compel the authority to concede to the popular demand for self-
government.
• Pro-changers & No-changers: The supporters of the entry into the council were known as 'Pro Changers,' and
included C R Das, Motilal Nehru, Hakim Ajmal Khan, and N C Kelkar, while the opponents were known as 'No-
Changers,' and included Vallabhai, Rajendra Prasad, Vijiaraghavachariar, and C Rajgopalachari.
o Gaya session: The proposal for admittance of pro-changers was rejected in the Congress Gaya Session.
o Productive work among the masses: They (No-Changers) stated that entering councils would distract them
from doing productive work among the masses and that legislatures entering councils would eventually get
pulled into the system and converted to become rubber stamps.
• Swaraj Party as a part of the Congress: Pro-Changers seized on the concept and established the Swaraj Party.
Later, in a meeting in Delhi in 1923, the conflicts were resolved to a significant extent, and it was proclaimed that the
Swaraj Party is a part of the Congress.
o Initially Gandhi's opposition: When Gandhiji returned from prison, he was initially hostile to the idea of Council
Entry, as well as the idea of Swarajists impeding council operations on ideological grounds.
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o Accept the constructive work: As the British hoped for an interruption Gandhi began to accept the constructive
work of Swarajists in Congress, and Swarajists were given full support at the Belgaum Session of 1924.
• Dominion Status as immediate goal: The Sawaraj Party's manifesto stated that "while swaraj is the ultimate goal
of the party, the immediate goal would be Dominion Status" and that "it is a party within Congress and not a rival
party."
• Non-cooperation within the legislature: It claimed that they will engage in non-cooperation within the legislature,
disrupting business and drawing attention to national issues.
• Elections and Repercussions: The party ran in the 1923-24 elections and gained a majority of seats despite having
less time to prepare. It also created coalition governments in provinces and raised crucial topics in legislative
assemblies.
• Withdraw from legislatures: Following the death of CR Das in 1925, Swarajists decide to withdraw from
legislatures in response to the government's failure to implement self-rule reforms.
• 'Responsivist Party: However, other members elected to stay and join a distinct party, the 'Responsivist Party,'
which still supported cooperation with the British (Lajpat Rai, Madan Mohan Malviya, NC Kelkar, and M R Jayakar).
• 1926 election performance: Due to community campaigns by other parties, weakening leadership, anti-
incumbency, and other factors, the party did not do as well in the 1926 elections as it had previously.
ASSESSMENT OF SWARAJ PARTY:
Success Swarajist Shortcomings
• Defeating the Public Safety Bill: Nonetheless, it managed to pull off some • Unable to make a dent in
good jobs, such as defeating the Public Safety Bill of 1928, which attempted government policies: They
to deport subversive elements inspired by communist ideology. were unable to make a dent in
• Filled the political void: They filled the political void left by Gandhiji's government policies and were
absence from the political scene when the national movement was at its soon drawn into power politics.
weakest. • Unable to connect: They were
• Exposed the hollowness: They exposed the hollowness of the 1919 Act. unable to connect with the
• Political awareness: The active engagement of Motilal and CR Das in the general public.
assembly drew the attention of the media, which served to pique people's • Alienated Muslim supporters:
interest in the workings of Legislative assemblies and raised their political They alienated Muslim
awareness level. supporters of rural interests.
• Revealed the true nature of regional governments: It revealed the true • Suffering of Bengal's
nature of regional governments as well as the hollowness of the 1919 peasants: They were likewise
reforms. powerless to alleviate the
• Intensive budget study: It also effectively revealed the budget, and for suffering of Bengal's peasants.
the first time, an intensive budget study was performed.
THE SIMON COMMISSION (1928)
• Introduction: Created in reaction to the nationalist movement, the commission was tasked with investigating the
functioning of the constitutional system facilitated by the 1919 Act in India and making recommendations for
modifications. The Simon Commission was established in 1928.
• Committee to review the progress of the governance model: The Indian population demanded that the
burdensome diarchy system of government be revised, and the Government of India Act 1919 itself stated that a
committee would be constituted after ten years to review the progress of the governance model.
• Not a single Indian member: The Indian people were enraged and insulted because the Simon Commission, which
was to determine India's future, did not include a single Indian member.
Proposals of Simon Commission
• Outline of a new constitution: An outline of a new constitution was proposed.
• Diarchy should be abolished: Diarchy should be abolished, and Ministers accountable to the Legislature should
be entrusted with all provincial responsibilities. It was staunchly opposed to diarchy in the centre. Instead of a
diarchy, it advocated for a responsible provincial government.
• Proposed a fully federal union: It proposed that a fully federal union, embracing both British India and the
Princely States, was the only long-term answer for a united, autonomous India.
• Franchise be expanded: It proposed that the franchise be expanded and the Legislature is expanded.
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RESPONSE OF NATIONALISTS AND CONGRESS:
• Congress opposed: Congress agreed to oppose it in Madras in 1927. The main reason for its criticism was that,
despite the Commission's goal of assessing constitutional improvements in India, all of its members were white, with
no Indian representation.
• Go back, Simon: When the Simon Commission arrived in India in 1928, it was met by black flags and the chant "Go
back, Simon."
EMERGENCE OF A NEW GENERATION OF YOUTH
• Opportunity for youth to demonstrate their worth: The Simon Commission provided an opportunity for youth to
demonstrate their worth. This Commission, as well as the death of Lala Lajpat Rai, fuelled the spirit of Bhagat Singh
and others.
• Emergence of new socialist ideologies: Following the commission, a new generation of youthful leaders emerged
to prominence, including Bhagat Singh and Subhash. This influx of youth saw the emergence of new socialist
ideologies.
IMPACT OF THE APPOINTMENT OF SIMON COMMISSION ON THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT:
• Massive socio economic reforms along socialist lines: It provided a boost to radical elements demanding not only
complete independence but also massive socio economic reforms along socialist lines.
• Organise mass action: When the Simon Commission was announced, the Congress, which had no active plan, was
given an issue on which to organise mass action.
• Prospects for Indian unity: Lord Birkenhead's challenge to Indian politicians to produce an agreed constitution
was embraced by many political groupings, and therefore prospects for Indian unity appeared bright at the moment.
THE NEHRU REPORT (1928)
The 'Nehru Report' (1928) was a paper proposing a proposed new Dominion constitution (not a constitution in and of
itself) for India. It was drafted by an All Parties Conference committee chaired by Motilal Nehru, with his son Jawaharlal
serving as secretary. This committee had nine other members, including two Muslims. While the report did not advocate
for complete independence, the constitution proposed in the Nehru report called for India to have dominion status
within the British Commonwealth. The majority of its proposals became the foundation of independent India's
constitution.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. It requested Dominion Status.
2. It had a Bill of Rights, unlike the eventual Government of India Act 1935.
3. It made no provision for distinct electorates or weightage for minorities.
4. It pushed for a federal framework.
5. Separation of the state and religion.
6. A parliamentary system of government.
7. Residual authority with the federal/central government
8. Adult franchise number eight.
9. Linguistic redistribution of province boundaries.
WHY REPORT WAS OPPOSED?

• Abolished the Communal/Separate Electorate: It abolished the Communal/Separate Electorate, which enraged
the Muslim League and other minority populations.
• Dominion Status: It requested Dominion Status rather than complete Independence - on this point, even Jawahar
Lal disagreed with his father (as seen by his desire for Purna Swaraj a year later). The 'Independence for India
League' was founded by Nehru and Subhash.
• Sectarian clash: The report was not accepted by the Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, or fervent Sikhs, and it
prepared the scenario for a sectarian clash.
JINNAH'S 14 POINT:
• In response, Mohammad Ali Jinnah formulated his Fourteen Points in 1929, which became the main demands of the
Muslim community for participation in an independent united India.
• Main points of 14-Point Formula:
o Separate electoral districts
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o 33% of seats in central legislatures are reserved for Muslims.
o Provinces have residual powers.
o Regional autonomy
o No constitutional alteration by the centre without the approval of the states that comprise the federation.
o Adequate Muslim representation in services
DEMAND OF PURNA SWARAJ (1929)
• Background: After the Nehru Report, which defied their expectations by stating Dominion Status as their demand,
Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, and Satyamurti became more assertive.
• Hesitancy: However, Motilal Nehru and Gandhi were hesitant to give up the achievements they had won by claiming
Dominion Status, and they urged that the government grant them a year's time.
• Liberals stance: This, however, did not ease the feelings of liberals or Jawahar Lal and others.
• Purna swaraj: In December 1929, the Lahore Congress, presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru, formalised the demand
for 'Purna Swaraj,' or full independence for India.
• Indian flag: On December 31, Jawahar unfurled the Indian flag at the Ravi Bank at midnight.
FOLLOWING MAJOR CHOICES WERE MADE
• Boycott: Boycott of the Round Table Conference.
• Poorna Swaraj: Push for Poorna Swaraj.
• Right to resign: All members of the legislature have the right to resign.
• Freedom Day: It was proclaimed that January 26, 1930, would be celebrated as Freedom Day, with individuals
taking a commitment to fight for complete freedom.
• Generational shift in leadership: The Lahore session also saw a generational shift in leadership.
• Gandhi's leadership: It was also determined that a civil disobedience movement would be launched under
Gandhi's leadership.
• Commitments made for Purna Swaraj: A nationwide meeting was called, and there was a large turnout from
both rural and urban areas, with commitments made for Purna Swaraj.
CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT OF 1930
Following the government's inaction on the Nehru Report and its failure to agree on any demand for even dominion
status, Gandhiji sought a fresh strategy amid mounting discontent among the Congress and the nation as a whole.
DEMANDS OF MAHATMA GANDHI:
• Demand for Purna Swaraj: On January 31, 1930, shortly after the demand for Purna Swaraj was made, he submitted
a letter to Viceroy Irwin outlining eleven demands (11 points).
• Broaden objective: The objective was to broaden the demands so that all classes within Indian society could
connect with them and join forces in a single campaign.
• Prominent Demands: These included, among other things, total prohibition, the release of political prisoners, the
levy of duty on foreign cloth, the issuance of firearm licences, the reduction of land revenue by 50%, the reduction
of the Rupee Sterling exchange ratio to make Indian exports profitable, the reserve of coastal shipping for Indians,
and the abolition of the salt tax.
• Most stirring demand: The most stirring demand was to repeal the salt charge. Salt was something that was
consumed by both the rich and the poor, and it was one of the most important food items.
• Exposed the most repressive face of British authority: Mahatma Gandhi exposed the most repressive face of
British authority by taxing salt and granting the government a monopoly on its production.
INDIAN RESPONSE TO THE PROPOSED 11 POINTS:
• Constraints: There was some irritation among nationalist leaders over the 11 points, which they perceived as
contradicting the Swaraj Declaration, which was issued only a short time ago.
• Support of industrial class: The industrial class wholeheartedly supported Gandhian demands in full since they
considered them as more of an economic nature.
• No response to the demands: If the demands were not met by 11 March, Congress would initiate a civil
disobedience campaign, according to the letter. Irwin refused to bargain, and demands received no response.
• Historic salt march: Mahatma Gandhi began his historic salt march with 78 of his loyal volunteers, including Sarojini
Naidu. The Congress gave Gandhi the authority to initiate the Civil Disobedience Movement.
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• Mass participation: Thousands swarmed to hear Mahatma Gandhi wherever he went, and he explained what he
meant by swaraj and exhorted them to defy the British peacefully.
• Violation of Salt laws: The movement drew large crowds. Everywhere, salt laws were broken. Women took part in
large numbers as well. Kamla (Nehru's wife) and Swarup Rani (Nehru's mother) were at the forefront. C
Rajagopalchari led the march in Tamil Nadu, while K Kelappan led the march in Malabar.
• In various parts of the country: Thousands of people in various parts of the country disobeyed the salt ban, made
salt, and demonstrated in front of government salt facilities.
• Disobedience: As the movement gained traction, international clothing was boycotted, and liquor stores were
picketed. Peasants refused to pay revenue and chowkidar taxes, village authorities quit, and forest residents broke
forest rules in numerous locations, entering Reserved Forests to collect wood and graze livestock.
• Widespread boycott: Toddy trees were hacked down in protest of the widespread boycott of booze stores.
• Khudai Khidmatgar Movement: Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan established the Khudai Khidmatgar Movement in the
provinces of the North West Frontier.
• Rani Gaidillieu: Who answered Gandhi's call in Manipur at the age of 13, was sentenced to life imprisonment and
was only liberated in 1947.
• No Chowkidar tax: The Chowkidar Tax Non-Payment Campaign was launched in the country's east.
• Violation of Forest rules: Forest rules were often broken in the southern and central regions.
• Bardoli Satyagraha (1928): Patel initiated the Bardoli Satyagraha just before the Civil Disobedience movement,
and it became a model no-tax campaign in other parts of the country during the Civil Disobedience movement.
• 'No-Revenue, No Rent': Another type of 'No-Revenue, No Rent' campaign was seen in UP. The No-Revenue call was
issued to Zamindars, who were ordered not to pay revenue to the government, and the No-Rent call was issued to
cultivators.
• Public mobilisation strategies: A number of public mobilisation strategies were used, including Prabhat Pheris
and Patrikas (illegal newspaper). Vanar Sena was formed for children, and Manjari (Cat) Sena for girls.
REACTION OF THE BRITISHERS:
• Arrest of Congress leaders: Concerned about the situation, the colonial authorities began arresting Congress
leaders one by one.
• Violent fights: This resulted in violent fights in a number of palaces.
• Ruthless repression policy: A terrified government responded with a ruthless repression policy. Satyagrahis who
were peaceful were attacked, women and children were beaten, and around 60,000 people were jailed.
• Detention of Prominent politicians: C Rajagopalachari, Vallabhai, Jawahar, Madan Mohan Malviya, J M Sengupta,
and other prominent politicians were also detained. In May 1930, Gandhi was captured as well, and leadership was
handed to Abbas Tyabji, who was also arrested. Sarojini eventually seized the lead, but she was also jailed.
• Congress was proclaimed unconstitutional: The government issued numerous repressive resolutions,' and
Congress was proclaimed unconstitutional.
ASSESSMENT OF MOVEMENT
Positives Failures
• Historic salt march: Mahatma Gandhi began his • Not move all social groupings: The abstract
historic salt march with 78 of his loyal volunteers, concept of swaraj did not move all social groupings.
including Sarojini Naidu. The Congress gave Gandhi the • Untouchables: One such group was the nation's
authority to initiate the Civil Disobedience Movement. 'untouchables,' who began calling themselves Dalit
• Mass participation: Thousands swarmed to hear or oppressed in the 1930s.
Mahatma Gandhi wherever he went, and he explained • Muslims are apathetic: Except for the NWFP
what he meant by swaraj and exhorted them to defy under Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan, Muslims are
the British peacefully. apathetic. They were polarised by leaders'
• Broaden objective: The objective was to broaden the communal rhetoric as well as the government's
demands so that all classes within Indian society could favourable response to their demands.
connect with them and join forces in a single campaign. • Lukewarm support: The Industrial Class is only
• Support of Industrial class: The industrial class providing lukewarm support.
wholeheartedly supported Gandhian demands in full • Poor participants: Peasants were poor
since they considered them as more of an economic participants.
nature.
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NON-COOPERATION VS. CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE
• Contravene colonial laws: Instead of simply refusing to cooperate with the British, as they had done in 1921-22,
people were now asked to contravene colonial laws. As a result, there was an ideological evolution.
• Ultimate freedom: The goal this time was ultimate freedom.
• Gandhi into the international stage: Although Muslim involvement was low at the time, as was labour
participation, this campaign launched Gandhi into the international stage, and for the first time, women joined in
huge numbers in a national movement.
• Countrywide participation: In NCM, the movement was restricted to certain areas of the country whereas, in CDM
Several Indian leaders actively participated in this movement.
• Decline: Non-cooperation movement faded once it grew violent following the Chauri Chaura incident, whereas, in
CDM after Mahatma Gandhi signed a pact with Irwin, the campaign declined.
Comparison of Non-Cooperation Movement and the Civil Disobedience Movement in the Indian freedom
struggle:
Aspect Non-Cooperation Movement Civil Disobedience Movement
Time Period 1920-1922 1930-1934
Launched By Mahatma Gandhi Mahatma Gandhi
Boycott of foreign goods, educational Refusal to obey certain laws, demands, and
Key Features institutions, government services, and commands of the government. Includes the Salt
courts. March as a key event.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and the Rowlatt Failure of Simon Commission and the resultant
Immediate Cause
Act discontent
Non-violent resistance through non- Non-violent resistance, but with a direct

Methods
cooperation violation of specific laws (e.g., making salt)
To challenge the legality and authority of British

To attain Swaraj (self-rule) as defined by the
Objective laws and to demand Purna Swaraj (complete
Congress
independence)
Government Suppression through arrests, violence, and Severe crackdown, mass arrests, negotiations at
Response concessions like the end of the Rowlatt Act the Second Round Table Conference
Strengthened nationalism, showed the Enhanced political activism, significant

Outcome/Impact power of mass movements, led to Gandhi’s international attention, eventual negotiations for
arrest greater self-rule
WHY WAS SALT SELECTED AS THE IMPORTANT THEME?

• Most inhuman poll tax: As Gandhi put it, "There is no other article, outside of water, by taxing which the government
can reach the starving millions, the sick, the maimed, and the completely helpless... it is the most inhuman poll tax."
• Instantly linked the ideal of swaraj: Salt, like khadi, instantly linked the ideal of swaraj with a most palpable and
universal grievance of the rural poor.
• Symbolic association with mass suffering: It afforded the urban public the chance of symbolic association with
mass suffering.
GANDHI – IRWIN PACT OR DELHI PACT (MARCH 1931) AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE
• As British repression got more severe during the Civil Disobedience Movement, ordinary people suffered.
• In such circumstances, Mahatma Gandhi chose to call off the agitation once more, and he, along with many others,
was arrested.
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• Congress did not attend the inaugural Round Table Conference, which was attended by the Muslim League, Hindu
Mahasabha, Chamber of Princes, Liberals, and Dalits, and it was thought that any accord reached without Congress'
participation would be meaningless.
• Irwin was also eager to find a solution, and in a symbolic gesture, he released the political prisoners and decided to
speak directly to Gandhi.
• In this context, Gandhi made an agreement with Irwin on March 5, 1931.
• The Pact brought Congress on equal footing with the government, and Irwin's move was criticised in Britain for
taking up too much room.
PROPOSED CONDITIONS
• Suspends its civil disobedience campaign: The Indian National Congress suspends its civil disobedience
campaign.
• Participation in RTC: Of the Indian National Congress in the Round Table Conference.
• Withdrawal of restrictions: Withdrawal of all ordinances issued by the British Government imposing restrictions
on the activities of the Indian National Congress.
• Removal of the salt tax: The removal of the salt tax permitted Indians to lawfully produce, trade, and sell salt for
their own private use.
THINGS THAT THE BRITISH REFUSED TO ACCEPT AS PART OF THE GANDHI-IRWIN PACT OR THE DELHI PACT:
• Police investigation: The Congress' request for a police investigation into arrests and atrocities committed during
the Civil Disobedience movement was denied.
• Not accept the commutation: We will not accept the commutation of Bhagat Singh's and his companions' sentences.
• Refused to accept the extremist demand: The accord also refused to accept the radicals' demand for the rapid
restoration of lands confiscated during the campaign.
THE PACT'S OUTCOME:
• Attend in a Round Table Conference: Gandhiji agreed to attend a Round Table Conference in London as part of the
Gandhi-Irwin Pact, and the government committed to release political prisoners.
• Criticised by extremists: The alliance was criticised by radicals for failing to garner clear gains from the
government and for surrendering on Swaraj's demand by agreeing to participate in the Round Table Conference.
• Advantage of the occasion: Gandhiji may have been aware that huge movements are fundamentally fleeting, and
he attempted to take advantage of the occasion by extracting some gains from the British administration.
WAS THE GANDHI-IRWIN PACT A REVERSAL?
• Not a retreat: Gandhi's decision to halt civil disobedience as agreed in the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was not a retreat,
• Limited capacity of masses to sacrifice: The capacity of the masses to make sacrifices, unlike that of activists,
is limited; and There were symptoms of tiredness after September 1930, particularly among shopkeepers and
merchants who had engaged so energetically.
KARACHI SESSION (MARCH 1931)

• Goal was to approve the Gandhi-Irwin Pact: The Gandhi-Irwin pact was criticised by radical nationalists because
it was unable to obtain from the Viceroy a commitment to political independence for Indians; it had not even agreed
to the demand that Bhagat Singh's and his two comrades' death sentences be commuted to life imprisonment. It was
dubbed a bourgeoise pact since it overlooked the people. However, the session's goal was to approve the Gandhi-
Irwin Pact.
• Meeting to endorse the agreement: Gandhiji persuaded the meeting to endorse the agreement. Angered protestors
greeted him with a black flag and flowers. Furthermore, Gandhiji and Congress were challenged as national
representatives in that congress by three groups: the Muslim League, the Princely States, and BR Ambedkar (who
accused Congress of disregarding the welfare of lower castes).
SIGNIFICANCE OF SESSION
• Endorsed Gandhi-Irwin Pact: It endorsed the Delhi Pact or the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
• Resolution on Fundamental Rights: It moved a resolution on Fundamental Rights for the first time, and the draft
resolution was written by Jawahar Lal Nehru (the session was presided over by Vallabhai Patel).
• Underlined it as a goal of purna swaraj: It explained the concept of Purna Swaraj for the first time and underlined
it as a goal.
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• Interests of minorities will be protected: It also stated that the interests of minorities will be protected, as well as
their culture.
• Recognised sacrifices: It recognised Bhagat Singh's and others' valiant sacrifice.
• Foundation of Congress's political and economic agendas: The Karachi Resolution is significant because it
became the foundation of Congress's political and economic agendas in succeeding years.
SECOND ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE, ITS SIGNIFICANCES AND IMPACTS
• Boycott of first RTC: The Congress boycotted the inaugural Round Table Conference (1930), which was attended
by princely states, Ambedkar, and other non-Congress parties. Ambedkar also broached the notion of a separate
electorate for Dalits, while Jinnah requested stronger safeguards for Muslims (both of these requests were
represented in the 1932 Communal Award).
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact: Following the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, Gandhi was dispatched as a Congress delegate.
CONCERNING THE SECOND ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE:
• Constitutional evolution envisioned: The round table conference was in line with the constitutional evolution
envisioned by the British, which was also articulated by the Simon Commission to lay out a future course of action
for India's political system.
• Essentially a single conference divided: Though the round table conferences were labelled as first, second, and
third. It would be incorrect to call it that because it was essentially a single conference divided over three sessions.
• New Viceroy Willingdon: Irwin was replaced by new Viceroy Willingdon in April, just before the Second Round
Table Conference, and he was not ready to adopt Irwin's liberal stance.
• Non-Congress parties: The British also heavily involved non-Congress parties in the Second Round Table
Conference.
• Negotiations broke down: Gandhiji travelled to London for the summit in December 1931, but negotiations broke
down over the minority issue. Not only Muslims requested separate elections; this time, minorities led by Ambedkar
demanded separate elections as well.
OUTCOMES:
• Formation of NWFP and Sindh: The formation of two new Muslim-majority provinces, NWFP and Sindh.
• Indian Consultative Committee: Formation of an Indian Consultative Committee.
• Communal Award: The possibility of a unilateral Communal Award.
• Conservative government: Churchill's new right/conservative government refused to place Congress on an equal
footing and took a strong stance; as a result, the new Viceroy refused to meet with Gandhiji.
• Congress was proclaimed illegal: Gaffar Khan and Jawaharlal Nehru were both imprisoned, the Congress was
proclaimed illegal, and a slew of restrictions were put in place to prevent gatherings, rallies, and boycotts.
• Harsh stance against Gandhi: The press was restrained, and Congress was still facing a ban. Former Viceroy Irwin
had taken a harsh stance against Gandhi, and the new Viceroy Willingdon and Secretary of State decided not to
engage any more.
• Relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement: Mahatma Gandhi relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement
with profound trepidation. The movement lasted more than a year, but by 1934, it had lost steam owing to
government harassment.
CAUSES OF THE SECOND PHASE OF THE CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT'S FAILURE
• Major leaders were imprisoned
• Poor Peasantry Support
• Gandhian politics have a low inertia and an obvious disappointment
NATIONALISTS' NEXT LINE OF ACTION

• Council entrance: Satayamurti proposed a council entrance on the Swarajist line to break the lull in activities, which
was later approved by Bhulabhai Desai and M A Ansari. As a result, Congress ran in the 1934 Central Legislative
Elections and won with a large majority.
• Congress Socialist Party: Within Congress, an alternate ideological evolution occurred, and the Congress Socialist
Party emerged as a left-leaning party.
• Nonviolent resistance could not be won: Meanwhile, many nationalists believed that nonviolent resistance to the
British could not be won.
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• Hindustan Socialist Republican Army: The Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA) was created in 1928 as
an offshoot of the Hindustan Republican Association visibly influenced by socialist principles at a conference in
Ferozeshah Kotla field in Delhi.
• HSRA targeted symbols of British power: Bhagat Singh, Jatin Das, and Ajoy Ghosh were among its leaders. The
HSRA targeted some of the symbols of British power in a series of dramatic activities across India.
• Bomb in the Legislative Assembly: Bhagat Singh and Batukeswar Dutta detonated a bomb in the Legislative
Assembly in April 1929. An effort was made the same year to blow up the train that Lord Irwin was travelling in.
COMMUNAL AWARD (1932) AND POONA PACT (1933):
Following the failure of Round Table Talks, the British government declared that if a consensus on the separate
representation of minorities could not be established, a unilateral communal award would be made. The government
kept its promise in the shape of the 1932 Communal Award.
COMMUNAL PRIZE AND ITS AFTERMATH:
• Separate electorates: On 4 August 1932, British Prime Minister Ramsay McDonald issued the Communal Award to
grant separate electorates to minority communities in India, including Muslims, Sikhs, and Dalit.
• Special constituencies: The depressed classes were allotted a number of seats to be filled by special constituencies
in which only voters from the depressed classes could vote.
• Award was opposed by Congress: The award was opposed by Congress and other nationalist groups since it
provided for a separate electorate and was seen as part of Britain's 'Divide and Rule' programme.
• English Attack on Hindu-Muslim Unity: Mahatma Gandhi was outraged by the award and strongly opposed it.
Gandhi referred to the prize as an "English Attack on Hindu-Muslim Unity."
CONCERNS OF GANDHI:
• Abolition of untouchability and discrimination, not greater separation: He contended that what Dalits require
is the abolition of untouchability and discrimination, not greater separation. He envisaged similar implications in the
award of Muslims having separate electorates and eventually wanting a separate nation.
• Hunger strike: To protest this Award, he went on an indefinite hunger strike at Yerwada Central Jail on September
20, 1932.
• Support for Communal Award: Many members of minority communities, most notably Dalit leader Dr B R
Ambedkar, supported the Communal Award.
• Seats reserved: Madan Mohan Malviya worked as a mediator between Gandhi and Ambedkar, and after lengthy
discussions, Gandhi and Dr Ambedkar agreed to establish a single Hindu electorate, with Dalits having seats reserved
within it (in reality, Dalit seats were increased following the Pact). This is known as the Poona Pact.
• Religious electorates: Other religious electorates, such as Muslim and Sikh, remained separate.
• Gandhi redoubled his efforts: Following this deal, Gandhi redoubled his efforts to help the Dalits. He founded the
magazine Harijan and spent a year doing community work for Dalits and disseminating the idea of untouchability.
• Opposition: However, traditional Hindus were vehemently opposed to his initiatives.
VIEWS OF AMBEDKAR ON COMMUNAL AWARD

• Supportive: He backed the Communal Award.
• Views on Gandhi: Gandhi, according to Ambedkar, was willing to provide Muslims and Sikhs separate
electorates. However, Gandhi was hesitant to offer scheduled castes distinct electorates.
IMPACT OF POONA PACT ON DALITS

• Failed to achieve the ultimate goal: Despite providing significant political rights to the oppressed classes, the
Poona Pact failed to achieve the ultimate goal of depressed class emancipation. It allowed the same old Hindu social
structure to persist while also giving birth to a slew of issues.
• Pact turned the poor into political tools: The Pact turned the poor into political tools that could be employed by
majoritarian caste Hindu outfits.
• Rendered the oppressed classes leaderless: It rendered the oppressed classes leaderless since authentic
representatives of the classes were unable to defeat the stooges picked and sponsored by caste Hindu organisations.
• Hindu social order: By denying the impoverished classes a distinctive and distinct life, it subjected them to the
Hindu social order.
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• Hampered the development of an ideal society: The Poona Pact may have hampered the development of an ideal
society founded on equality, liberty, fraternity, and justice.
• Rights and freedoms of the Dalits: It pre-empted the rights and freedoms of the Dalits by refusing to identify them
as a separate and distinct element of national life and safeguards for the Dalits in the Constitution of independent
India.
GANDHI’S HARIJAN CAMPAIGN AND THOUGHTS ON CASTE
Determined to undermine the destructive aims of the government's divide-and-rule programme, Gandhi abandoned all
other interests and launched a frenzied campaign against untouchability—first from prison and then, after his release
in August 1933, from outside jail.
GANDHI'S CAMPAIGN AGAINST UNTOUCHABILITY:
• Founded the All India Anti-Untouchability League: While imprisoned, he founded the All India Anti-
Untouchability League in September 1932 and the periodical Harijan in 1933.
• Satyagraha Ashram in Wardha: After his release, he moved to the Satyagraha Ashram in Wardha, vowing not to
return to the Sabarmati Ashram until Swaraj was won.
• Led a Harijan tour throughout the country: From Wardha, he led a Harijan tour throughout the country from
November 1933 to July 1934, travelling 20,000 kilometres while collecting funds for his newly formed Harijan Sevak
Sangh and promoting the abolition of untouchability in all its manifestations.
• Advocate for the Harijans: He urged political activists to visit communities and advocate for the Harijans' social,
economic, political, and cultural advancement.
• Seriousness of his work: He fasted twice, on May 8 and August 16, 1934, to persuade his supporters of the
seriousness of his work and the gravity of the subject.
• Targeted by traditional and conservative elements: Gandhi was targeted by traditional and conservative
elements throughout his campaign. These groups disrupted his meetings, organised black flag protests against him,
and accused him of being anti-Hindu.
• Pledged official backing against Congress: They also pledged official backing against Congress and the Civil
Disobedience Movement. In August 1934, the government complied by defeating the Temple Entry Bill.
• Entire abolition of untouchability: He advocated for the entire abolition of untouchability, as seen by his petition
to open temple doors to untouchables.
• Performing 'penance' for the untold hardships inflicted on Harijans: He emphasised the importance of caste
Hindus performing 'penance' for the untold hardships inflicted on Harijans. As a result, he was not hostile to his
critics, such as Ambedkar. "Hinduism dies if untouchability lives; untouchability must die if Hinduism is to live," he
stated.
• Humanist and rational concepts: His entire effort was founded on humanist and rational concepts. He stated that
the Shastras do not sanction untouchability, and if they do, they should be ignored because it violates human dignity.
• Not favoured inter-caste weddings and inter-dining: Gandhi was opposed to combining the subject of
untouchability eradication with that of inter-caste weddings and inter-dining because he believed such limits existed
among caste Hindus and among Harijans themselves.
• Differed from Ambedkar: Likewise, he distinguished between the removal of untouchability and the abolition of
the caste system as a whole. On this point, he differed from Ambedkar, who urged the abolition of the caste system
in order to eliminate untouchability.
• Varnashram system: Whatever the limitations and flaws of the Varnashrama system, Gandhi believed it was not
wicked in the same way as untouchability was.
• Harijan campaign featured: Gandhi's Harijan campaign featured an internal reform agenda for Harijans that
included education, sanitation, hygiene, abstaining from beef and carrion consumption, and reducing untouchability
among themselves.
IMPACT OF CAMPAIGN'S:
• Not intended to be a political movement: Gandhi consistently stated that the campaign was not intended to be a
political movement, but rather to purify Hinduism and Hindu culture.
• Spread the message of nationalism to Harijans: The campaign gradually spread the message of nationalism to
Harijans, who also happened to be agricultural labourers in most regions of the country, resulting in increased
engagement in national and peasant activities.
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IDEOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES BETWEEN GANDHI AND AMBEDKAR
• Similarities:
o Symbolic Acts of Protest: Both engaged in symbolic acts against oppression, Gandhi burned foreign cloth,
Ambedkar burned Manusmriti, both symbolizing bondage for India.
o Shared Belief in Change: Shared a belief in social and political change through education rather than
compulsion.
▪ Advocated the use of religion for social transformation.
o Limited State Sovereignty: Endorsed limited sovereign power of the State to safeguard individual freedom.
o Opposed Violent Means: for social change and advocated peaceful methods.
▪ Emphasized social harmony and transformation through democratic and peaceful means.
• Differences
o Freedom and Democracy: Gandhi believed in people wresting freedom from authority, while Ambedkar
expected freedom to be bestowed by imperial rulers.
o Contrasting Views on the Parliamentary System: Ambedkar advocated for a parliamentary system, whereas
Gandhi had little respect for it, foreseeing the potential for leader domination.
o Approach to Social Issues: Gandhi focused on eradicating untouchability through moral acts and atonement,
while Ambedkar aimed for legal and constitutional remedies.
▪ Ambedkar viewed untouchability as a major societal problem, while Gandhi considered it among several
challenges.
o Views on Caste and Hinduism: Gandhi distinguished between caste and varna, viewing caste as a degeneration,
Ambedkar denounced Hindu scriptures and the caste system.
▪ Ambedkar opposed the idea of Hindu unity, whereas Gandhi emphasized Indian unity and attributed its
division to British rule.
o Means and Ends: Ambedkar supported justified means for just ends, while Gandhi stressed purity of means for
determining the end.
▪ Gandhi opposed mechanization’s dehumanizing impact, while Ambedkar believed machinery could benefit
society.
o Approach to Law and Constitution: Gandhi supported disobedience to unjust laws for justice, and Ambedkar
inclined towards the observance of law and constitutionality.
o Perception of Untouchables: Gandhi viewed untouchables as integral to the Hindu community, while Ambedkar
regarded them as a separate religious and political minority.
o Communication and Methods: Gandhi communicated in the vernacular, while Ambedkar spoke in English.
Gandhi utilized non-cooperation, hartal, satyagraha, Ambedkar leaned towards observance of law and
constitutional methods.
THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT OF 1935
The Act established an all-India federal framework consisting of principal states and provinces. The inclusion of the
Princely States was conceived as a counterbalance to the provinces' burgeoning nationalism.
SALIENT FEATURES OF THE ACT:
• Established Federalism: It established Federalism in India, with the principal states and provinces as its
constituents, as well as the Federal List, Provincial List, and Concurrent List. However, because the Princely States
did not approve, this never became a reality.
• Provincial Diarchy: Provincial Autonomy replaced Provincial Diarchy introducing Responsible Government in
Provinces. The Governor must now act on the advice of the ministers who report to the Provincial Legislature.
• Bicameralism: Bicameralism was implemented in six of the eleven provinces.
• Bicameral federal legislature: There was also to be a bicameral federal legislature with disproportionate weight
given to the (princely) states. Furthermore, the representatives of the states were to be appointed directly by the
rulers rather than elected by the people.
• Burma was separated from India: Burma was separated from India and given the status of a province.
• Diarchy was introduced at the federal level: Diarchy was introduced at the federal/central level and abolished at
the provincial level.
• Governor General and Provincial Governors were given emergency powers: The British government was to
appoint the Governor-General and the Governors. Though provinces were given power, Governors were given
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special powers. They have the power to veto legislation. Furthermore, they maintained complete control over the
civil service and the police.
• Separate Electorates: For Hindus and Muslims, separate electorate were established as mandated by the 1909 and
1919 Acts.
• Limited Franchise: Only 14% (1/6) of British India's total population was granted the right to vote.
• Key portfolios remained under British control: defence and foreign affairs remained outside its purview, while
the Governor-General exercised special authority over the remaining subjects.
• Budget votes: were also permitted.
• 'Idea of Collective Representation': The terms 'Vote of No Confidence' and 'Idea of Collective Representation' were
coined.
• Other provisions: of the act included the establishment of a Federal Court, a Federal Bank (RBI), a Federal Public
Service Commission, and so on.
THE ASSESSMENT OF THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT OF 1935:
• 'Totally disappointing': The Act was deemed 'totally disappointing' by Congress. The act was universally
condemned. Jawaharlal Nehru described the Act as "a car without engines, but all brakes."
• No mention of the Dominion Status: It made no mention of the Dominion Status promised by the Simon
Commission.
• Provision for separate electorates: It also maintained the provision for separate electorates, which would further
divide the community. Congress has long been opposed to a separate electorate.
• First 'provincial elections: The first 'provincial elections' were held in February 1937 on the basis of the Act, and
they conclusively demonstrated that a large majority of Indian people supported the Congress, which recorded a
majority in 8 out of 11 provinces.
• Safeguards' and special responsibilities': Numerous Safeguards' and special responsibilities of the governor-
general acted as brakes on the Act's proper operation.
• Rigid constitution: The Act established a rigid constitution with no room for internal growth. The right to amend
was reserved for the British Parliament.
Despite criticism at the time, many of the Act's provisions were accepted by the government of India after Independence,
and this act was a landmark in terms of concessions offered to Indians and reforms proposed in the governing system.
In its 1935 session, Congress for the first time openly demanded the institution of a Constitutional Assembly based on
adult franchise to draft the Constitution.
ELECTIONS OF 1937
Jawahar Lal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, Congress Socialists, and Communists were all opposed to holding provincial
elections for the first time in 1937, as required by the 1935 Act. They were against the participation in elections,
because-
• Weaken the Struggle for Freedom: Participating in election would weaken the progress made so far in struggle for
freedom by giving an impression to the people that Congress supports the oppressive regime of the British.
• Responsibility without power': Assuming office after elections means having responsibility without power'
because the ruling structure hasn't changed much. Assuming the office would remove the revolutionary spirit that
the movement has had since 1919.
• Short-term strategy: Others argued that, while the focus of Congress remains on activities outside the legislature,
entering the legislatures is only a short-term strategy to bust the Act of 1935 from within and demonstrate the Act's
hollowness. It was also referred to as part of an overall strategy with the ultimate goal of independence.
• With this assurance, Jawahar launched an extensive campaign in 1936, making three points clear in his election
manifesto:
1. The goal of Congress is still to achieve independence.
2. Congress continues to oppose the 1935 Act.
3. The formation of the Constituent Assembly remains a top priority for Congress (in 1936, the INC proposed the
formation of the Constitution Assembly to form the Indian constitution).
• Congress performance: With the exception of Bengal, Sind, Punjab, Assam, and the NWFP, Congress won the
majority of provinces and formed ministries in many of them. To match their actions with their electoral promises,
leaders reduced their salaries and travelled on trains in second and third class. It instituted numerous reforms,
enacted numerous laws, and released political prisoners.
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ELECTION RESULTS IN 1937
• Widened the schism between the Congress and the League: It widened the schism between the Congress and the
League, and it became more communal and strident in its demand for a separate nation;
• The League broadened its social support: The Congress's failure to mobilise the Muslim masses in the 1930s
allowed the League to broaden its social support.
• However, Congress's performance was hampered by a number of factors, including:
o Centre is more powerful: Inherent power remained with the centre, and Viceroys and Governors had the
authority to veto their resolutions; and
o Limited financial resources: Congress had limited financial resources, with the Centre receiving the lion's share.
• Elites in legislative councils: According to the mechanism of bicameralism in provinces, in most provinces, there
were 'legislative councils' that were elected on a limited franchise basis and were occupied by landlords, zamindars,
and other elites.
• Reform plans were also thwarted: Congress's reform plans were also thwarted by vested interests.
ASSESSMENT OF CONGRESS RULE
• Use council work to their advantage: Even though internal strife, opportunism, and a desire for power had begun
to emerge among Congressmen by 1939, they were able to use council work to their advantage to a large extent.
• State power to advance its goals: Members of Congress demonstrated that a movement could use state power to
advance its goals without being co-opted.
• Able to control communal riots: The ministries were able to control communal riots, and council work assisted in
neutralising many previously hostile elements (landlords, for example).
• See the shape of things: People could see the shape of things to come if independence was won.
• Weakened the myth: Indian administrative work weakened the myth that Indians were unfit to rule.
• Raised the hopes of the industrial working class: The massive Congress triumph in the elections had raised the
hopes of the industrial working class; there was heightened militancy and industrial discontent in Bombay, Gujarat,
the United Provinces, and Bengal at a time when the Congress was brought closer to Indian capitalists.
KEY WORDS: Gandhian era, Satyagraha, Champaran, Kheda, Non-cooperation, Civil Disobedience, Salt March, Quit India,
Swaraj, Trusteeship, Harijan campaign, Purna Swaraj, Round Table Conferences, Communalism, Poona Pact, Government of
India Act 1935.

1. Bring out the constructive programmes of Mahatma Gandhi during the Non-Cooperation Movement 2021
and Civil Disobedience Movement.
2. Many voices had strengthened and enriched the nationalist movement during the Gandhian phase. 2019
Elaborate.
3. Throw light on the significance of the thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi in the present times. 2018
4. Discuss the role of women in the freedom struggle, especially during the Gandhian phase. 2016
5. Highlight the differences in the approach of Subhash Chandra Bose and Mahatma Gandhi in the 2016
struggle for freedom.
6. Mahatma Gandhi and Dr B.R. Ambedkar, despite having divergent approaches and strategies, had a 2015
common goal of amelioration of the downtrodden. Elucidate.
7. It would have been difficult for the Constituent Assembly to complete its historic task of drafting the 2015
Constitution for Independent India in just three years but for the experience gained with the
Government of India Act, 1935. Discuss.
8. How different would have been the achievement of Indian independence without Mahatma Gandhi? 2014
Discuss.
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9 INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT – PHASE III (1939-1947)
SECOND WORLD WAR AND INDIA: IMPACTS

During the Second World War (1939–1945), Viceroy Linlithgow declared India at war with Germany, without
consultations with Indian politicians.
Indians' Attitude Towards War:
• Possibility of freedom: Starting a powerful movement against the British and resisting British attempts to gather
India's resources for the war.
• Capitalise on Britain's problems: However, political organisations like the Hindu Mahasabha and the Muslim
League backed the British war effort.
• Fascism as a greater threat to mankind: Fascism was seen as posing a more significant menace to humanity,
leading to a desire to aid Britain in the War conditionally.
IMPACT OF World War II
• Political:
o India's Independence: Shortly after gaining office in 1947, Prime Minister Clement Attlee of the Labour Party
started the procedure for giving India independence.
o Crushing Quit India Movement: In 1942, they put an end to Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Congress's
campaign to have people "Quit India." Because of this, Britain fought tooth and nail to maintain the unity of India
(and its army).
o Leader in the Decolonization of the World: Following the Second World War, people from all over the world
began backing those who opposed British colonial rule.
• Social:
o Food Shortage: There was severe food scarcity in India as a result of numerous crop failures.
o Bengal Famine of 1943: The British government's refusal to halt supplies from India in favour of those in need
only fueled nationalists' determination to fight for freedom.
o Internationalism and racial equality: When the Labour Party came to power in Britain in 1945, it was
committed to, among other liberal ideas, internationalism and racial equality.
• Economic:
o Between 1939 and 1945: Devastating impact on the Indian economy.
o Rising inflation: As a result of war expenses, India's Sterling Balance Issue may be the main contributor to the
country's inflation.
o Economic imbalances: Brought on by issues with currency exchange and the evolution of exchange regulation.
AUGUST OFFER (1940)

Major political organisations had to join forces in order to secure the long-term, steady, and continuous support of
Indians towards the war effort. On August 8, 1940, Viceroy of India Lord Linlithgow spoke on behalf of the British
Parliament, and his remarks became known as the "August Offer."
Objectives:
• Dominion Status: It proposed Dominion status as India's end goal.
• Democratic Government: No new form of government would be implemented without the support of minorities in
politics and religion.
• Constituent Assembly: It would be established after the war to decide India's constitutional future.
• Expand the Viceroy’s Council: To include a specific number of Indian political representatives.
Response from different sections:
• Congress: They turned down the offer because they said it was yet another British effort to "deny India her natural
right of complete national freedom."
• Muslim League: Although it referred to the Offer as "progress," it took issue with the British for not consulting
Indian political parties over the Viceroy's council's projected enlargement.
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• Hindu Mahasabha: This organisation, which asserted to speak for Hindu interests, was receptive to the Offer and
even swiftly proposed some of its members for the Viceroy's council.
INDIVIDUAL SATYAGRAHA (1940) AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE
Gandhiji and the Congress wanted to avoid disrupting the War effort, which a mass movement could have done. Thus,
they restricted the movement to individual involvement. Vinoba Bhave was the first to offer satyagraha, followed by
Nehru. By May 1941, about 25,000 people had been arrested for participating in the satyagraha, demonstrating
individual commitment to nonviolence and civil disobedience while maintaining pressure on the British .
Objectives:
• To demonstrate that nationalist patience was not the result of weakness.
• To convey the sentiment that people do not care about the war and have distinguished between Nazism and the dual
autocracy that ruled India.
• To offer the government a second chance to peacefully accept the demands of the congress.
• The Satyagrahi would march towards Delhi and repeat the action in villages if the government does not detain them
(Delhi Chalo Movement).
Significance
• Defining Mindset: It contributed to defining the mindset behind India's struggle for independence.
• Legitimacy: Individuals were able to prove the legitimacy of their cause and the intensity of their commitment by
respectfully and nonviolently requesting independence.
• Sense of Purpose: It empowered them and gave them a sense of purpose, enabling them to take charge of their own
fate and participate in the greater struggle for liberation.
Outcome
• Constraints of Gandhiji: The movement faced limitations due to Gandhiji's constraints, resulting in limited
achievements.
• Reluctance in Bihar: In Bihar, individuals chosen to participate in Satyagraha hesitated to resign from their
positions in municipal bodies.
• Impact on Cripps Proposal: This Satyagraha led to the introduction of the Cripps Proposal, which notably diverged
from the August offer by incorporating provisions for the Constituent Assembly and the option for any Province to
withdraw, ultimately influencing the trajectory towards India's partition.
CRIPPS MISSION (1942): SIGNIFICANCE AND CONSEQUENCES
Congress intended to take advantage of the circumstance by stepping up its efforts in the pursuit of independence.
There was clearly little hope of unifying the Congress and the Muslim League around a shared agenda as their
divisions were rapidly growing.
Objective:
• To achieve a Hindu-Muslim agreement on a constitutional arrangement and persuade the Indians to delay their
struggle until after the Second World War.
Proposals:
• Dominion Status: India would be given dominion status with total internal and external autonomy after the war
was over.
• Constituent Assembly for New Constitution: A Constituent Assembly would be established following the war and
given the authority to write India's new constitution.
o The provincial assemblies were supposed to elect the assembly members using a proportional representation
system.
• Option to Opt Out: The provinces would have the option to opt out of the proposed Union if they disagreed with the
new constitution.
• Interim Government during War: An interim government made up of various Indian political parties would be
established throughout the war.
Significance:
• Constitution Formation: The responsibility for drafting the constitution was to be solely entrusted to Indian
authorities.
• Detailed Plan for Constituent Assembly: A comprehensive proposal was presented regarding the establishment
and functioning of the constituent assembly.
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• Provincial Autonomy: Each province had the option to devise its own constitution, laying the groundwork for
India's eventual partition.
• Increased Indian Administration: A significant portion of administrative control was delegated to Indian officials
during this period.
• Freedom to Exit Commonwealth: India was granted the freedom to exit the Commonwealth if it achieved
independence.
Causes of Failure:
• Incapacity of Cripps: The impasse was made worse by Cripps' inability to stray from the Draft Declaration and his
rigid "take it or leave it" stance.
• Expansion of the executive council only: Cripps had before used the terms "cabinet" and "national government,"
but he later clarified that he had merely intended to refer to an increase in the executive council.
• Procedure for accession lacked clarity: Secession was to be decided by a resolution passed by the legislature with
a 60% majority.
• Treaty transferring power: Furthermore, it was unclear who would implement and interpret the treaty
transferring power.
Churchillian Negativism Crippsian Constructiveness

• He acknowledged the necessity to eventually allow • Sir Stanford Cripps was a longtime supporter of
India self-governance, but sought to put it off as long Indian Independence and a member of the War
as possible. Council for the Labour Party.
• Churchill publicly stated, "I have not become the • Clement Attlee and Nehru agreed to the notion of
King's First Minister in order to preside over the electing the Indian Constituent Assembly using the
liquidation of the British Empire." universal adult franchise during their 1938 meeting.
QUIT INDIA (1942) OR AUGUST KRANTI
Background:
• The Cripps Mission's failure.
• The deployment of Japanese forces near the Indian border.
• Food supply problems and rising prices.
• The many viewpoints inside the Congress.
Resolution for Complete Independence (Quit India Resolution):
• The CWC meeting held on July 14, 1942, in Wardha, supported the notion of a fight and passed a draught resolution
calling for total independence from the British government. In the draught, it was suggested that the British would
not consent to the demands.
Significance:
• Gandhi’s Centrality: Gandhi's twenty-one-day fast helped him regain his position as the movement's symbolic
leader.
• Independence a priority: It put the demand for independence at the top of the national movement's immediate
priority list.
• Manner of Transfer: Future discussions exclusively on the manner of the transfer of power with the British
government are permitted.
• Freedom became evident: Freedom was no longer up for negotiation. And after the War, this became abundantly
evident.
• Constructive Work: The primary focus of Congress activity shifted to constructive work, with a focus on
reorganising the legislative branch.
How Did the Quit India Movement Differ From Other Gandhian Movements?
• Historical Interpretations: Both official and unofficial historical narratives debate the spontaneity versus
organization and the levels of violence and non-violence in the Quit India Movement.
• Departure from Nonviolence: The movement saw a departure from Gandhian principles of nonviolent resistance,
with individuals devising their own strategies for resistance.
• Involvement of Key Figures: Prominent figures such as Rammanohar Lohia, Jayaprakash Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali,
Usha Mehta, Biju Patnaik, Chhotubhai Puranik, Achyut Patwardhan, Sucheta Kripalani, and R.P. Goenka were actively
involved.
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• Rural Support: The movement garnered significant support from rural masses across regions like Bombay, Andhra,
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Orissa, Karnataka, and Bengal.
• Emergence of Parallel Governments: Talacher in Orissa, Tamluk Jatiya Sarkar in Bengal, and Satara in Maharashtra
witnessed the establishment of parallel governance structures during the movement.
• Challenge to State Authority: Unlike traditional Satyagraha, the movement emphasized a "fight to the finish"
approach, posing a significant challenge to the government machinery.
• Considered the Most Un-Gandhian Movement: Gandhi's belief in the willingness of citizens to sacrifice for the
nation stood in contrast to the confrontational nature of the Quit India Movement, earning it the reputation of being
the most un-Gandhian of all movements.
Scholar View: Gandhi was a politician, after all, said Francis Hutchins. He was a savvy operator. Non-violence was no
longer necessary if he could mobilise large numbers of people.
Was Quit India Movement a spontaneous outburst, or an organized rebellion?
Spontaneous Organized
• An enormous wave of mob rage that nationalist • The history of the Quit India campaign reveals that it
legends refer to as the "August Revolution" followed was more than just an unprepared populace's
the arrest of the top leadership. impetuous reaction.
• Since the whole high echelon of the Congress • The preceding two decades of mass mobilisation,
leadership was already in jail before it started, it was which had recently been led by a number of
violent and completely out of control from the start. connected and affiliated organisations of the
• Everyone was taken aback by the movement's Congress, had been conducted on a far more radical
unusually high intensity. It was "by far the most tone and had already laid the foundation for such a
serious rebellion since 1857," according to Viceroy conflagration.
Linlithgow. • Before the 9th of August, the Congress leaders had
• The Quit India campaign, according to historians like created a twelve-point agenda that included both
F. G. Hutchins, was a "spontaneous revolution" additional plans and the typical Gandhian satyagraha
that resulted from the Congress's exhortation for the techniques.
populace to "fight to the finish."
British power in India was not overthrown by the Quit India Movement. However, this was one movement that showed
the strength and fortitude of various Indian groups to fight the haughtiness of the imperial authority and the elitism of
the Indian political class.
C R FORMULA OR RAJAJI FORMULA AND GANDHI -JINNAH TALKS (1944):
C. Rajagopalachari came up with the Rajagopalachari formula (also known as the C. R. formula or Rajaji formula) to
break the political impasse between the All India Muslim League and the Indian National Congress on the independence
of British India.
Main Points of the Formula:
• Muslim League will support the independence demand made by Congress.
• League to work with Congress to build a temporary national government.
• After the war, a poll was held to determine whether or not the inhabitants of the Muslim-majority regions of North
West and North East India should establish their own sovereign state.
• If the partition is accepted, a common agreement will be created to protect communications, trade, and defence.
• The aforementioned conditions would only apply if England gave India complete authority.
Gandhi-Jinnah Talks and Jinnah’s Objection:
• Gandhi suggested conversations with Jinnah based on his two-nation idea after being released from prison. The CR
formula served as the framework for the negotiations.
• Gandhi offered Jinnah the CR formula as a suggestion. Nevertheless, after two weeks of discussions, the Gandhi-
Jinnah meetings ended in failure.
• Gandhi’s View: He believed that the talks failed because of fundamentally different worldviews.
• Jinnah’s Objection:
o Jinnah wished for the two-nation doctrine to be accepted by the Congress.
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o He demanded that the plebiscite only allow votes from North West and North East Muslims, not from the full
population.
o Jinnah thought that the League acted as the voice of all Muslims and that the adult franchise called for by the
formula was unnecessary.
• In the north-west, Sind, Baluchistan, the North-West Frontier Province, and Punjab, and in the north-east,
Assam and Bengal, Jinnah had staked a claim for British Indian Provinces that were at the time considered to have
a majority Muslim population.
SHIMLA CONFERENCE AND WAVELL PLAN (1945)
Background:
• Lord Wavell, the new Governor-General who had succeeded Lord Linlithgow, tried to end the impasse in India in
October 1943.
• Wavell claimed that Congress and its allies needed to refocus their resources away from agitation and towards
"some more profitable channel, namely, dealing with the administrative problems of India and trying to
solve the constitutional problems."
Schemes under the Plan:
• Restructuring of Governor-General's Executive Council: The Executive Council of the Governor-General was to
undergo renovation while the formulation of a new constitution was underway.
• Balanced Representation: The Council was to include equal numbers of Muslims and Hindus, ensuring balanced
representation of major ethnic groups.
• Maintenance of Governor-General's Veto: While the Governor-General's veto power would remain intact, it was
expected to be used sparingly.
• Delegation of External Affairs: Control over external affairs was to be transferred from the Governor-General to
an Indian council member.
• Formation of Executive Council: A Conference of Representatives appointed by the Viceroy was to convene to
secure joint or separate lists of deserving individuals from various party leaders for the new Executive Council.
• Anticipation of Provincial Minister Resumption: It was anticipated that provincial ministers would resume their
offices and form a coalition within the provinces.
Shimla Conference
• To Discuss Wavell Plan: A convention of 21 Indian political figures was summoned to Shimla, the summer capital
of the British Government, to debate the Wavell Plan's provisions.
• No Consensus: However, discussions were stuck when it came to choosing Muslim delegates.
o It was therefore claimed that Congress lacked the authority to appoint any Muslims to the Executive Council.
o Jinnah also insisted that there be a clause stating that a vote can only be approved by two-thirds of members in
the event of a vote being divided and a Muslim member objecting.
o The Muslim league did not relent and Wavell dropped the plan.
• Negotiation Failed: Lord Wavell concluded the Conference by claiming that the negotiations had failed. The summit
was ruined as a result, possibly ending India's chances of becoming a united, independent nation.
INDIA NATIONAL ARMY (INA) OR AZAD HIND FAUJ AND INA TRIALS: SIGNIFICANCE
Mohan Singh founded the India National Army (INA), also known as Azad Hind Fauj, for the first time in 1942. On
October 21, 1943, during the Second World War, Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose resurrected it to ensure India's complete
independence from the British Raj.
Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose

• Post Tripuri Crisis (1938-1939): As we saw in the chapter before, Subhas Bose established the Forward Bloc
within the Congress to promote communist and socialist activities following the "Tripuri crisis".
• The Daring Escape: Detained in July 1940 under the "Defence of India Act", was placed under home arrest. In a
"daunting escape" from Calcutta, to cross India from the east to the northwest, through Kabul into the Soviet
Union, and ultimately to Berlin.
• Provisional Government of Free India: It was established by Subhas Bose in October 1943, and it was
eventually acknowledged by Japan and eight other nations.
• Delhi Chalo: The provisional government declared war on Great Britain after Subhas issued his well-known call,
"Delhi Chalo."
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• Surrender after Nuclear attack: After the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (in August
1945), Japan was compelled to surrender, and the INA was left to fight its way back under difficult circumstances.
Post Surrender of INA:

• The 20,000 INA soldiers who surrendered were questioned before being returned to India.
o "Greys" and "Whites,": The ones among them who seemed to have been "misled" by Japanese and INA
propaganda. They were either released or rehired into the army.
o "Blacks": Others, who were more devoted to the cause, were classified as "Blacks" and subjected to court martial.
• There were eleven trials in total: The most well-known one took place at Delhi's Red Fort and involved the three
INA commanders, P. K. Sehgal, G. S. Dhillon, and Shah Nawaz Khan. Treason, murder, and accessory to murder
charges were brought against Sehgal, Dhillon, and Khan.
• Fundamental Idea behind Public Trial: The purpose of the government's public trial was to brutally punish army
officers for treason and inform the people of the "horrors" inflicted by INA.
Significance:
• Tricolor on Indian Soil: One of the INA Brigades, accompanied by the Japanese army, advanced to the Indian border,
where the Indian flag was hoisted for the first time in Kohima, Nagaland, in March 1944.
• Political Impact: INA's activities had a profound impact on the political landscape of India during that period.
• Surge of Revolution: The nation witnessed a surge of revolutionary fervor as tales of INA's extraordinary bravery
and sacrifices spread among the Indian populace following the battle.
• Heightened Patriotism: The British government observed a marked increase in Indian patriotism, surpassing their
allegiance to the colonial rulers.
• Inspirational Vision of Independence: Despite its embrace of violent means, Subhash Chandra Bose's grand vision
for India's liberation and the idealistic organization of INA ignited unprecedented inspiration among the Indian
populace.
RIN RATING MUTINY (1946)
The 1946 Naval Uprising, also known as the Royal Indian Navy Mutiny, was an uprising by Indian sailors, soldiers, police
officers, and civilians against the British administration in India.
Significance:
• Militancy was viewed as being expressed by the people's fearless behaviour.
• The military coup had a significant freeing impact on people's psyches.
• The RIN uprising was considered a sign of the end of British rule.
• These increases led the British to make some concessions.
Limitations:
• Violent Nature: Unlike earlier peaceful demonstrations of national unity, these mutinies represented violent
challenges to authority.
• Militant Participation: Participation was limited primarily to more militant groups within the ranks.
• Restricted Geographical Spread: While the broader INA agitation extended to remote rural areas, these mutinies
were short-lived and confined to select urban centers.
• Organizational Communal Harmony: The perceived communal harmony was largely organizational rather than
genuine human unity, with Muslim ratings seeking guidance from the League and the Congress and Socialists
representing the rest.
• Continued British Authority: Despite a decline in morale among the bureaucracy, the British maintained strong
infrastructural capabilities to suppress dissent.
Reaction of Indian Leaders:
• Gandhi: In contrast to Patel and Nehru, who first accepted Socialist leader Aruna Asaf Ali's offer to visit Bombay but
quickly realised "the necessity of curbing the wild outburst of violence," Gandhi was just as hostile to the rebel naval
ratings.
• Nehru: Leaders like Nehru began to consider a peaceful "transfer of power" from British to Indian hands, to be
worked out over the course of two to five years.
• Congress: Due to the timing and strategy of these uprisings, Congress did not formally support them. Before a large-
scale movement could be started, negotiations had been a key component of the Congress strategy
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• Communist: They backed the workers and insurgents. In addition to expanding their efforts among poor peasants
and sharecroppers, they actively engaged in the riots in Bombay and Calcutta, where they had strong support among
industrial workers.
Impact of Naval Mutiny on British Colonial Aspirations

• Unification of Cause: The mutiny marked a significant moment where individuals from diverse backgrounds,
both within the Services and on the streets, shed blood together for a common cause.
• Confirmation of Departure: The occurrence of the RIN Mutiny signaled a clear indication that the British
intentions to leave India were imminent.
• Core Uprising: The mutiny originated within the heart of the British government's armed forces, which
traditionally served as a stronghold in maintaining the British Empire and suppressing dissent.
• Ripple Effect: Following the INA Trials and the Royal Air Force uprising, the RIN Mutiny represented the
culmination of mounting discontent. These preceding incidents had already stirred fervor among the Indian
populace.
• Liberation of Thought: The mutiny's occurrence had a profound impact on liberating public discourse. The
arrest of a rating for inscribing "quit India" on HMIS Talwar acted as a catalyst for the fierce uprising.
• Broad Support: The revolt garnered substantial backing from individuals already opposed to the British
government, further solidifying its significance in challenging colonial authority.
SECOND WORLD WAR AND AFTERMATH
• Strands of National Upsurge: During the final two years of British administration, there were two main threads of
the national uprising that may be distinguished:
o Tortuous Negotiation: Arduous discussions between the government, Congress, and Muslim League that were
progressively marred by intergroup violence and resulted in freedom and the division.
o Sporadic and Localised Upsurge: A wave of nationwide strikes was episodic, localised, frequently quite militant,
and led by workers, peasants, and state peoples.
British policy towards India after war:
• Divert the Indians' attention from their objective of sub-continental liberty, and if at all possible, divide and
disintegrate them.
• By recognising the Muslim League as the exclusive voice of Indian Muslims and using the Muslim League's demand
for Pakistan they succeeded in dividing Hindu and Muslim.
• According to VP Menon, Labour victory was main factor responsible for early transfer of power.
• After the war, it was inconvenient and significantly less profitable to govern directly over a colony in order to
reap its economic benefits, but the World War did not eliminate imperialism. They were attempting to revitalise it
through new ways, such as NEO-COLONIALISM.
Change in Government‘s Attitude:
• Shift in Global Power Dynamics: The conclusion of the War led to a significant shift in global power dynamics, with
the UK losing its status as a major player, while the USA and USSR emerged as superpowers, both supportive of
India's independence.
• Understanding of Indian Needs: The new Labour administration demonstrated a greater understanding of India's
aspirations and requirements.
• Rise of Socialist-Radical Administrations: A wave of socialist-radical governments swept across Europe during
this period, influencing British policies towards its colonies.
• Economic Strain on Britain: The British economy suffered severe setbacks, and the exhaustion of British soldiers
further weakened the colonial power's resolve.
• Anti-Imperialist Sentiments in Southeast Asia: Efforts to reassert French and Dutch dominance in Southeast Asia
faced strong resistance, fueled by anti-imperialist sentiments in Vietnam and Indonesia.
• Fear of Uprisings: Leaders were apprehensive of a resurgence of the 1942 Congress uprising, recognizing the
potential for widespread disturbances including attacks on communications, agrarian unrest, labor strikes, and
military discontent.
• Inevitability of Elections: Given the lapse of recent elections for both the Centre and provinces in 1934 and 1937
respectively, conducting new elections post-war became an unavoidable necessity.
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ELECTION OF 1945
Performance of Congress
• Congress got 91 per cent of non-Muslim votes.
• Congress captured 57 out of 102 seats in the Central Assembly.
• In the provincial elections, it got a majority in most provinces except in Bengal, Sindh and Punjab.
• The Congress majority provinces included the NWFP and Assam which were being claimed for Pakistan
Performance of Muslim League
• Muslim League got 86.6 per cent of the Muslim votes. It captured the 30 reserved seats in the Central Assembly.
• In the provincial elections, it got a majority in Bengal and Sindh.
• Unlike in 1937, now the League clearly established itself as the dominant party among Muslims.
Significance
• The Indian National Congress emerged as the largest party.
• The League won all Muslim constituencies and hence the elections proved to be a strategic victory for Jinnah.
• The elections witnessed communal voting in contrast to the strong anti-British unity shown in various upsurges due
to:
o Separate Electorates: Reinforced communal divisions by ensuring only Muslims voted for Muslim candidates
and Hindus for Hindu candidates.
o Limited franchise: For the provinces, less than 10 per cent of the population could vote and for the Central
Assembly, less than 1 per cent of the population was eligible.
CABINET MISSION (1946): SIGNIFICANCE AND CONSEQUENCES
Introduction:
• The Cabinet Mission Plan was in response to Indian
political parties and representatives failing to reach an
agreement, the Cabinet Mission and Viceroy, Lord Wavell,
issued a statement on May 16, 1946, which featured
recommendations for the country's constitutional future.
• Members: The Secretary of State for India, Lord Penthick-
Lawrence, the President of the Board of Trade, Sir Stafford
Cripps, and the First Lord of the Admiralty, A. V. Alexander.
Plan of the Mission:
• 3-Tier Structure: For the Union of India, the Cabinet
Mission recommended a three-tiered flexible federal
structure with provinces and princely states.
• Central Power: A Union Government would be in charge of
just foreign affairs, defence, and communications, and it
would have the authority to raise the money needed for
these areas.
• Residual Power: All remaining powers would be granted to
provincial governments, each of which would be free to
organise into groups, have their own legislatures and executive branches, and be able to choose which provincial
subjects to tackle jointly.
• Election of Constitutional Assembly: The recently established Provincial Assemblies were to elect a Constitutional
Assembly to write a constitution for all of India. It would convene initially at Union Level before dividing into three
groups-
o Group A : Consist of Hindu Majority Provinces
o Group B : Muslim Majority Provinces in North West
o Group C : Include Bengal and Assam
o Chief Commissioner’s Province: Three (Delhi, Ajmer-Marwara & Coorg) would join Group A & One
(Baluchistan) would join Group B
• Princely States: They would be given enough representation at the Central Constituent Assembly through
discussions.
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• Power to withdraw: The Provinces would have the authority to withdraw from any Group after a Constitution had
been finalised at three levels (Union, Group, and Province), but not from Union. After ten years, they could potentially
revisit the constitution's provisions.
• Independence to be ultimate Objective: Whether within or outside of the British Commonwealth, would be the
ultimate objective.
Significance:
• Impact on Constituent Assembly: Referred to as the "State Paper," the Plan significantly influenced the initial
debates of the Constituent Assembly, particularly regarding federalism and Nehru's Objective Resolution.
• Source of Legitimacy: The Plan served as a source of legal legitimacy for the Assembly, while also leaving room for
the potential inclusion of the Muslim League. Additionally, the Assembly asserted its legitimacy as derived from the
Indian people rather than solely from the Plan itself.
• Academic Importance: The Cabinet Mission Plan is essential reading for academic research exploring various
aspects of Indian constitutionalism, law, politics, and history, especially those pertaining to federalism and partition.
• Lord Wavell's Perspective: Lord Wavell's reflections underscore the diminishing British influence in India,
highlighting the reliance on prestige and past momentum, both of which were waning.
Acceptance and Rejection

• On June 6 and June 24, 1946, respectively, the Muslim League and Congress endorsed the long-term strategy
proposed by the Cabinet Mission.
• In July 1946, provincial assemblies held elections for the Constituent Assembly.
• Nehru declared on July 10, 1946, "We are not bound by anything other than the decision we have made to
participate in the Constituent Assembly.
• In response to Nehru's remarks on July 29, 1946, The League withdrew its approval of the long-term strategy and
issued a call for "direct action" beginning on August 16 to bring about Pakistan.
Response:
• Muslim League: Accepted it on the presumption that Pakistan's premise and foundation were built into the plan
and would eventually result in Pakistan's establishment.
• Congress: Objected based on-
o Independence was a top priority, but the Cabinet Mission said that independence would be granted following
the preparation of the Constitution.
o It objected to the combination of Assam and the NWFP, where a majority of the population was Muslim, with
other Muslim-dominated states.
o It demanded that the Centre be given more authority so that it can step in when there is a crisis or a complete
collapse of the law.
Reasons for the Cabinet Mission's Failure:
• Congress’ Rejection: The Congress party refused to accept the recommendations of the Cabinet Mission,
particularly opposing the idea of dividing provinces based on religious lines and advocating for a stronger central
government.
• Introduction of Fresh Plan: The proposal suggested the creation of separate Hindu-majority and Muslim-majority
regions, along with a list of princely states given the option to join the union or remain independent.
• Congress’ Dismissal of Second Proposal: The Congress rejected the second proposal, preferring to participate in
the Constituent Assembly.
• Muslim League’s Objection: The Muslim League objected to the nomination of Zakir Hussain by Congress, asserting
its sole authority to represent Muslims and abstaining from further proceedings.
• Direct Action Day: On August 16, 1946, Jinnah called for "Direct Action Day," urging Muslims to demonstrate and
demand Pakistan, exacerbating tensions and complicating the negotiations.
Interim Government
• On September 2, 1946, a Congress-dominated Interim Government led by Nehru was sworn in out of fear that
Congress would take widespread action. Nehru continued to assert that his party opposed the mandatory
grouping.
• Despite its name, the Interim Government amounted to little more than a continuation of the viceroy's old
executive.
• On October 26, 1946, Wavell quietly incorporated the Muslim League into the Interim Government.
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MOUNTBATTEN PLAN (1947) OR 3RD JUNE PLAN AND RESPONSES TO IT BY VARIOUS STAKEHOLDERS
This law was passed to make provisions for the establishment of two independent Dominions in India, to replace certain
provisions of the Government of India Act of 1935. This action became known as the Mountbatten Plan or the 3 June
Plan.
Features:
• Clause 1: India and Pakistan would emerge as two independent Dominions on August 15, 1947.
• Clause 2: The territories of the two Dominions would be delineated after the appointment of a boundary
commission. All Indian Provinces, except those constituting Pakistan, would be part of the Indian Dominion.
• Common Governor General: Provision was made for a single Governor General if both Dominions agreed. Each
Dominion would have a Governor General appointed by His Majesty to represent them in their respective
Governments.
• Legislative Authority: Each Dominion's legislature would have the power to enact laws governing its own territory.
• Exercise of Power: The Constituent Assembly of each Dominion would exercise all powers vested in the Dominion
Legislature.
• Secretary of Commonwealth Relations: This office would oversee matters concerning the Dominion of India and
Pakistan, ensuring coordination and communication within the Commonwealth.
Responses:
• Gandhi and Azad: They spoke out against the Mountbatten Plains plan for the division of India. Gandhi was
extremely upset and urged people not to accept the division at face value. He rallied the populace to combat it.
• Congress' Position: Congress accepted the provision transferring authority to many centres because it allowed the
existing assembly to proceed with drafting a constitution for the regions it represents and provided a way out of the
impasse that existed at the moment.
• Muslim League Objections: Jinnah's intransigent demands that the League have the absolute right to select all
Muslim members and that there be a form of communal veto in the Executive, with actions opposed by Muslims
requiring a two-thirds majority, were the main causes of the conference's breakdown.
• Dickie Bird Plan: The proposal by Sardar Patel and V. P. Menon for the transfer of authority to two central
governments, India and Pakistan, on the basis of grants of Dominion Status, led to Nehru's opposition to the plan and
its abandonment.
THE ROLE OF BRITISH IMPERIAL POWER IN COMPLICATING THE PROCESS OF TRANSFER OF POWER DURING
THE 1940s
The 1940s were the Indian National Movement's most difficult decade. British Imperial Power had moved pawns to
make the transfer of power anything but a smooth process due to the necessity of seeking Indian participation in
World War II.
1. August Offer: • It was intended to win India's support for the war by recommending:
• The extension of the viceroy's executive council to include a majority of Indians and
• The election of an Indian-majority constituent assembly after the war.
• Outcome: the provisions of the offer were rejected by the Indians because they did
not give them complete control over their government and required minorities'
approval for future constitutions.
2. 1942's Cripps • The mission provided rigid offers that are once again extremely unsatisfactory for
Mission: the Indians and were made by an unstable coalition government of conservatives
and liberals in Britain.
• Outcome: The Cripps mission's failure merely served to demonstrate that the
British only sent this expedition in an effort to appear interested in Indian
independence.
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3. Wavell Plan and • To break the impasse in India.
Shimla Conference, • Creation of a new Executive Council with Indians constituting the majority of its
1945: members, with the Viceroy and Commander in Chief being the sole exceptions.
• There were supposed to be Indian representatives in charge of every portfolio but
the defence one.
• Muslims, who made up only approximately 25% of the population overall, were
granted the privilege to be overrepresented in the 14-member Proposed Executive
Council by choosing six representatives.
• Outcome: While disagreeing with the demand, Congress defended its authority to
nominate representatives from any community, including Muslims, to the Council.
4. The Cabinet Mission • It sought to establish a constituent assembly and an interim administration.
of 1946: • A mandatory grouping of provinces was the contentious aspect of the mission's
suggestion.
• The Muslim League wanted it to be required, but Congress saw it as optional.
• Outcome: Congress subsequently rejected the offer as result, and the Muslim
League further compounded matters by announcing "direct action".
Conclusion: The British ultimately stoked sectarian feelings with all these issues, which finally resulted in the
partition of India. Thus, the 1940s ended up being a time of instability that gave rise to a new world and where the
British irreversibly lost their greatness.
KEY WORDS: Second World War, Viceroy Linlithgow, Indian Independence, Quit India Movement, August Offer, Individual
Satyagraha, Cripps Mission, INA, Azad Hind Fauj, Shimla Conference, Wavell Plan, Cabinet Mission, Mountbatten Plan,
Partition of India.

1. Assess the role of British imperial power in complicating the process of transfer of power during 2019
the 1940s.
2. In what ways did the naval mutiny prove to be the last nail in the coffin of British colonial 2014
aspirations in India?
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10 ROLE OF DIFFERENT STAKEHOLDERS IN INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT
The Indian freedom struggle relied on diverse stakeholders, with women playing a crucial yet often overlooked role.
When male leaders were imprisoned, women bravely assumed leadership, ensuring the movement's continuity. Despite
facing exploitation and hardship, they actively participated in the anti-imperialist movement, demonstrating
remarkable courage. Their sacrifices were integral to India's quest for liberation, highlighting the indispensable role of
women in shaping history.
ROLE PLAYED BY WOMEN IN THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT
ROLE OF WOMEN BEFORE THE GANDHIAN PHASE
• Early Phase:
o British colonel Malcolm was defeated in guerilla warfare by Bhima Bai Holkar. She led the war against the
British in 1817.
o Many women, including Rani Channama of Kittur and Rani Begam Hazrat Mahal of Avadh, fought against the
British East India Company in the 19th century, much before the 1857 revolt.
o Maharani Velu Nachiyar (1730–1796) bravely fought against the British army and defeated them decisively.
o Gauri Parvati Bai, the queen of Travancore put a focus on the importance of girls' education which helped
women to overcome social and academic stigma.
• First War of Independence (1857-58):
o In the War of Independence (the Great Revolt) of 1857, women played a commendable role.
o Chauhan Rani, Tapasvini Maharani, Rani of Ramgarh, Rani Jindan Kaur, Rani Tace Bai, Baiza Bai, and Rani
Tace led their armies into battle with courage.
o Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi set a remarkable example of true patriotism through her bravery and outstanding
leadership.
• Swadeshi Movement: Women were encouraged to weave clothes, discouraged from using imported goods, and took
part in picketing campaigns to force liquor stores to close.
ROLE OF WOMEN DURING GANDHIAN PHASE
• Non-cooperation movement (1920s)
o Women participated in two simultaneous processes:
o The domestication of the public sphere, whereby they took part in the streets without compromising their
domestic values; and
o The politicisation of the domestic sphere, whereby they dealt with situations in their families where nationalism
crept into the home due to the actions of their husbands and sons.
• Civil Disobedience and the Dandi Salt March (1930s):
o Mass Awareness: Women volunteers took part in demonstrations, rallies, protests, and prabhat pheris during
the civil disobedience movement.
o Leading roles: Following the arrest of men, women's organizations assumed responsibility for continuing civil
disobedience and organizing meetings.
o Constructive activities: They also kept up the Gandhian constructive program, which included weaving cloth
and fasting as a form of passive resistance. Some of them were known as sevikas, or scouts.
o Salt Satyagraha:
▪ In the 1930s, Kamladevi Chattopadhyay rose to prominence as the face of the Gandhian movement,
particularly the Salt Satyagraha.
▪ Sarojini Naidu led Dharsana Salt Satyagraha.
o Mobilization of Women: Over a thousand devadasi were gathered in Andhra Pradesh by a charismatic leader
Durgabai to hear Gandhi's speech. Muhtulaxmi Reddy, Margret Cousins, and Sarojini Naidu were imprisoned.
• Quit India Movement (1942)
o The colonisers quickly arrested almost all of the foremost national leaders at the time.
o Women propelled the movement in 1942 by organising protest marches, hartals, and demonstrations, risking
arrests, and distributing anti-colonial literature.
o Sucheta Kripalani offered individual satyagraha at Faizabad and was imprisoned for two years.
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WOMEN'S CONTRIBUTION DURING FREEDOM MOVEMENTS
• Social and Women Mobilisation: Women leaders like Kasturba Gandhi, and Savitri Bai Phule, came forward to alter
the social fabric
• Revolutionary Movements: Indian women also participated in revolutionary movements against British rules, such
as - Kalapana Datta participated in the raid on the Chittagong armoury.
o Rani Gaidineliu, also popularly known as "Queen of Naga" was the leader of the Naga nationalist movement
against the British.
o Pritilata Waddekar led the fifteen revolutionaries in the 1932 armed attack on the Pahartali European Club
• Raising voice of freedom at International platform: Bhikaji Cama founded the Free India Society in the United
Kingdom and was referred to as Mother India's first cultural representative in the United States.
o Vijay Laxmi Pandit spoke up for India at the UN meeting in San Francisco.
• Establishment of Social institutions: District Congress Committees and independent female organisations like
Rashtriya Stree Sanghas were combined. Additionally, widows, scheduled/marginalised sections, Hindu/Muslim,
and Muslim women were all included.
LIMITATIONS OF WOMEN'S ROLE IN NATIONAL MOVEMENT
• Absence of Leadership Roles: Women were largely absent from leadership positions within the nationalist
movement, often providing support to male leaders and implementing plans formulated by organizations like the
INC.
o Example: Despite their significant contributions, figures like Pritilata Waddedar and Kalpana Dutt often operated
under the leadership of male figures such as Surya Sen, highlighting the limited leadership roles available to
women.
• Lack of Scientific Education: Limited access to Western education among upper-middle-class women hindered the
development of contemporary, secular, liberal, and scientific perspectives.
• Influence of Patriarchal Society: The dominance of patriarchy redirected opportunities towards men, impeding
women's advancement in nation-building efforts. Additionally, societal expectations confined women to domestic
roles.
• Social Stigma: Women were often perceived as weak and incapable of withstanding the British authorities' harsh
repression, contributing to their limited participation in resistance activities.
• Underrepresentation: Women were marginalized in prominent institutions such as Congress and labor unions,
with few opportunities for leadership roles.
o Example: Limited representation in Congress membership and labor union organizations.
ROLE OF GANDHIJI IN WOMEN’S CONTRIBUTION FOR NATIONAL MOVEMENT

• “A yagna is incomplete without women taking part in it” - Gandhi Ji during NCM
• From Lakshmibai to Bhima Holkar, women displayed unflinching courage during India's pre-Gandhian freedom
struggle.
• Later, women turned into the ideal representation of morality and motherhood. But there was a significant shift in
women's participation in the nationalist movement after the arrival of Gandhiji.
• Women’s Role with Gandhi Ji:
o Opposed social evils: He opposed social evils like the purdah system, child marriage and promoted education.
o Increased active participation: More women participated because of Gandhi's insistence on non-violence and
his emphasis on upholding the dignity of women satyagrahis.
o Non-Cooperation Movement: During the NCM, many women were sentenced to prison for the first time.
o Civil Disobedience Movement: Dharasana Salt Satyagraha was led by Sarojini Naidu. Kamla Devi addressed
meetings and prepared salt. Nari Satyagraha Committee was established.
o Quit India Movement: When Gandhi said, "Do or die", Usha Mehta persisted in broadcasting until their arrest.
SAROJINI NAIDU AND HER ROLE IN FREEDOM MOVEMENT
• During Bengal Division: She joined the national movement during the 1905 protest against the division of Bengal.
• Role as INC member: Sarojini Naidu started to become famous as a nationalist in 1917. She was appointed INC's
second female president in 1925.
• Social Service: She received the Kaiser-i-Hind award from the British government for her services during the Indian
plague epidemic, and she served as president of the East African Indian Congress in South Africa.
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• Raised voice for women's Rights: She participated extensively in the creation of the Women's Indian Association
and travelled to London with a delegation promoting women's voting rights.
• Salt Satyagraha: She was a leader in the civil disobedience movement and one of the female protesters at the
Dharasana salt plant during the salt satyagraha.
• Quit India Movement: She was held in detention in 1942 during the Quit India campaign.
WOMEN’S AND REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITIES
• Pritilata Waddedar:
o She was a revolutionary nationalist and joined a group headed by Surya Sen.
o She is known for leading fifteen revolutionaries in the 1932 armed attack on the Pahartali European Club.
o The revolutionaries torched the club and were later caught by the British police.
• Kalpana Dutta:
o She joined the Indian Republican Army. She along with Pritilata Waddedar in 1931 attacked the European club
in Chittagong. ·
o Later she was booked under the Chittagong Armoury Raid case and was sentenced to life imprisonment.
Women's contributions to the Indian freedom struggle were crucial and cannot be measured or quantified. They ranged
from being ordinary people to leading the mass movement. Author Katherine Mayo criticised Hindu men and the
treatment of women as property within the family in her book Mother India. Nationalists and reformers were forced
to concentrate on families and establish a nonviolent home environment. Additionally, this criticism forged Indian men
and women together for national honour.
ROLE OF CAPITALIST CLASS IN FREEDOM STRUGGLE
• Indian capitalism emerged as a result of the void created due to wartime import substitution and changes in
international trade.
• Industrialists were relatively weak in the nineteenth century and were unable to put pressure on the colonial
authorities to make it easier to import equipment and workers from Britain.
o Therefore, despite the nationalists' overwhelming support for Indian industry, they did not back the national
movement.
o Nationalist emotions and activities significantly increased in the 20th century, sparking enormous mass
movements.
• Industrialist Role during Swadeshi and Non-Cooperation Movement;
o During the Swadeshi Movement (1905-08), the capitalists remained opposed to the boycott agitation.
o Some entrepreneurs supported the non-cooperation movement. G. D. Birla and Purushottam Das were among
the capitalists who opposed the movement.
• Industrialist role during Civil Disobedience Movement:
o The capitalist class largely supported the civil disobedience campaign. However, their involvement in the
movement was insufficient to give the national movement any real traction.
o However, the violent mass revolution was opposed by the capitalists because it would have opened the door to
socialism, and threatened the viability of capitalism in India.
Reason to support the movement:
• Strengthening of Indian Rupees: On the Hilton Young Commission's advice, the Indian rupee was strengthened
against the British pound in 1926. This was not conducive to the export of goods.
• Exemption of British goods from import duty: To protect Indian industries after the 1929–30 economic
downturn, the import duty was increased from 5% to 11%, but British goods got more preference and were
exempted from this hike in duty.
Women Leaders Who Contributed to Framing of Constitution of India
Women Leaders Details
Sarojini Naidu • Sarojini Naidu was a renowned poet, feminist, and political activist who ardently
(1879-1949) championed women's emancipation, anti-imperialism, and civil rights.
• Notably, she achieved the historic feat of becoming the first Indian woman to be elected as
the President of the Indian National Congress.
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• Her significant contributions extended to India's independence struggle, and she

immortalized her ideals through her acclaimed anthology "In The Bazaars of Hyderabad,"
published in 1912.
Dakshayani • Born in 1912, Dakshayani Velayudhan hailed from the Pulayar community and emerged as
Velayudhan a prominent advocate for decentralization of the constitution draft.
(1912-1978) • She vehemently advocated for the implementation of non-discriminatory provisions and
vociferously condemned caste discrimination.
• Velayudhan emphasized that the effectiveness of the Constitution relied on the future
conduct of the people rather than merely its legal execution.
Begum Aizaz • As the only Muslim woman in the Constituent Assembly of India, Begum Aizaz Rasul played
Rasul (1909- a pivotal role in shaping the nation's foundational document.
2001) • Her commitment to social welfare and minority rights was further exemplified during her
tenure as Minister of Social Welfare and Minorities from 1969 to 1971.
• In recognition of her remarkable contributions, she was honored with the prestigious
Padma Bhushan award in 2000.
Hansa Jivraj • Hansa Jivraj Mehta, a multifaceted personality, was a fervent feminist, social activist,
Mehta (1897- reformist, and educator.
1995) • She actively participated in drafting fundamental rights and tirelessly advocated for gender
equality, leaving an indelible mark on India's constitutional framework.
• Notably, Mehta was instrumental in revising the language of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights, underscoring the imperative of gender parity.
Leela Roy (1900- • Leela Roy, a radical leftist politician and dedicated social worker, spearheaded numerous
1970) initiatives aimed at advancing women's rights and education.
• Her pioneering efforts included the establishment of "Jayasree," India's inaugural magazine
managed entirely by women, in 1931.
• Roy's advocacy encompassed not only educational empowerment for girls but also the
promotion of vocational training, reflecting her holistic approach towards societal
upliftment.
Durgabai • Durgabai Deshmukh, revered for her unwavering commitment to Gandhian principles, made
Deshmukh (1909- significant strides in the realms of women's education and social welfare.
1981) • In addition to her pivotal role in the Constituent Assembly, Deshmukh's tenure as the
chairperson of the National Council on Women's Education underscored her dedication to
fostering gender inclusivity in educational spheres.
• Her legacy endures as a testament to her tireless endeavors towards realizing Mahatma
Gandhi's vision of a just and equitable society.
Ammu • Ammu Swaminathan, a stalwart political activist and social worker, overcame myriad
Swaminathan challenges to emerge as a beacon of resilience and empowerment.
(1894-1978) • Despite facing early marriage at the age of thirteen, Swaminathan embarked on a journey of
self-education under her husband's guidance, mastering various subjects, notably English.
• Her unwavering dedication to social causes earned her the esteemed title of 'Mother of the
Year' during the inauguration of International Women's Year in 1975, symbolizing her
enduring impact on society.
Renuka Ray • Renuka Ray's distinguished tenure as a member of the All India Women's Conference and
(1904-1997) her subsequent receipt of the Padma Bhushan in 1988 underscore her profound
contributions to Indian society.
• Her pivotal role in shaping social welfare policies, notably through her leadership of the
committee on Social Welfare and Welfare of Backward Classes in 1959, reflects her
unwavering commitment to societal progress.
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• Through her seminal work, "My Reminiscences: Social Development During the
Gandhian Era and After," Ray provided invaluable insights into the socio-political
landscape of India during pivotal historical epochs.
Kamla Chaudhry • Kamla Chaudhry, a formidable figure in India's freedom struggle, exemplified unwavering
(1908-1970) resolve and dedication towards the nation's independence.
• Her active participation in the Constituent Assembly and subsequent appointment to the
Provincial Government underscore her significant contributions to nation-building efforts
post-independence.
• Chaudhry's indelible legacy serves as a poignant reminder of the pivotal role played by
women in shaping India's democratic fabric and socio-political landscape.
Purnima • Purnima Banerjee's brief yet impactful tenure in the Constituent Assembly between 1946
Banerjee (1911- and 1950 exemplifies her unwavering commitment to grassroots activism and rural
1951) development.
• Her concerted efforts to uplift marginalized communities, particularly farmers and rural
inhabitants, reflect her deep-rooted empathy and dedication towards societal betterment.
• Banerjee's enduring legacy continues to inspire future generations to actively engage in
grassroots activism and effect positive change within their communities.
Rajkumari Amrit • Rajkumari Amrit Kaur's illustrious career spanned various domains, from her active
Kaur (1887- involvement in the Indian Independence Movement to her stewardship of ministerial
1964) portfolios.
• Her unwavering advocacy for a Uniform Civil Code and staunch support for religious rights
and universal franchise underscore her commitment to fostering inclusivity and social
justice.
• Kaur's enduring legacy serves as a testament to her indomitable spirit and tireless efforts
towards realizing the ideals of a pluralistic and egalitarian society.
Vijaya Lakshmi • Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit's trailblazing tenure as India's ambassador to the Soviet Union
Pandit (1900- from 1947 to 1949 underscores her pivotal role in shaping India's foreign policy and
1990) diplomatic relations.
• As the first woman to hold a cabinet position in the pre-independence era, Pandit shattered
gender barriers and paved the way for future generations of women leaders.
• Her diplomatic acumen and unwavering commitment to national interests continue to
inspire aspiring diplomats and policymakers across the globe.
Annie Mascarene • Annie Mascarene's groundbreaking achievements as a lawyer and Member of Parliament
(1902-1963) underscore her trailblazing journey towards gender parity and political representation.
• Her pivotal role in the drafting of the Hindu Code Bill during the Constitution's formulation
reflects her unwavering commitment to advancing legal reforms and women's rights.
• Mascarene's enduring legacy serves as a poignant reminder of the transformative power of
women's leadership in effecting positive change within legislative frameworks.
Sucheta Kriplani • Sucheta Kriplani's poignant rendition of "Vande Mataram" during the Independence Session
(1908-1974) of the Constituent Assembly epitomizes her unwavering patriotism and commitment to
India's freedom struggle.
• Her seminal role in founding the All India Mahila Congress in 1949 underscores her
dedication to championing women's rights and political empowerment.
• Kriplani's indomitable spirit and leadership continue to inspire generations of women to
actively participate in democratic processes and effect transformative change.
Malati Choudhury • Malati Choudhury's pioneering contributions as one of the fifteen founding mothers of the
(1904-1998) Indian Constitution underscore her enduring commitment to grassroots activism and social
reform.
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• Despite ideological differences with fellow members, Choudhury emphasized the pivotal
role of education, particularly for adults and rural communities, in fostering societal
progress.
• Choudhury's legacy serves as a poignant reminder of the transformative power of grassroots
activism and the enduring importance of education in driving societal change.
CONTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRIALISTS DURING NATI ONAL MOVEMENT
• Institution building for the interest of the nation:

o Capitalists like G.D. Birla and Purshottamdas Thakurdas made an effort to establish a national-level
organisation in finance and commerce as opposed to the more organised European interests in India.
o The objective was also to be able to effectively lobby with the colonial government.
o This effort culminated in the formation of the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry
(FICCI) in 1927, with a large and rapidly increasing representation from all parts of India.
o Funding for Freedom Movement: The INC branch of Madras state was funded by Chidambaram Pillai.
o Swadeshi Enterprises: After imposing a boycott on imported goods, the capitalist class developed companies and
manufactured Swadeshi items as alternatives.
o for instance, Swadeshi textile mills, factories that make soap and matches, tanneries, banks, insurance firms, etc.
• Favoured constitutional forms of struggle: The industrialists favoured constitutional participation instead of
mass protest because of the following reasons -
o Fear persisted that sustained widespread civil disobedience would unleash forces that would make the
movement socially revolutionary.
o Since mass protest could have threatened the class's very existence and prevented day-to-day activity from
continuing, the capitalists did not support a prolonged all-out conflict against the British government.
ROLE OF LABOUR AND COMMUNIST CLASS IN FREEDOM STRUGGLE
• The Russian Revolution of 1917 inspired Indian revolutionary nationalists and moved them towards socialism.
• The failure of the non-cooperation movement further convinced them that Independence could not be acquired
solely through Non-cooperation.
• After the First World War, the Indian working class remained steadfast defenders of democratic freedoms until
August 1947.
• A conducive atmosphere for developing socialist ideas was provided during the course of the War. People got
acquainted with class war, economic inequality, the fight against financial exploitation, etc.
• On October 17, 1920, the Communist Party of India was founded in Tashkent.
ROLE OF LABOUR AND COMMUNIST CLASS
• Promotion of Unity: Communists established the Workers' and Peasant Party (WPP) in 1928, inspired by the
Peasants' and Workers' Party of Bengal, fostering unity among the labor class.
• Advocacy for Workers' Rights: Significant strikes, such as the 1928 strike movement totaling 31 million working
days, including the Bombay textile strike involving around 150,000 workers for six months, highlighted the protest
for workers' rights.
• Formation of Unions: The establishment of the All-India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) and the Indian Federation
of Trade Unions (IFTU) marked major milestones in the workers' movement, providing organizational strength.
• Contribution to Infrastructure: Workers played a pivotal role in constructing railways and plantations, crucial for
India's infrastructure development, subsequently aiding decentralization of the freedom movements.
• Development of Mass Communication: Leaders from the communist class initiated organizations and publications
to raise awareness and promote welfare initiatives among workers.
o Examples include Sasipada Banerjee's "Working Men's Club" and the Bengali-language publication Bharat
Shramjibi, as well as N.M. Lokhandey's establishment of the "Bombay Millhands' Association" and publication
of the Marathi periodical "Dinbandhu."
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CONSPIRACY CASE ASSOCIATED WITH COMMUNIST CLASS
Conspiracy Case Reasons

Peshawar Conspiracy • Numerous Muslim Mujahirs joined Roy's military academy in Tashkent as a result
Case (1922–1927) of their displeasure with the British government's treatment of the Sultan of Turkey.
• They were apprehended on their way back to Peshawar, by the police.
Kanpur Bolshevik • Leading communists S. A. Dange, Nalini Gupta, Muzaffar Ahmad, and Shaukat
Conspiracy Case, 1924 Usmani were the targets of a conspiracy case that claimed they established a
revolutionary group with the intention of overturning British rule in India.
Lahore conspiracy case • To express opposition to the Public Safety Bill and Trade Disputes Bill, which both
(1928-1929) seek to restrict the civil liberties of people in general and workers in particular.
• On April 8, 1929, Bhagat Singh and others detonated a bomb within the Central
Legislative Assembly.
• They faced trial in the conspiracy case which is known as the Lahore conspiracy
case.
Meerut Conspiracy Case • Lord Irwin implemented draconian anti-communist actions by arresting 31
(1929-1933) communists On 14th March 1929.
• The Communists were accused of conspiring to use general strikes and armed
uprisings against British India. They were prosecuted for this at Meerut.
ROLE OF PRINCELY STATES IN FREEDOM STRUGGLE
• The Indian struggle for independence from British colonial rule was inseparably linked to the freedom struggle in
the Indian Princely States.
• The princes ruled over about 2/5th of the Indian subcontinent which had about 1/3rd the population of the British
Empire in India.
• The British created an invisible wall between ‘British India’ and the ‘Princely India’ by governing the latter
indirectly through hereditary princes, who were supposedly fully autonomous, but for British ‘paramountcy’.
CONTRIBUTION OF PRINCELY STATES DURING THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT
• Support for 1857 Revolt: Princely states like Jhansi, Bareilly, and Jagdishpur participated in the 1857 revolt against
British rule.
• Political Mobilization: Princely states were influenced by the national movement, with the emergence of political
organizations such as Praja Mandals or State People Conferences.
• Exemplary Leadership: Some rulers, like those of Kolhapur state, actively championed modern ideas, public
welfare, and the Indian national struggle.
• Promotion of Democratic Reforms: Ideas of democracy and civil liberties gradually permeated princely states,
initially introduced by individual nationalists and revolutionaries seeking refuge there.
• Integration with Quit India Movement (1942): Residents of native states joined the Quit India movement upon
Congress's call, formally aligning their struggle with the broader efforts in British India.
NATIONAL MOVEMENT WITH VARIOUS IDEOLOGICAL STRANDS AND EXPANDED ITS SOCIAL BASE
• Nationalist Revolution:
o The revolutionaries envisioned the State as it would be after achieving total independence.
o They worked diligently to organise workers, students, and peasants to act as the catalyst for a widespread
struggle with a particular goal.
o Various activities, such as the train robbery in Kakori, were used to raise money.
o The youth were incited by Jogesh Chandra Chatterji, Sachin Sanyal, and Punjab Naujawan Sabha led by Bhagat
Singh.
• Gandhism:
o The mass base for the national struggle was expanded through Gandhism, Satyagraha, and the constructive
program.
o Congress under the leadership of Gandhiji was able to connect with India's rural populations because of the
o Struggle-Truce-Struggle formula.
o At the end, members of the marginalised society joined the Indian struggle.
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o Ex: The movement for temple entry, the welfare of Harijans, and farmer protests in Champaran and Kheda,
Labour movements at Ahmedabad Mills etc.
• Communism:
o The working class joined the movement with the explicit objective of achieving social equality.
o MN Roy was the inspiration behind the ideology that drew in many Indian intellectuals, leading to the setting up
of the Communist Party of India in 1925.
o They organised strikes in Bombay, TISCO, and southern railway after mobilising the working class.
o It elevated the fight for freedom to the global stage and won the support of international organisations.
• Feminism:
o Gandhian methods have improved women's participation, and groups like the All Indian Women's Association
had risen to the public forefront.
o Civil disobedience and non-cooperation both featured active participation.
• Rise of Socialism:
o Socialism began to gain ground after the 1920s and became a significant component of the National Movement.
o It was amply reflected in the congressional resolution and the activism of well-known figures. JL Nehru, SC Bose,
and others actively brought up issues affecting workers and peasants.
o Workers' and peasants' parties were established throughout the nation, spreading Marxist and communist
ideologies.
• Communalism:
o Following the withdrawal of the non-cooperation movement, people experienced frustration and disillusionment.
o During this time, Hindu Mahasabha and the League both experienced a resurgence. Nationalists were vilified as
traitors as the fear psychology slowly took hold.
o The congressmen's leaders failed to resist the pressure and adopted a communal or semi-communal attitude.
o The two prominent organisations were Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha.
• Caste-based Movements:
o They emerged as a reaction to atrocities based on caste. Movements like the Justice Party, the self-respect
movement, and the Vaikom Satyagraha raised awareness about the cruel caste-based practices that were being
carried out.
o They took part in round table discussions to voice their opinions and make demands for their rights.
• Peasants:
o UP, the Rampa region of Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Ryotwari areas of Bombay and Madras witnessed
peasant agitations for the revision of tenancy laws, lower rents, protection against eviction, and relief from debt.
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (1928) led the Bardoli Satyagraha in Gujarat.
• The Labour Class:
o Through the cotton mill workers' strike in Bombay (1919 and 1920), they took part in the non-cooperation
movement.
o Their activity increased after the Trade Union Act of 1926 became law. The British were dealt a serious blow by
the labour strikes that took place during the civil disobedience movement, and the Indian Naval Revolt of 1946
benefited from their widespread participation.
• Extremist Ideology:
o Extremists favoured strong mass demonstrations and the concept of Swaraj over the petitioning and prayer
practices of moderates.
o By founding political movements, they emphasized the need to mobilize people against foreign rule.
FOREIGN PARTICIPATION IN FREEDOM MOVEMENT

• The contributions of numerous foreigners to our struggle for freedom are immeasurable. The British took over
India's political, economic, and social spheres following the Battle of Plassey. The indigenous traditions and customs
declined with this colonization.
• The people of the land bravely fought against imperialism to gain their independence. Numerous foreigners also
contributed significantly to India's freedom struggle throughout the span of 150 years of conflict.
“A foreigner deserves to be welcomed only when he mixes with the indigenous people as sugar does with milk.”
Mahatma Gandhi
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CONTRIBUTION OF FOREIGNERS TO THE FREEDOM MOVEMENT
• Intellectual Awakening: Foreigners helped people learn about the British's suppressive economic activities and
other policies. They also motivated people to participate in the freedom movement.
o It was further strengthened by factors like the rise of nationalism, the emergence of fresh economic forces, the
expansion of education, the influence of contemporary Western culture, and a deeper understanding of the global
community.
• Nationalism and Democratic System: The rising tide of nationalism and democracy also found expression in
movements to democratise the social structures and worldview of the Indian people during the last decades of the
nineteenth century.
• Promoted scientific-based education: The Wood's Dispatch of 1854 and subsequent policies emphasised scientific
study and Western curricula. This led to the establishment of colleges based on European academic models,
promoting a more modern and scientific approach to education in India.
• Encouraged freedom of the Press: Press were encouraged to promote government views, customs and cultures.
However, some press activities were barred because of criticising government policies and mobilising people against
them.
• Fought for human rights: The law of land concept along with values for human rights were promoted through the
governance of the British in India.
ANNIE BESANT AND HER CONTRIBUTION
• She is one of the most well-known foreigners whose name appears in the struggle for freedom. She visited India in
1893 to promote the ideas of the Theosophical Society.
• Later, she was inspired by the ongoing struggle for freedom from British rule and progressively became an active
participant.
• Establishing the Home Rule League was the most significant contribution to the movement for Indian independence.
• Annie Besant and Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak played pivotal roles in advancing the independence movement,
marking a significant turning point in India's prolonged struggle for freedom.
• Organized in the manner of the Irish local government movement, the crusade sought to bring Australia and
Canada under the dominion of India. This played an important role in intensifying the freedom struggle.
KEY WORDS: Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Swadeshi Movement, Home Rule League, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Unity and
Integration, Jawaharlal Nehru, Purna Swaraj, Subhash Chandra Bose, Indian National Army, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Dalit Rights,
Constitution, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Hindutva, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Education Reform, Sarojini Naidu, Women's
Empowerment.
1. Since the decade of the 1920s, the national movement acquired various ideological strands and 2020
thereby expanded its social base. Discuss.
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11 SIGNIFICANT PERSONALITIES AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION IN

INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT
The Indian freedom struggle was a long and arduous journey that involved the contributions and sacrifices of numerous
individuals. Here are some of the important personalities who played key roles in India's fight for independence.
BAL GANGADHAR TILAK - THE LION OF MAHARASHTRA
• Early Life and Education:
o Birth: Bal Gangadhar Tilak was born on July 23, 1856, in Ratnagiri, Maharashtra. He came from a middle-class
Brahmin family.
o Education: Tilak received his early education at the Deccan College in Pune, where he excelled in academics and
displayed a keen interest in social and political issues.
o Influence of Brahmo Samaj: During his college years, he was deeply influenced by the ideas of social reform
propagated by the Brahmo Samaj and became actively involved in social and educational activities.
• Role in the Indian National Congress:
o Joining INC: Tilak joined the Indian National Congress in 1890 and emerged as a vocal nationalist leader.
• Promotion of Swadeshi and Boycott Movements:
o Tilak played a crucial role in promoting the Swadeshi movement, which called for the support of indigenous
industries and the boycott of British goods.
o He believed that economic nationalism and self-reliance were essential for India's progress and freedom.
o Tilak's leadership and persuasive abilities helped mobilise the masses, leading to widespread participation in the
Swadeshi and Boycott movements, which significantly impacted the Indian economy and challenged British
authority.
• Advocacy for Home Rule and Self-Government:
o In 1916, Tilak established the All India Home Rule League, demanding self-government for India.
o He aimed to unite Indians across regions and communities under the common goal of attaining home rule.
o Tilak's efforts laid the groundwork for the subsequent Home Rule Movement, which became an integral part of
the freedom struggle.
• Journalism and Mass Mobilization:
o Tilak played a pivotal role in utilising the power of journalism to the masses.
o He founded two influential newspapers, Kesari (in Marathi) and Maratha (in English), which served as platforms
for nationalist ideas and mass mobilisation.
o Tilak's powerful oratory skills, coupled with his ability to connect with the common people through his writings,
helped galvanise public support for the freedom movement.
• Contributions to Cultural and Educational Revival:
o Tilak recognised the significance of culture and education in fostering nationalistic sentiments among Indians.
o He played a key role in reviving and popularising the celebration of Ganesh Chaturthi as a public festival, turning
it into a platform for expressing nationalist fervour.
o Tilak also emphasised the importance of Indian culture, literature, music, and history, promoting a sense of pride
and self-confidence among the Indian populace.
o In 1884, he established the Deccan Education Society, which aimed to promote education and cultural awareness
among Indians.
• Opposition to British Rule and Imprisonment:
o Tilak openly criticised British policies and administration, calling for Indian self-rule and an end to British
exploitation.
o He faced several arrests, trials, and imprisonments by the British authorities, who saw him as a prominent threat
to their colonial rule.
o Despite imprisonment, Tilak remained steadfast in his commitment to the cause of Indian independence,
defending the principles of nationalism and freedom.
• Legacy and Influence:
o Bal Gangadhar Tilak's contributions and ideals continue to inspire generations of Indians.
o His emphasis on self-governance, economic nationalism, and cultural revival left a lasting impact on the national
movement.
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Ideology of Tilak:
• Tilak's ideology was shaped by his unwavering commitment to the principles of self-rule, cultural revival, and
nationalistic fervor. His ideas and actions helped galvanise the masses and contributed to the momentum of the
freedom movement in several ways.
1. Swaraj and Self-Governance: Tilak's foremost ideology revolved around the concept of Swaraj, which
advocated for self-governance and independence for India. Tilak's passionate advocacy for Swaraj resonated
with Indians, inspiring them to strive for freedom and self-determination.
2. Cultural Nationalism: Tilak believed cultural revival was essential to Indian pride and unity. He promoted
Indian festivals, music, literature, and traditions. Ex: Tilak revived Ganesh Chaturthi as a public festival to
express nationalist sentiments and instill a strong sense of Indian identity.
3. Mass Mobilisation: Tilak believed in mobilising the masses for freedom. Tilak spread nationalist ideas and
encouraged commoners to fight British rule through his newspapers Kesari and Maratha.
4. Swadeshi and Boycott Movements: He advocated for economic nationalism, urging Indians to boycott British
goods and support indigenous industries.
5. Resistance against Colonial Oppression: Tilak openly criticised British policies and administration,
highlighting the exploitation of Indian resources and the denial of basic rights to the Indian people. He actively
opposed oppressive measures such as the partition of Bengal and the imposition of heavy taxes.
Tilak's ideology helped shape the Indian freedom movement by infusing it with a spirit of nationalism, cultural revival,
and mass mobilisation. His unwavering commitment to the principles of Swaraj and self-governance, along with his
emphasis on cultural identity and economic independence, provided a strong ideological foundation for the struggle
against British colonial rule.
THE IDEOLOGY OF SARDAR VALLABH BHAI PATEL - THE IRON MAN OF INDIA
• Unity and Integration:

o Patel's ideology revolved around the importance of unity and integration of the diverse princely states into a
united India.
o Ex: Patel played a pivotal role in the integration of over 500 princely states into the Indian Union after
independence, ensuring the territorial integrity of India.
• Non-violent Resistance and Satyagraha:
o Inspired by Mahatma Gandhi's philosophy of non-violence, Patel embraced the method of Satyagraha
(nonviolent resistance) as a means to challenge British rule.
o He actively participated in various nonviolent movements, including the Salt Satyagraha and Quit India
movements, promoting mass civil disobedience against British oppression.
• Strong Leadership and Organisational Skills:
o Patel, India's first Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Home Affairs helped unite the nation and build a strong
administration.
o His ability to lead and organise people was instrumental in coordinating the efforts of various freedom fighters
and political parties towards the common goal of independence.
• Empowerment of Farmers and Peasants:
o He advocated for agrarian reforms, including land redistribution and the protection of farmers' rights.
o Patel's efforts aimed to empower farmers and peasants, addressing their socio-economic grievances and ensuring
their active participation in the freedom movement.
• Secularism and Social Harmony:
o Patel's inclusive vision contributed to the strength and diversity of the Indian freedom movement and laid the
foundation for a secular and pluralistic independent India.
• Commitment to Constitutionalism and Democracy:
o Patel strongly believed in the principles of constitutionalism and democracy.
o He played a vital role in the drafting of the Indian Constitution, ensuring that it reflected the aspirations of the
people and provided a framework for a democratic and inclusive nation.
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel's ideology focused on unity, non-violence, strong leadership, and social harmony. His vision of
a united and integrated India, coupled with his strategic and organizational skills, played a crucial role in the success of
the freedom movement.
116
CONTRIBUTION OF JAWAHARLAL NEHRU - THE ARCHITECT OF MODERN INDIA
• Leadership in the Indian National Congress:
o Nehru emerged as a prominent leader within the Indian National Congress and played a crucial role in shaping
its policies and strategies.
o He served as the President of the Indian National Congress on multiple occasions, providing dynamic leadership
and a clear vision for the freedom struggle.
• Vision for a Modern India:
o Nehru envisioned an independent India that embraced modernity, scientific temper, and industrialization.
o He emphasised the importance of education, science, and technology as catalysts for national development.
o Nehru's vision laid the foundation for India's post-independence industrialization and the establishment of
scientific research institutions like the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs).
• Advocacy for Purna Swaraj:
o Nehru was a staunch advocate for complete independence or Purna Swaraj.
o He played a significant role in the adoption of the historic Lahore Resolution in 1929, which demanded full
independence and the establishment of a sovereign republic in India.
o The Lahore Resolution marked a significant milestone in the demand for complete freedom from British rule.
• Role in the Non-Cooperation Movement:
o Nehru actively participated in Mahatma Gandhi's Non-Cooperation Movement, a nationwide campaign of
nonviolent resistance against British rule.
o He mobilised youth and played a crucial role in organising protests, boycotts, and civil disobedience movements.
• Contribution to the Indian Constitution:
o Nehru's contribution to the framing of the Indian Constitution was significant.
o He served as the Chairman of the Constituent Assembly's Committee on Fundamental Rights, shaping the
fundamental rights and liberties enshrined in the Constitution.
o Nehru's emphasis on secularism, social justice, and democratic principles guided the drafting process.
• Foreign Policy and Non-Aligned Movement:
o Nehru played a pivotal role in shaping India's foreign policy and its stance as a neutral and non-aligned nation
during the Cold War era.
o He advocated for peaceful coexistence, disarmament, and the promotion of global cooperation.
o Nehru's leadership in championing the principles of non-alignment positioned India as a significant voice on the
international stage.
• Initiatives for Social Welfare and Economic Development:
o Nehru prioritised social welfare and economic development as crucial components of nation-building.
o He introduced various policies and programmes aimed at eradicating poverty, promoting land reforms, and
advancing industrialization.
o Nehru's initiatives included the Five-Year Plans, the establishment of public sector enterprises, and the focus on
scientific and technological advancements.
• Legacy as India's First Prime Minister:
o Nehru's legacy as India's first Prime Minister is marked by his efforts to build a strong and democratic nation.
o His leadership laid the foundation for India's democratic institutions, secular identity, and commitment to social
justice.
o Nehru's vision and policies continue to shape modern India's development and governance.
CONTRIBUTION OF NETAJI SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE

• Defiance against British Rule:
o Subhash Chandra Bose vehemently opposed British rule in India and actively participated in the freedom struggle.
o He believed in a more militant approach to achieving independence and advocated for armed resistance against
British imperialism.
• Leadership in the Indian National Congress:
o Bose served as the President of the Indian National Congress in 1938 and 1939.
o He played a crucial role in shaping the Congress' approach towards the freedom struggle and pushing for more
assertive action against British rule.
• Formation of the Forward Bloc:
o Dissatisfied with the Congress' moderate approach, Bose formed the Forward Bloc in 1939.
117
o The Forward Bloc aimed to unite and mobilise like-minded individuals committed to the goal of complete
independence.
o Bose's leadership in the Forward Bloc provided a platform for those who sought a more radical approach to the
freedom movement.
• Establishment of the Indian National Army (INA):
o Bose's most significant contribution was the establishment of the Indian National Army (INA) in 1942.
o Bose's leadership and his rallying cry of "Give me blood, and I shall give you freedom" inspired many Indians to
join the armed struggle against the British.
• Axis Powers and the Azad Hind Government:
o Seeking international support for India's freedom struggle, Bose sought assistance from the Axis Powers during
World War II.
o He established the Azad Hind Government in exile and sought recognition for it as the legitimate government of
India.
o The Azad Hind Government played a symbolic and influential role in bolstering the morale of Indian nationalists
and gaining international attention.
• Raising International Awareness:
o Bose travelled extensively, seeking international support and building alliances for India's independence.
o He sought assistance from countries like Germany, Japan, and Italy to support the cause of Indian independence.
o Bose's efforts helped raise global awareness about the Indian freedom struggle and garnered support from
various quarters.
• Legacy as a National Hero:
o Subhash Chandra Bose's unwavering commitment to India's independence and his militant approach made him
a national hero and an inspiration for generations to come.
o His leadership and courage continue to be celebrated, with his famous slogan "Jai Hind" becoming a rallying cry
for patriotic fervour.
Bose's contributions to the freedom movement serve as a reminder of the diverse strategies employed by Indian leaders
to challenge British rule.
COMPARISON OF IDEOLOGIES: JAWAHARLAL NEHRU AND SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE
Ideology Jawaharlal Nehru Subhash Chandra Bose
Approach to • Advocated nonviolence and peaceful means • Believed in a more militant approach and
Freedom for achieving independence armed resistance
Role in Congress • Served as President of the Indian National • Served as President and later formed the
Congress Forward Bloc
Armed Struggle • Did not actively support armed struggle • Established the Indian National Army (INA)
against the British and led armed movements
International • Advocated for non-alignment and peaceful • Sought support from Axis Powers during
Support coexistence in global affairs World War II
Leadership Style • Emphasized democratic principles, social • Adopted a more authoritarian style of
• welfare, and industrialization leadership
Legacy • Considered the architect of modern • Revered as a national hero and symbol of
India, focused on secularism and democracy resistance
COMPARISON OF IDEOLOGIES: JAWAHARLAL NEHRU AND MAHATMA GANDHI

Ideology Jawaharlal Nehru Mahatma Gandhi
Approach to • Advocated nonviolence and peaceful • Emphasized nonviolence as a moral and
Freedom means political tool
Role in Congress • Served as President of the Indian National • Emerged as the leading figure of the
Congress Congress
Socioeconomic • Focused on industrialization and • Emphasised self-reliance and rural
Vision modernization development
Relationship with • Advocated for a mixed economy and • Advocated for self-sufficiency and
West technocratic approach indigenous industries
118
Approach to Caste • Acknowledged the need for social reforms • Focused on upliftment of Dalits and
System and equality eradication of untouchability
Leadership Style • Adopted a more pragmati and intellectual • Led through moral authority and personal
approach example
Legacy • Considered the architect of modern India • Revered as the Father of the Nation and an
iconic figure
Examples:
• Nehru's Non-violence Emphasis:
o Active participation in nonviolent civil disobedience movement.
o Advocacy for nonalignment principles in India's foreign policy.
• Gandhi's Nonviolence Leadership:
o Leadership in the Salt March against British salt monopoly.
o Symbolizing the power of nonviolent resistance in the freedom struggle.
• Nehru's Industrialization Vision:
o Establishment of large-scale public sector enterprises like HAL and ISRO.
o Crucial role in India's technological progress and modernization.
• Gandhi's Rural Development Focus:
o Promotion of Khadi and village industries.
o Encouragement of self-sufficiency and economic empowerment in rural communities.
• Nehru's Mixed Economy Advocacy:
o Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956 aimed at balancing state control and private enterprise.
o Fostered economic growth and development through a mixed economy approach.
• Gandhi's Self-Sufficiency Promotion:
o Call for Swadeshi during the independence movement.
o Encouraged boycott of British goods and support for indigenous industries.
These examples within the table provide specific instances where the ideologies of Nehru and Gandhi translated into
concrete actions and achievements, substantiating their contributions to the Indian freedom struggle.
COMPARISON OF IDEOLOGIES: SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE AND MAHATMA GANDHI
Ideology Mahatma Gandhi Subhash Chandra Bose

Approach to Emphasized nonviolence as a means to Advocated a more militant and armed
Freedom achieve independence resistance against British rule
Role in Congress Emerged as the leading figure and spiritual Initially associated with the Congress but
leader of the Congress later formed the Forward Bloc
Leadership Style Led through moral authority and personal Adopted a more authoritarian style of
example leadership
Relationship with Advocated for dialogue and negotiation with Rejected dialogue with the British and
the British the British sought assistance from Axis Powers
International Advocated for non-alignment and peaceful Sought support from Axis Powers during
Support coexistence in global affairs World War II
Legacy Revered as the Father of the Nation and an Revered as a national hero and symbol of
iconic figure resistance
Examples:
• Gandhi's Leadership Style:
o Characterized by moral authority and personal example.
o Practiced simplicity and austerity, inspiring millions with principles of truth, nonviolence, and self-discipline.
o Emphasized dialogue and negotiation with the British for independence, participating in Round Table
Conferences for peaceful resolution.
• Bose's Leadership Style:
o Adopted an authoritarian approach, believing in strong leadership and central authority.
o Established Azad Hind Government in exile, demonstrating centralized leadership.
119
• Approach to Dialogue:
o Gandhi advocated for dialogue and negotiation with the British, participating in Round Table Conferences.
o Bose rejected dialogue and sought support from Axis Powers during World War II.
• International Relations:
o Gandhi promoted non-alignment and peaceful coexistence, shaping the Non-Aligned Movement during the Cold
War.
o Bose sought assistance from Axis Powers, establishing diplomatic relations with Germany, Japan, and Italy to aid
India's freedom struggle.
While both Gandhi and Bose played significant roles in the Indian freedom struggle, they had contrasting approaches
and ideologies. Gandhi's philosophy of nonviolence and civil disobedience appealed to the masses, while Bose's militant
approach resonated with those seeking a more aggressive resistance against the British. Their different ideologies and
leadership styles left distinct legacies in India's history, with Gandhi revered as the Father of the Nation and Bose as a
national hero and symbol of resistance.
DR B.R. AMBEDKAR'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE INDIAN FREEDOM STRUGGLE
Introduction:
o Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, a revered figure in Indian history, made substantial contributions to the freedom struggle.
o Alongside his fight against social discrimination, he actively opposed British colonial rule, leaving a lasting impact
on India's quest for independence.
Championing Dalit Rights:
o Ambedkar emerged as a leading advocate for the Dalit community, combating caste-based discrimination and
advocating for their rights and social upliftment.
o He fought for political representation and equal opportunities, integral to the broader struggle for freedom.
o Example: Organized the Mahad Satyagraha in 1927, demanding access to public water sources for Dalits,
challenging discriminatory practices.
Role in Drafting the Indian Constitution:
o Ambedkar chaired the Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly, shaping a progressive and inclusive
constitution reflecting the nation's diversity.
o His vision for social justice influenced key provisions, such as Article 17 abolishing untouchability.
o Example: Ambedkar's drafting of Article 17, which abolished untouchability, exemplifies his unwavering
commitment to eradicating caste-based discrimination and promoting equality.
Advocacy for Women's Rights:
o Ambedkar advocated for women's rights and gender equality, recognizing and addressing the challenges faced
by women in Indian society.
o His progressive views contributed to the broader movement for women's rights.
o Example: Supported the Hindu Code Bill to reform laws governing marriage, inheritance, etc., laying the
foundation for women's rights reforms.
Striving for Education and Economic Empowerment:
o Ambedkar stressed the importance of education and economic empowerment for marginalized communities,
aiming for social mobility.
o Established educational institutions and advocated for employment opportunities for Dalits.
o Example: Founded the People's Education Society in 1945, focusing on educating Dalits and marginalized groups.
Conclusion:
o Ambedkar's multifaceted contributions, spanning Dalit rights, constitutional drafting, women's empowerment,
and education, significantly impacted India's freedom struggle. His legacy as an architect of social justice
continues to inspire generations.
VINAYAK DAMODAR SAVARKAR
• Introduction: Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, commonly known as Veer Savarkar, was a prominent freedom fighter,
political leader, and philosopher in the Indian independence movement. He played a significant role in shaping the
nationalist discourse and advocating for India's independence from British colonial rule. Savarkar's ideology and
contributions continue to influence Indian politics and society.
• Advocacy for Hindutva: Savarkar is known for popularising the concept of Hindutva, which emphasises the cultural
and nationalistic aspects of Hindu identity. He argued for the unity and consolidation of Hindus as a cohesive political
120
and social force. Savarkar's advocacy for Hindutva aimed to foster a sense of pride and nationalism among Hindus
and to counter religious conversions.
• Example: Savarkar's book "Essentials of Hindutva" published in 1923 outlines his vision for a Hindu nation and
emphasises the need for cultural unity and self-assertion within the Hindu community.
• Revolutionary Activities: Savarkar actively participated in revolutionary activities against British rule. He believed
in armed resistance as a means to achieve independence and inspired a generation of nationalists with his
revolutionary ideals. Savarkar's daring actions and writings became a source of inspiration for many freedom
fighters.
o Example: Savarkar founded the Abhinav Bharat Society in 1904, a secret revolutionary organisation that aimed
to overthrow British rule in India. He was involved in various activities, including planning and executing
revolutionary acts against British establishments.
• Contributions to Indian Literature: Savarkar was a prolific writer and poet who used literature as a medium to
propagate his nationalist and revolutionary ideas. His writings highlighted the historical struggles faced by Indians
and called for a united front against colonial oppression. Savarkar's literary works continue to shape nationalist
discourse in India.
o Example: Savarkar's magnum opus, "Kale Pani" (Black Water), published in 1907, is a historical novel that
depicts the experiences of Indian freedom fighters who were exiled to the notorious Cellular Jail in Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. The book portrays the hardships endured by political prisoners and their unwavering spirit in
the face of adversity.
• Contribution to the Formation of Hindu Mahasabha: Savarkar played a significant role in the establishment of
the Hindu Mahasabha, a Hindu nationalist political organisation, in 1915. He aimed to provide a platform for Hindus
to unite and promote their political interests. The Hindu Mahasabha became a major political force advocating for
Hindu rights and nationalist principles.
• Example: Savarkar served as the President of the Hindu Mahasabha from 1937 to 1943. During his tenure, he
worked to strengthen the organisation and expand its influence, particularly in advocating for the protection of
Hindu interests in the political arena.
Vinayak Damodar Savarkar's contributions to the Indian freedom struggle and nationalist discourse are
significant. His Hindutva advocacy, revolutionary activities, literary works, and the founding of the Hindu Mahasabha
shaped Indian politics and society. Savarkar's ideas continue to spark debate, making him a major figure in Indian
history.
GOPAL KRISHNA GOKHALE AND HIS CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE INDIAN FREEDOM STRUGGLE
Gopal Krishna Gokhale was a prominent Indian social and political reformer who played a significant role in India's
struggle for independence from British rule. Born on May 9, 1866, Gokhale was a leading figure in the early phase of the
freedom movement and contributed to various aspects of Indian society.
• Advocate for Education and Social Reform: Gokhale established Fergusson College, emphasizing education for
empowerment.
• Example: The college nurtured future freedom fighters and leaders of the Indian independence movement.
• Political Leadership and Reform: Gokhale's efforts led to the Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909, expanding Indian
political participation.
• Example: The reforms marked a significant step towards increased political empowerment for Indians.
• Advocacy for Economic and Industrial Development: Gokhale supported the Indian Industrial Commission to
promote indigenous industries.
o Example: This initiative aimed to reduce dependence on British imports and develop domestic industries.
• International Diplomacy and Awareness: Gokhale's international tours raised awareness about India's struggle
for freedom.
o Example: His speeches in England highlighted the oppressive nature of British rule, garnering global support for
India's cause.
• Grassroots Mobilization and Empowerment: Gokhale believed in the importance of mobilizing the masses and
empowering them to participate actively in the freedom struggle. He worked towards organizing grassroots
movements and creating a sense of unity among Indians.
o Example: Gokhale actively encouraged the formation of local associations and societies that aimed to promote
self- governance, self-reliance, and social upliftment.
121
Gopal Krishna Gokhale's contributions to the Indian freedom struggle were multi-faceted and impactful. Through his
advocacy for education, political reform, economic development, international diplomacy, and grassroots mobilization,
Gokhale played a significant role in laying the foundation for India's eventual independence.
SAROJINI NAIDU AND HER CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE INDIAN FREEDOM STRUGGLE
Sarojini Naidu, born on February 13, 1879, was a prominent figure in India's freedom struggle and a leading poetess of
her time. She actively participated in various movements and played a crucial role in mobilizing women and spreading
the message of freedom.
• Women's Empowerment and Participation: Naidu championed women's rights and played a pivotal role in
empowering Indian women to join the freedom movement. She actively encouraged their participation in public life
and highlighted their significance in the struggle for independence.
o Example: Naidu led the Women's India Association (WIA), founded in 1917, which aimed to promote women's
education, social reforms, and their active involvement in the nationalist movement.
• Public Speaking and Nationalism: Naidu was renowned for her eloquence and powerful oratory skills. She used
her voice to inspire and mobilize Indians, spreading the message of nationalism and freedom through her speeches.
o Example: As the first woman president of the Indian National Congress in 1925, Naidu delivered a passionate
speech at the Kanpur session, calling for unity, self-determination, and the eradication of British colonial rule.
• Literary Contributions and Cultural Revival: Naidu's poetry and literary works played a significant role in
awakening nationalistic sentiment and preserving Indian culture and heritage during the freedom struggle.
o Example: Naidu's poem "Bharat Bhagya Vidhata" became a rallying cry for the freedom movement, invoking a
sense of national pride and inspiring Indians to strive for independence.
• International Diplomacy and Advocacy: Naidu represented India on the global stage, advocating for India's
independence and seeking international support for the freedom struggle.
o Example: Naidu was a delegate to the East African Indian Congress in 1929, where she highlighted the plight of
Indians under British rule and called for global attention and intervention.
Sarojini Naidu's contributions to the Indian freedom struggle as a prominent leader, women's rights advocate, and
poetess were remarkable. Through her efforts in empowering women, delivering powerful speeches, promoting Indian
culture, and advocating for international support, Naidu left an indelible mark on the freedom movement.
BRIEF DETAIL ABOUT OTHER PERSONALITIES
• Abdul Ghaffar Khan (1890-1988):
o Born in Uttamazai, NWFP, he joined the nationalist cause during the Rowlatt Satyagraha.
o Associated with Gandhi, he participated in movements like Khilafat, Civil Disobedience, Non-Cooperation, Quit
India Movement, and Satyagraha.
o Despite 14 years in prison, he upheld Gandhi's philosophy and earned the nickname "Frontier Gandhi."
o Established the Khudai Khidmatgar movement in 1929, known as the "red shirt movement," promoting local
industries and empowering Pashto women.
o Opposed partition, demanded Pakhtoonistan, and was awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1987.
• Abul Kalam Azad (1888-1958):
o Born in Mecca, raised in Calcutta, he joined the nationalist movement during the Swadeshi Cause and Rowlatt
Satyagraha.
o Published patriotic periodicals like Al Hilal and Al Balagh, authored books like "India Wins Freedom" and
"Ghubar-e-Khatir."
o Involved in Muslim movements, served as the Congress president (1940-45), mediated independence talks, and
became India's first education minister.
o Established educational institutions and organisations like the University Grants Commission.
• Bhikaji Cama (1861-1936):
o A female revolutionary based in Europe, she designed the Indian flag with saffron, red, and green stripes, moon,
stars, and "Vande Mataram."
o Raised the flag during socialist meetings in Stuttgart, Germany, in 1907, and founded the Free India Society.
o Associated with V.D. Savarkar and Shyamji Krishna Verma movements, edited the newspaper Vande Mataram,
and organized Indian youths in London.
• Madan Mohan Malaviya (1861-1946):
o A lawyer and member of the Hindu Mahasabha and Congress, he co-founded the UP Industrial Association and
Indian Industrial Conference in Allahabad.
122
o Served as a university Vice-Chancellor, edited publications like Hindustan and Indian Union, and founded the
Nationalist Party.
The contributions of diverse leaders in India's freedom struggle were not only significant but also multifaceted, each
leaving an indelible mark on the nation's path to independence. From the steadfast commitment to nonviolence
exemplified by Mahatma Gandhi to the tireless advocacy for social justice embodied by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, and from the
revolutionary fervor of leaders like Bhikaji Cama to the political acumen of figures like Abul Kalam Azad, each leader
brought their unique perspective and approach to the struggle. Together, they formed a tapestry of resistance, unity,
and resilience that propelled India towards its eventual liberation from colonial rule. Their collective efforts underscore
the rich diversity and shared aspirations of the Indian people in their quest for freedom and self-determination.
KEY WORDS: Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Swadeshi Movement, Home Rule League, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Unity and
Integration, Jawaharlal Nehru, Purna Swaraj, Subhash Chandra Bose, Indian National Army, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Dalit Rights,
Constitution, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Hindutva, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Education Reform, Sarojini Naidu, Women's
Empowerment.
123
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PRAHAAR

MAINS WALLAH (STATIC + CURRENT)

Final Hit To CSE Mains 2024

1. TRANSITION TO THE 18TH CENTURY ..... 1 Development Of Press…………………………………41

Formative Years of the East India Company

PANIPAT (HARYANA) AS FAVOURITE BATTLEFIELD

States Annexed Policy of Annexation

• Policy of Proud Reserve (1874) • Afghanistan

2 PEASANT, TRIBAL AND OTHER MOVEMENTS

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

3 THE REVOLT OF 1857

WEAKNESS OF THE 1857 REVOLT

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

4 SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS

COMMON FEATURES OF SOCIO - RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

5 ANALYSIS OF BRITISH POLICIES IN INDIA (FROM 1757 -1947)

STAGES OF COLONIALISM IN INDIA

SIGNIFICANCE OF DEVELOPMENT OF PRESS

REASONS FOR DEINDUSTRIALISATION

How development of these infrastructure helped Indian freedom struggle?

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

6 EMERGENCE OF INDIAN NATIONALISM

Political Organisation Description

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

7 INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT – PHASE I (1905-1917)

PARTITION OF BENGAL (1905) AND REACTIONARY POLICIES OF CURZON (1899 – 1905)

SWADESHI MOVEMENT (1905)

BACKGROUND AND ACTIONS CARRIED OUT THROUGHOUT THE MOVEMENT

REASONS BEHIND EMERGENCE

Aspect Revolutionary Extremist

Greater autonomy within the British Empire

Immediate overthrow of British rule, inspired Gradual increase in self-governance, influenced by

Laid foundation for wider participation in freedom

THE DECLINE OF THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT

BACKGROUND OF THE MOVEMENT

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE LUCKNOW SESSION

WALTER REID, KEEPING THE JEWEL IN THE CROWN

DRAWBACKS OF THE REFORMS

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

8 INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT – PHASE II (1918-1939)

DAWN OF GANDHIAN ERA

3. KHEDA OR KAIRA SATYAGRAHA, 1918

THE BACKGROUND OF MOVEMENT:

WHY REPORT WAS OPPOSED?

Aspect Non-Cooperation Movement Civil Disobedience Movement

Time Period 1920-1922 1930-1934

Launched By Mahatma Gandhi Mahatma Gandhi

Non-violent resistance through non- Non-violent resistance, but with a direct

To challenge the legality and authority of British

Strengthened nationalism, showed the Enhanced political activism, significant

WHY WAS SALT SELECTED AS THE IMPORTANT THEME?

KARACHI SESSION (MARCH 1931)

NATIONALISTS' NEXT LINE OF ACTION

VIEWS OF AMBEDKAR ON COMMUNAL AWARD

IMPACT OF POONA PACT ON DALITS

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

9 INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT – PHASE III (1939-1947)

SECOND WORLD WAR AND INDIA: IMPACTS

AUGUST OFFER (1940)

Churchillian Negativism Crippsian Constructiveness

Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose

Post Surrender of INA: